PRODUCTION OF INTERLOCKING

COMPRESSED EARTH BLOCKS FROM

VARIOUS LOCATION IN NUEVA VIZCAYA

A Project Study Presented

to the Faculty of the College of Engineering
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya

In Partial fulfilment of the

Requirements for the Degree of
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

By:

Batallones, James P.

Llantada, Felipe II V.

Liban, Tyron R.

Mariano, Nexone Jack V.

SY 2022-2023
 CHAPTER 1

PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

This chapter includes the introduction, statement of the problem, statement of

the hypotheses, conceptual framework, scope and delimitation, significance of the study

and the definition of terms used.

Introduction

Interlocking compressed earth blocks is the oldest construction material. Earth

block are made by giving a particular shape to clay or mud. Today, a brick, perhaps, is

at the peak of its evolution. Among its properties are resistant to weathering, durability,

stain resistance, versatility, aesthetic value, environment friendly and economical. Brick

is a pure material from the viewpoint of ecology, which meets modern standards of

sustainability.

Cement stabilized soil blocks known as interlocking compressed earth blocks

(ICEB) enable dry stack construction. Because the blocks are set dry and lock into

place, the process of building walls is quicker and requires less specialized labor as a

result. Durability of bricks are affected by numerous elements and one of them are

water absorption. Low durability will be the outcome of highwater absorption. Many

studies have been done to determine how to make bricks more durable while yet

adopting ecologically friendly practices.

When compared to burned bricks and concrete masonry units, interlocking

compressed earth blocks (ICEB) use just 1/5 to 1/15 of the energy to manufacture.

ICEBs' interlocking design enables dry stacking, construction without mortar, which

1
requires less skilled labor and takes less time to complete. According to Maini, there is

a large reduction in purchased material since soil is the main ingredient in ICEBs

construction. As we know the traditional masonry relies heavily on skilled labor,

expensive materials and time consuming. These cuts result in an 80% decrease in the

cost of labor. Because of these benefits, ICEBs are a useful and popular construction

method. The major material used in making bricks is clay, which is one of the natural

resources which is indigenous and abundantly found in Nueva Vizcaya but which is not

utilized to the minimum. This clay has cohesive property which is suitable to many civil

earthworks. This proves the durability of clay as an architectural material.

It is in this context that the proponents of this study would like to explore the use

of clay tile bricks. The world started to use the hollow blocks as building materials at

the beginning of the 20th century. Throughout the eighty years of application, it has

been shown that hollow blocks can be used as structural, fencing and decorative

materials. Hollow block has good sound and fire insulation properties. More over

earthquake resistance can be greatly improved after the introduction of steel bars in the

hollow block construction for multistory structures. In addition to the above, its

simplicity, efficiency, flexibility low cost of production is also responsible for it to

being popularly used in the construction industry. The use of structural masonry may

result in cheaper and faster construction of structures compared with the conventional

approach of framed building construction. Structural masonry eliminates the need for

beams and columns of the framed structure hence it leads to a significant saving on

costly work and construction material in addition to reducing the construction time. The

concrete blocks in use today which are not of the interlocking type look quite uniform

2
but their dimensions actually vary so much that mortar is necessary not only to hold

them together but also to adjust the level at each layer. Interlocking block work system

is promoted as a new building technique that may result to a more economical

construction. The use of interlocking load bearing hollow blocks in building

construction will further speed up the construction process as a result of the elimination

of mortar layers. Being light and with self-aligning features, the interlocking hollow

blocks can be assembled much faster compared to the conventional mortar masonry

construction. New parameters have arisen in using the new block system and

considerable research is required to understand the structural behavior of the system and

to establish the design procedure. The alignment of the interlocking system can be

achieved by suitable and efficient design.

Moreover, the interconnection between the blocks has to be designed to

withstand the different stresses developed in the wall due to the applied load. Practically

the shapes of the block must be as simple as possible for easy production and

construction. Interlocking block work system is promoted as a new building technique

that may result to a more economical construction. The use of interlocking load bearing

hollow blocks in building construction will further speed up the construction process as

a result of the elimination of mortar layers. Being light and with self-aligning features,

the interlocking hollow blocks can be assembled much faster compared to the

conventional mortar construction. New parameters have arisen in using the new block

system and considerable research is required to understand the structural behavior of the

system and to establish the design procedure. The alignment of the interlocking system

can be achieved by suitable and efficient design. Moreover, the interconnection between

3
the blocks has to be designed to withstand the different stresses developed in the wall

due to the applied load. Practically the shapes of the block must be as simple as possible

for easy production and construction.

This study was conducted to explore the use of interlocking compressed

blocks in civil engineering works.

4
Conceptual Framework of the Study

The researchers were able to come up with a conceptual framework.

Input Process Output

• Theories and
Principle of • Production of
Earthblocks Interlocking
Compressed
• Materials Earth Blocks

• Clay • Testing and

Characteristics Evaluation
Produced Compressed
• Parameters Earth Blocks
• Data Gathering
-Compressive
Strength
-Water
Absorption

Figure 1. The paradigm of the study showing the process in the production of

Earth Blocks.

This shows that the study was conducted in accordance with the theories,

principles, materials, clay characteristics and parameters. Under the parameters are the

compressive strength and water absorption. The materials required depending on the

design, as well as the pricing or budget, are all clearly under consideration.

Furthermore, the process includes development of the earth blocks, testing and

evaluation, as well as data gathering. And summing all that have been mentioned, an

Interlocking Compressed Earth Blocks are produced which is the output.

Statement of the Problem

5
 This study aimed to develop and produce Interlocking Compressed Earth Blocks

(ICEB) using clay. Specifically, the study sought to answer the following questions:

1. How is the Compressed Earth blocks developed and produced?

2. What is the level of durability of the Compressed Earth Blocks?

3. What is the appropriate number of days in manufacturing?

Objectives of the study

The main objective of this study is to produce interlocking compressed earth

blocks from various location in Nueva Vizcaya.

This research study attempts to meet the following objectives:

1. To study the structural behavior of interlocking block system in terms of crack

pattern, load-deflection, strain-stress distention, ultimate load capacity and

modes of failures.

2. To study the effects of slenderness of the interlocked block wall on its structural

behaviors.

3. To study the effects of different eccentricities observed in walls have been

considered.

4. To provide design recommendations for un-stiffened interlocking load bearing

walls subjected to axial and eccentric loading.

The tests include individual block units, prisms and wall panels.

Scope and Limitations

This study focused in determining the best source of clay used, the best design

mixture and the best method to develop Compressed Earth Blocks and produce it. This

6
research will also determine the level of durability by its compressive strength and

water absorption. To determine if concrete blocks or concrete masonry units are

appropriate for use in construction projects for various reasons, it is necessary to know

their compressive strength. Cement, aggregate, and water are the main ingredients of

concrete masonry blocks. They are typically rectangular and are employed in brick

structure construction. Water absorption is a characteristic of clay and cement content

and is often related to the strength and durability of earth blocks, therefore it is

important to identify the rate of water absorption of earth blocks And, this study also

sought to know the appropriate number of days in manufacturing clay block. The

produce earth blocks will be used as a guide to those who are interested in this study.

Importance of the study

The study aimed to manufacture tile brick which is the compressed earth blocks

to be used as a finishing material. Interlocking Compressed Earth Blocks (ICEB) is a

cement stabilized soil blocks that enables dry stack construction. Because the blocks are

set dry and lock into place, the process of building walls is quicker and requires less

specialized labor as a result.

The results of this study will be great benefits to construction companies,

students, teachers and future researchers.

Construction Companies. The results of the research will benefit different

construction companies specifically those who are located in Nueva Vizcaya. It will

serve as a new material with more compressive strength and serve as a new innovation

in the construction industry.

7
 Students and Teachers. The findings of the study will also benefit the students

and teacher because they can use this also in building their dream homes and buildings.

Moreover, they can also adapt knowledge about this kind of study.

Future Researchers. These ideas presented may be used as their guide in

conducting new research or in providing the rationality of other related studies. And this

study encourages other researchers to conduct any related study concerning the strength

of the clay block.

Definition of Terms

Brick. It is a block or a single unit of a kneaded clay-bearing soil, sand and lime,

or concrete material, fire hardened or air dried, used in masonry construction.

Clay. It is an earthy material that is plastic when moist but hard when fired, that

is composed mainly of fine particles of hydrous aluminum silicates and other minerals.

Compressive Strength. Compressive strength or compression strength is the

capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to reduce size, as opposed

to tensile strength, which withstand loads tending to elongate.

Dry Pressed. Similar to soft mud method, but starts with a much thicker clay

mix and is compressed with the great force.

Kiln. A furnace or oven in which brick were fixed or heat treated to develop hardness.

Molded. Shape in molds rather than being extruded.

- machine molded- clay is forced into molds using pressure.

- hand made- clay is forced into molds by a person.

8
Plasticity. The quality of being able to be formed into different shapes. The capacity to

be molded or altered.

9
 Chapter II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter includes some related literature and studies of foreign and local

which are presented in the following paragraphs.

Related Literatures

Clay Blocks

According to Hewitt Wilson (1950) clay block is one of the oldest building

materials and it is extensively used at present as a leading material of construction

because it's durability, strength, reliability, low cost, and availability. They were

initially handmade and used as load bearing material for various structures. The brick

seems to have been produced since the dawn of civilization in sundried form. These

bricks are small units of building material and secure. With mortar is a bonding agent

comprising cement, sand, and water. Bricks are obtained by molding clay them by

drying and burnt in kiln which have high strength compared to unburnt bricks.

Clay blocks is a product of a brick dough, which consist of a clayey soul and

water. It is formed primitively, naturally dried, and fire in kilns. Clay blocks is the

oldest and most use building material, it has been manufactured at the waterfronts

where suitable soil could be found. The first industrial fired bricks were produced and

used by the lydians in Anatolia in the 4th century BC. They were a fundamental

building material in the Mesopotamian. Egypt, and Roman periods.

The use of clay bricks increases and became specialized to maximize its

benefits. Evidence of which sundried bricks as a building material can still be seen

10
today at ruins such as Herappa Buhen, Mohejo- daro, paintings on the Tombwalls of

Thebes portray slaves mixing, tempering, and carrying clay for the sundried bricks. The

Great Wall of china was built with both burnt and sundried. They could easily,

inexpensively, and rapidly handle and produce clay bricks using simple manufacturing

process. They are comparatively forgiving medium for fairly unskilled laborer to work

with. The St. Dominic cathedral is one of the many buildings that are made of bricks

and clay tiles are evidence of the abundance of clay deposits in this region which were

used in construction of this edifices. These buildings, which are several centuries old,

have continuously withstood the elements of time and weather as well as manmade

disaster. This proves durability of clay as architectural materials. The importance of

locally manufactured bricks has been emphasized in many countries due to their

effortless availability and low cost and they continue to offer a durable and classical

timeless appeal.

Presently, hollow block construction is adopted as one of the building

construction systems in many countries in the world. It is used quite substantially in the

construction of high-rise and apartment buildings. According to practical experience

hollow block construction system is most economical for four to seventeen story

buildings. The advanced facilities in the hollow block production plant leads to better

quality and quantity of the produced block. The search for more rapid and less workman

ship dependent building system has led to the development of interlocking dry stackable

block masonry units which can be laid without mortar layers. Interlocking hollow block

system (lHBS) is a new concept to render the hollow block construction more

economical and faster compared with the framed structure. If the interlocking

11
mechanism in the interlocked block is capable of developing good bonding between the

blocks and the courses to withstand all the stresses developed due to the applied load, it

will be crucial competitor in the construction industry. In the last thirty years many

countries are known to be interested of developing and implementing this system in the

lowcost housing scheme. Many claimed in saving cost and time when this construction

system is implemented.

Manufacturing and Production of Earth Blocks

The compressed earth block is the modern descendent of the moulded earth

block, more commonly known as the adobe block. Yet, the concept of compacting earth

to enhance the quality and functionality of moulded earth blocks is not new, and the

first compressed earth blocks were created with wooden tamps. Several regions of the

world still employ this method. The 18th century is possibly when the first earth-

compressing machines were invented. Francois Cointeraux, a French inventor and

ardent proponent of "new pise" (rammed earth), created the "crecise," a machine

modeled after a wine-press. Yet the earliest mechanical presses, which employed heavy

lids pressed into molds, weren't created until the early 20th century. This type of press

has even been motor-driven in some instances. Static compression presses, in which the

soil is crushed between two convergent plates, were later used in the burnt brick

business. But, the famous tiny ClNVA-RAM press, created by engineer Raul Ramirez

at the CINVA center in Bogota, Columbia, in 1952, marked a significant shift in the

way presses and compressed earth blocks were employed for construction and

architectural purposes. This was intended for use all over the world. A new generation

of manual, mechanical, and motor-driven presses began to appear in the 1970s and

12
1980s, which contributed to the development of a real market for the manufacture and

use of compressed earth today.

Compressed Earth Blocks need to remain moist for the first 7 days of curing so

that the cement is able to properly hydrate and stabilize the soil in the block so that it is

much stronger and resistant to any water erosion. To ensure that the moisture stays in

the block for 7-14 days make sure the plastic surrounds the entire block stack so the

moisture will remain inside the stack.

Figure 2. Compressed Earth Blocks Production

With the exception of the absence of a firing stage, the manufacturing of

compressed earth blocks can be compared to that of fired earth blocks generated via

compaction. Depending on whether production occurs in tiny, "cottage industry" units

(or brickworks) or in a semi-industrial or industrial unit, it will be arranged differently.

The locations for production, drying, and stocking will also differ based on the

13
production techniques chosen and the conditions necessitated by the meteorological,

social, technological, and economic environments.

As long as precautions are made to safeguard production locations or regions

used for stocking during wet or hot seasons (if any), no production period or season is

particularly favorable or unfavorable.

Figure 3. Production Cycles of Compressed Earth Blocks

- EXTRACTION from the quarry or pit.

- DRYING by spreading in thin layers or passing through a hot-air cyclone.

- PULVERIZING to break up lumps of clay.

- SCREENING to eliminate undesirable elements after general preparation.

- MEASURING OUT the dry soil by weight or by volume with a view to mixing it with
water and/or with stabilizer.

14
- DRY MIXING to maximize the effectiveness of a stabilizer in powder form.

- WET Mixing to add water by spraying after adequate dry mixing, or directly in the
form of a liquid stabilizer.

- REACTION during variable hold-back time depending on the nature of the stabilizer;
very short for cement, longer for lime.

- MEASURlNG OUT the amount of mixed material for optimum block density.

- COMPRESSION of the mixed material.

- REMOVING the block from the mould.

- WET CURING, the length of time depending on the climate and the nature of the
stabilizer.

- DRYING OUT which should enable the quality required to be achieved.

- STOCKING of the products ready for use.

Design Mixture

Blocks were made using a total of 14 different mix designs and a single soil

type. The mix design variables included soil to sand ratio (SSR), water content, and

Portland cement content. The soil type classified as silty-clayey sand according to the

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) and was held constant for all mix designs.

The Soil/Sand Ratio of each soil does not include the sand contained within the raw

soil. The stabilizer content for each mix is based on the dry volume of the mixture. The

water content for each mix is based on the total volume of the mixture after water is

added and includes the moisture from the raw soil.

In the regimes of applicability for the manufacturing machinery, trends in the

effect of mix design on block strength show that strength improves with both moisture

15
and cement content. The compressive strengths of the 28-day unsaturated units ranged

from 4.92 MPa to 15.72 MPa.

Related Studies

Interlocking Compressed Earth Blocks (ICEB) with Addition of Bacteria is a

study conducted by the faculty of Civil Engineering Universiti Tun Hussein Onn

Malaysia (2016). The study was conducted to test the durability of bricks that are

affected by several factors and one of it is water absorption. High water absorption

level will results in low durability. Many studies have been conducted in order to

improve the durability of bricks by using environmentally method. One of the method is

by inducing bacteria into bricks. Bacteria in brick induced calcite precipitation (calcite

crystals) to cover the cracks continuously. Therefore, the issues of durability of bricks

can be fully solved. This study reviews interlocking compressed earth blocks and the

use of bacteria in reducing water absorption level.

Siddique and Chahal has define bacteria as unicellular (single cell) micro-

organisms. Bacteria from various natural habitats have frequently been reported to

precipitate calcium carbonate both in natural and in laboratory conditions. Different

types of bacteria, as well as abiotic factors (salinity and composition of the medium)

seem to contribute in a variety of ways to calcium carbonate 01017-p.2 precipitation in

a wide range of environments. Bacillus species are able to precipitate calcium carbonate

(CaCO3) on its cell constituents and in its micro-environment by decomposition of urea

(CO(NH2)2) into ammonium (NH4 +) and carbonate (CO3 2−). The bacterial

16
degradation of urea locally increases the pH and promotes the microbial deposition of

calcium carbonate in a calcium rich environment. In the presence of dissolved calcium

ions, the produced carbonate ions precipitate and form calcium carbonate crystals.

Microbial mineral precipitation technologies have been successfully demonstrated for

consolidation of sand columns, repair of limestone monuments, and to some extent for

remediation of cracks in concrete.

Table 1. Various researches works on bacteria

Influence of bacteria towards ICEB has previous studies taken different

approach to improve the properties of construction material by introducing the used of

bacteria. Researcher such as Willem et al used Bacillus sphaericus, Navdeep et al used

Bacillus megaterium, Abhjit et al used Bacillus megaterium and Bernardi et al used

Sporosarcina paseurii. All bacteria used by previous studies resulted in increasing on

17
compressive strength and reduction on water absorption by comparing control sample

and treated sample with bacteria. Positive results from previous studies indicated that

the successfulness of using bacteria as an environment friendly solution in improving

the durability of construction material. According to Siddique, bacteria are able to

promote the precipitation of calcium carbonate (CaCo3) in the form of calcite. The

calcite will fill all pores which prevent water ingression. Deposition of calcium

carbonate layer on the surface area resulted to decrease water absorption and porosity.

Hence it will improve the durability of the material properties.

Figure 5. Mixing of Laterite Soil, sand and Cement with addition of limestone water

and Ureolytic Bacteria for production of Interlocking Compressed Earth Blocks

18
Figure 6. Production of Interlocking Compressed Earth Blocks

(ICEB) Specimen

Figure 7. Compressive Strength Test of ICEB

19
 Figure 8. Water absorption Test of ICEB

The water absorption test was conducted to determine the percentage of water

absorbed by the bacterial ICEB by monitoring changes in weight among the ICEB with

and without bacteria. The test also determined the saturation coefficient which is

defined as the percentage of pore volume filled in 24-hour of soaking. The tests are

conducted for 7th, 14th and 28th days.

The results from both compressive strength and water absorption tests show the

successfulness of UB in depositing calcium carbonate, CaCo3. Addition of UB in ICEB

presents the increment in strength and reduction on absorption of water. The 5%

addition of UB in ICEB indicates the best result which achieved highest increment in

strength with 15.25% and highest reduction of water absorption with 15.66% at the 28th

days of testing. Further study should be conducted through various engineering

properties and microstructure testing in order to determine the influence and

morphology of UB in ICEB.

Comparison between laterite soil and clay compressed stabilized Earth Bricks

has prototype samples produced with different compactions were physically tested

through compressive stress test at the age of 7 and 28 days. It was observed that the

quantity of laterite soil to be poured into the mould would increase accordingly to the

compaction pressures applied. For 2000 Psi compaction, the amount of laterite soil

required is 400g. Whereas, 427g and 450g of laterite soil were required for compactions

of 3000 Psi and 4000 Psi, respectively.

20
 To produce clay CSEB samples, the quantity of clay required to be poured into

the mould would increase accordingly to the compaction pressures applied. For 2000

Psi compaction, the amount of clay needed was 410g. Whereas, 437g and 462g of clay

were required for compactions of 3000 Psi and 4000 Psi, respectively. Since clay has

very high percentage of mud content as confirmed by the particle distribution test, it has

to be modified by adding sand to the mixture to form a ratio of 1:5:5. It was also

observed that laterite soil content is heavier than clay.

Compressive Strength

Table 2. Results on Compressive Strength in the study Comparison between

laterite soil and clay compressed stabilized Earth Bricks

Figure 9. Relationship between compressive strength and time in the study

Comparison between laterite soil and clay compressed stabilized Earth Bricks

21
 Figure 9. Compressive strength rate (%) vs. Age of CSEB prototypes (7 and 28

days) in the study Comparison between laterite soil and clay compressed stabilized

Earth Bricks

As for its compressive strength shows the results of the compressive strength of

clay CSEB prototype samples. It can be seen clearly that the increased in compaction

pressure applied would result in higher compressive strength. The clay CSEB prototype

subjected to compaction of 4000 Psi gave the optimum compressive strength value for 7

days sample. Surprisingly, the value of compressive strength lessened to 5.16 N/mm2 as

the age of the sample increased to 28 days. Generally, it can be presumed that for all

values of compaction applied, the compressive strength would reduce with the

increasing age of the prototype samples from 7 days to 28 days. Additionally, the

compressive strength of clay CSEB prototype is generally below the predetermined

level of strength as stated in MS 76:1972 for load-bearing fired brick Class (1), which is

at least 7 N/mm2. This is due to the fact that clay has a very high mud content; and

therefore, could not bear the compressive stress imposed.

Water Absorption

22
 Table 3. Results on Water Absorption in the study Comparison between laterite

soil and clay compressed stabilized Earth Bricks

Figure 9. Relationship between water absorption and time in the study

Comparison between laterite soil and clay compressed stabilized Earth Bricks

23
 Figure 9. Water Absorption rate (%) vs. Age of CSEB prototypes (7 and 28

days) in the study Comparison between laterite soil and clay compressed stabilized

Earth Bricks

The results of the water absorption rate of laterite soil CSEB prototypes. It can

be seen clearly from the graph that the increased in compaction would generally result

in lower rates of water absorption. Furthermore, for all values of compaction applied,

the quality of laterite soil CSEBs improves as their ages increased from 7 days to 28

days as evidenced by lower percentage rate of water absorption. The rate of water

absorption is at its optimum when subjected to 4000 Psi compaction with percentage

rates dropped down from 15.4% for sample age of 7 days to 14.5% for 28 days,

respectively. This condition occurs due to the fact that higher compaction applied would

make the samples become denser, which in turn preventing the absorption of water.

It can be firmly concluded from experimental results that laterite soil is more

suitable than clay for CSEB production. It is essential to ensure good distribution of

particles during the mixing and compacting processes of producing CSEB. Well-mixed

mixture of small and large aggregates can be achieved when the smaller ones filled up

the empty spaces in between the larger aggregates. Therefore, mixture ratio of 1:8:2

(cement:soil:sand) was deemed suitable to produce laterite soil CSEB with 2000 Psi

compaction. At this optimum compaction, the aggregate mix remained in its original

condition without changing its form. Moreover, all the results of the compressive

strength (N/mm2 ) and water absorption rate (%) are found to be in accordance with the

standards as specified in MS 76:1972 [19].

24
 CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY AND PROCESSES

This chapter present and discusses the gathering and preparation of materials,

equipment, and procedure done in preparing, the curing and test process and the statical

I. MATERIALS

75kg Clay from Ambaguio, Bayombong Nueva Vizcaya

Color: Dark Brown

Texture: Fine

35 kg Clay form Bagan Hill, Bayombong Nueva Vizcaya

Color: Dark Brown

Texture: Fine

35 kg Clay from Latore North Bayombong Nueva Vizcaya

Color: Light Pink

25
 Texture: Fine

Potable Water

II. EQUIPMENT

Mallet

This was used in pulverizing the clay sample.

Shovel. This was used to get clay used.

Pail. This was used as a container of the crushed clay.

Dipper. This was used to contain the water used.

26
Platform Balance. This apparatus was used to weigh the correct

proportion of clay sample to be used in the preparation of several

body composition, and the correct design mixture used.

Graduated Cylinder. This was used to measure the suitable

amount of to mix the processed clay enough to produce the test

pieces and the interlocking block produce.

Sponge. This tool was used to smoothen the surface of the test

pieces interlocking block.

Varnier Caliper. This was used to measure 10cm mark the pieces

to ensure equal length of the test piece and to measure the dried

and fired length of the test piece after drying and

27
 Metal Mold. This are 150cm x 100cm x 400cm molds for the test

pieces used.

III. Procedure in making the interlocking blocks

Source of the Clay

The clay used in making the interlocking blocks was taken from various

locations. Ambaguio bayombong Nueva Vizcaya, Bangan Hill Bayombong

Nueva Vizcaya, Susong Dalaga located at purok 2 Casat Nueva Vizcaya.

Preparation of Materials

Preparation of clay

Cleaning soil – The top soil contains impurities, so the

clay in the clay top layer of soil about 200 mm depth was

thrown away.

28
 Digging – After the removal of the top layer, the clay was

now dug out from the ground.

Crushing – In this stage, the clay was clay was pulverized

by the use of mortar and pastel and it was sieved to the

desired finess.

Cleaning – It was clean by removing organic matter and

other deleterious materials.

Water

Portable water must be used in mixing clay.

Mixture preparation

Clay was grided into fine powder and its weight was recorded.

Table 3.1 Design mixture of test Pieces

CODE AMBAGUIO BANGAN HILL LA TORRE

(%) (%) (%)
T1 30 30 40
T2 30 40 30
T3 40 30 30
T4 25 25 50
T5 25 50 25
T6 50 25 25
T7 15 15 70
T8 15 70 15
T9 70 15 15
T10 50 50 0
T11 50 0 50

29
 T12 0 50 50
T13 100 0 0
T14 0 100 0
T15 0 0 100

Mixing Process

Mixing was done to make the clay soil homogeneous and smooth. Clay, water,
and cement were mixed together based on their percentage by weight after attaining
consistency, workability and proper distribution of material, it was formed in a
rectangular molder. Table 3.1 shows the percentage of each three (3) earth blocks
mixed together to form the test piece.

Molding Process

Molding was done to shape the clay based on the dimension 4”x12”x8”, then it
was compacted using rubber mallet when compacted the excess clay was removed using
sieve wire, and compacted again to ensure the clay was well molded.

30
IV. Curing of the Sample

Water was added during clay preparation to increase workability in the mixture
but in drying it was removed by means of sun drying within 5-15 days depending on the
weather condition so that it will avoid cracking.

V. Testing of the Sample

After sun drying, the finish product of the earth blocks was subjected to test
using some parameters such as shrinkage, permeability and brittleness.

Procedure of testing the best combination of earth blocks

1. The 15 mixture were evaluated according to size, and appearance based on

the test piece before it was dried.
2. The mixture with the least change in size and appearance was take as good
earth blocks.
3. Good earth blocks were flicked to determine the pitch of the test pieces.
4. The piece with the highest pitch was considered as the best mixture.

Procedure of testing the Permeability

1. The test pieces were weighted and soaked in water for 24hrs.

2. The piece with the least increase in weight was the least permeable and taken

as interior clay. Otherwise, it was considered for indoor use.

31
Vl. Evaluation
For phisical properties, each clay sample underwent experimentation by using the

Modified ASTM procedure. Color, texture, plasticity, drying and firing shrinkage and water

absorption were determine, recorded and analyzed.

1. Color. Clays in it's natural state may be red, brown, yellow, green, blue or black. The

color of the different clay sample in this research study when it was raw, dried and fired

were observed, recorded and analyze as they appear under the nake eye.

2. Texture. The grain structure of clay varies from coarse to fine. The texture of the fixed

test pieces was observed, recorded and analyzed

3. Plasticity. Water of plasticity was determined after the kneaded clay had achieved it's

workability. The test pieces shaped in a 1.5 cm x 2.5 cm x 12 cm metal and dried overnight

in an sun-drying at were weighed as soon as these were cooled off the percent water of

plasticity was calculated using the formula as follows.

WW −DW
%H2 of plasticity = X 100
DW
WW= Wet Weight
DW= Dry Weight

[Link] shrinkage. After the test pieces were dried in the sun-drying at overnight and
cooled off, these were again measured to determine ist dried length, recorded and after
which percent drying shrinkage was determined using the formula.

WL−DL
%Drying shringkage = X 100
WL
Where:

WL= Wet length of test pieces

DL= Dry length of test pieces

32
 [Link] shrinkage. The firing shrinkage for test pieces was also determine using
the formula.

DL−FL
% of Firing shrinkage = X 100
DL
Where:

DL=Dry Length of test pieces

FL=Fired Length o test pieces

6. Total shrinkage. The total shrinkage for the test pieces was also determined

using the formula below.

WL−FL
% of Total skringkage = X 100
DL
Where:

DL= Dry length of test pieces

DL= Wet length of test pieces

7. Water absorption. Water absorption test was conducted to the fired test pieces

by following the procedures enumerated below.

A. Soak the fired test pieces in a container filled with water for 24 hours.

B. Remove the test pieces

C. Wipe the test pieces with a cloth to remove water drops

D. Determined the weight of the test pieces after these were wipe with a cloth

E. Immediately computed the percent of water absorption using the formula.

WFW −FW
% of plasticity = X 100
FW

Where:

WFW= Weight in grams of the fired test pieces when soaked in water
33
 FW= Fired Weight of test pieces

Chapter lV
Result and Discussion

This chapter present the data, their analyses and interpretation. The presentation

analysis and interpretation of findings follow the sequence of the specific questions

advanced in this study. The data were based on the observation/messurements made on

the test piece and actual manufacturing of products made from clay under study.

The experiment was conducted at the Department of Public Works and

Highways(DPWH), 2nd District. Accurate weighing scale, pyrometer, and test kiln

were used in the conduct of the study to arrive an accurate data. The test pieces were

fired at controlled temperature using firing graphs to ensure that the test pieces were

fired or treated uniformly.

1. Physical properties of Ambaguio clay - the physical properties of

Ambaguio clay were determined using the Modified American test and Management.

Each test piece underwent the same treatment in terms of their color, texture, plasticity,

drying shrinkage, firing shrinkage. The results were presented on the next page.

2. Physical properties of Bangan Hill clay - The physical properties of

Bangan Hill clay were determine using the Mode field American test and Management,

each test piece underwent the same treatment in terms of their color, texture, plasticity,

drying shrinkage, firing shrinkage. The results were presented on the next page.

3. Physical properties of Latore north clay - The physical properties of clay were

determine using the Modified American test and Management. Each test piece

underwent the same treatment in terms of their color, texture, plasticity, drying shrinkage,

firing shrinkage, the results are presented on the next page.

34
 CODE RAW DRIED SUN DRYING
T1 LIGHT BROWN DARK BROWN LIGHT ORANGE
T2 LIGHT BROWN DARK BROWN LIGHT ORANGE
T3 DARK BROWN DARK BROWN LIGHT ORANGE
T4 LIGHT BROWN LIGHT BROWN LIGHT ORANGE
T5 LIGHT BROWN LIGHT BROWN LIGHT ORANGE
T6 DARK BROWN DARK BROWN LIGHT ORANGE
T7 LIGHT BROWN LIGHT BROWN LIGHT ORANGE
T8 LIGHT BROWN LIGHT BROWN LIGHT ORANGE
T9 DARK BROWN DARK BROWN LIGHT ORANGE
T10 DARK BROWN DARK BROWN LIGHT ORANGE
T11 LIGHT BROWN LIGHT BROWN LIGHT ORANGE
T12 LIGHT BROWN LIGHT BROWN LIGHT ORANGE
T13 DARK BROWN DARK BROWN LIGHT ORANGE
T14 LIGHT BROWN LIGHT BROWN LIGHT ORANGE
T15 LIGHT PINK LIGHT PINK LIGHT PINK
Table 4.1 Color of Ambaguio, Lattore north and Bangan hill Clay in the Raw, Dried

and Sun drying.

Table 4.1 Shows that Ambaguio clay was dark brown when raw, dark brown

when dried and dark orange when fired at sun-drying. Bangan hill clay was light Brown

when raw light brown when dried and light orange when fired at sun-drying. Latore

north clay was light when raw, light pink when dried and light pink when fired at sun-

drying. With different mixtures of the three will also produce different colors depending

on the percentage of the clay. If Ambaguio hill clay was dominat in percentage the color

when dried and fired it becomes dark. If Bangan Hill clay was dominat in percentage

the color was a bit lighter. And if the Latore North clay was dominat it has the lightest

color when dried and fired.

35
 It can be inferred that darker the color on the clay it contains more iron

compounds or carbonaceous matter. In other words Ambaguio clay, Bangan Hill clay,

and Latore North clay contains impurities. Clay free from these impurities are white

according to Deomedes S Ranjo JR., a researcher of clay and a teacher of arts from

Nueva Vizcaya State University, Bambang Campus, Nueva Vizcaya.

It was possible to predict in all cases form the color of the raw clay, the

resultant color after firing. Generally, clays which were colored Brown or Red, have

sufficient iron elements present and was considered as red burning clays. Black colored

clays may burn white, cream buff or red. The black color was due to carbon which

burns out when fired. The color of fired clay may be due to other impurities that could

not be identified before firing.

CODE RAW DRIED SUN DRYING

T1 FINE ROUGH SMOOTH
T2 FINE ROUGH SMOOTH
T3 FINE ROUGH SMOOTH
T4 FINE ROUGH SMOOTH
T5 FINE ROUGH SMOOTH
T6 FINE ROUGH SMOOTH
T7 FINE ROUGH SMOOTH
T8 FINE ROUGH SMOOTH
T9 FINE ROUGH SMOOTH
T10 FINE ROUGH SMOOTH
T11 FINE ROUGH SMOOTH
T12 FINE ROUGH SMOOTH
T13 FINE ROUGH SMOOTH
T14 FINE ROUGH SMOOTH
T15 FINE ROUGH SMOOTH
Table 4.2 Texture of the test pieces in Raw, Dried and Sun Drying

36
 Change in texture of the test pieces when fired could be traced from the mineral

content of these clay samples because these react with type of clay itself. Table 4.2

shows the difference of textures of each clay test piece in it's raw, dried and fired state.

It shows that the test pieces are all fine in their raw state, rough on their dried state, and

smooth on their fired state.

The plasticity, strength, ease of drying character of fired pieces were greatly

affected by the size and shape of the clay grains. This was called the texture of the clay.

Many clay contained grains of sand and shale of sufficient size visible to the naked eye,

but majority of the clay grains were so small that it was difficult to distinguish the even

with the aid of a microscope.

Table 4.2 Texture of the test pieces in Raw, Dried and Sun Drying

ZCODE
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
T10
T11
T12
T13
T14
T15

37
A vital characteristic of clay and most of ceramics bodies was nebulous quality known

as plasticity. This was the quality ta permits the forming if the piece, often in every

intricate shape, and keeps the forces of gravity or the shocks inherent in manufacture

from deforming it. Table 4.3 shows that the water percentage needed to attain it's

workability. Test pieces 15 (T15) has the minimum percentage of the water needed to

attain it's workability while test piece 11 (T11) has maximum percentage. The value of

drying arrived at implies that in the preparation of ceramic products which were made

out of Ambaguio clay, Bangan Hill clay and Latore North, adjustment of 5 percent in

the dimension of the product mold should be always consider to arrive at the desired

size of the finished product.

Drying shrinkage can be greatly reduced by molding at high pressure so that the water

films were reduce to a low order. Shrinkage was very important in maintaining the

desired shape and size of a product that costomers would demand, especially in the

production of specific items which needed precision. In general, products with high

absorption are poruos but shrink less, a poruos body also verifies at higher temperature

and therefore in curr too, much consumption of fuel. On the other hand, will reveal the

suitable temperature of a clay body to withstand when fired without cracking,

deformation or melting. Table 4.4 shows that in the dried stage, test piece 3 (T3) had the

minimum dried shrinkage while test piece 12 (T12) has the maximum. This showed that

the test piece with lesser shrinkage was considered as good for production.

38
From the result of this clay, it confirms that clay have shrunk when dried and fired.

Shrinkage varies depending on type of clay. It can be inferred that as temperature

increases, firing shrinkage may increase.

This chapter presents the research methodology which was utilized in gathering

and analyzing the data needed for the study. This includes the research design, research

environment, subjects of the study, research instruments, data gathering procedures and

data analyses used during the occurrence of the study.

Research Design

The researchers conceptualized the designs in developing Interlocking

Compressed Earth Blocks with the used of clay. The goal of this is to

Research Environment

39
*INPUT THE FIGURE OF RESEARCH ENVIRONMENT

This study will be conducted at

Procedure

1. Planning. The researchers will have to consider the priority problems in general

and the community in particular to be solved by applying the principles,

theories, and ideas learned in the curriculum of Civil Engineering.

2. Preliminaries. The researchers will acquire relevant literature for the

investigation.

3. Preparation of Design. The researchers will create their design at this stage in

order to decide the appropriate materials to utilize and acquire.

4. Purchasing of Materials. To ensure that work runs well, materials must be

completed before the preparatory procedures.

5. Asssembly of the blocks.

6. Experiment/Gather data.

7. Final output.

*GAWA KAYO NG SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM DITO KUNG PANO YUNG

PAGGAWA NIYO NG EARTH BLOCKS

Figure 3.2: Flow Chart of the Research Methodology

Design misture using of clay

The schematic diagram of the system is shown in Figure 3.1.

*INPUT HERE THE MATERIALS NEEDED AND ITS DEFINITION

40
Data gathering

REFERENCES

Bernadi, D., Dejong, J., Mattinez, B., & Montoya B. (2014). Bio-bricks: Biologically
cemented sandstone bricks, J. of Construction and Building Material, 55, 462-469.

Boon, J., De Villiers, J. Hammes, F., Siciliano, S., & Verstraete, W. (2003). Strain-
specific ureolytic microbial calcium carbonate precipitation, Applied and
Environmental Microbiology.

Buczynski, C., & Chafetz, H. (1992). Bacterially induced lithification of microbial mats,
Journal of Palaios.

Chahal, N., & Siddique R. (2011). Effect of ureolytic bacteria on concrete properties, J.
of Construction and Building Materials, 25(10), 3791-3801.

Compressed Earth Blocks. From

[Link]

41
 [Link]
0---0---0direct-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-0-1-00-0--4----0-0-11-10-
0utfZz-8-10&cl=CL1.3&d=HASH01cf0835ed104fa479c5cc9b.3&gt=2

Dhami, N., Mukherjee, A., & Reddy, M. (2012). Improvement in strength properties of
ash bricks by bacterial calcite, J. of Ecological Engineering, 39, 31-35.

Dhami, N., Mukherjee, A., & Reddy, M. (2013). Bacterial Calcification for Enhancing
Performance of Low Embodied Energy Soil-Cement Bricks, Third Int. Conference on
Sustainable Construction Materials and Technology, Kyoto, Japan.

De Beli, N., Debrouwer, D., Muynck, W., & Verstraete, W. (2008). Bacterial carbonate
precipitation improves the durability of cementitious materials, J. of Cement and
Concrete Research, 38(7), 1005-1014.

Design mixture. From

[Link]

Irwan, J.M., Othman, N., & Zamer M.M. (2016). A Review in Interlocking Compressed
Earth Blocks (ICEB) with Addition of Bacteria. Volume 47.

Matec Web Conference (2017). Comparison of Strength Between Laterite Soil and Clay
Compressed Stabilized Earth Bricks (CSEBs). Volume 103.

42