1

MOTIVATION
Organizational excellence begins with the performance of
people. It is what people do or do not do that ultimately determines
what the organization can or cannot become. It is their dedication and
commitment to organizational purposes that make the difference.
Whether organizational goals can be achieved will depend on the
willingness of people to make the necessary contributions. It is the
performance of people that is the true benchmark of organizational
performance.
The job of the manager is to develop and promote behavioral
patterns that are consistent with the achievement of goals. This would
have been a simple matter if people could be merely told to do what
should be done. Unfortunately, it does not work that way. People are
human beings, not machines. Their actions are, to say the least, multi-
determined.
The issue then is not to tell, but to motivate people. To motivate
people towards excellent performance is the primary task of the
manager. To do that, he needs to understand and recognize what
motivates people.
This chapter looks into the nature of motivation first, followed by
a discussion of the traditional approaches to motivation based on
needs and drives. Subsequently, behavior modification is presented.
The role of expectations as well as the impact of fairness of the reward
structure on motivation are also presented. This chapter deals mainly
with individual motivation and behavior. In the next chapter, the
emphasis will be on group behavior
THE NATURE OF MOTIVATION
Anyone who is explicitly concerned with the actions of people
must ask some fundamental questions. What makes people do certain
things but not others? Why do people act the way they do? How can
people be encouraged to act in productive ways? If we assume that
people do not behave in a random fashion, we must look for answers
in what motivates people. Motivation refers to the why and cause of
behavior.
Motivation energizes behavior and gives it direction. A moti-
vated person will work harder and persevere longer than an unmo-
tivated one. The level of intensity and persistence for the motivated
person will be higher. A motivated athlete will endure long hours of
practice daily than one who is not. Yet, motivation also directs
behavior. A hungry man is motivated to seek food and to eat. In this
sense, motivation is like a vector quantity in physics. It has both
magnitude and direction.
Almost all human behavior is motivated, i.e., caused, as well as
directed. People act because something caused it. But their actions will
not be aimless. There must be a direction. Motivation is the strength of
the drive toward an action. Motivation refers to a whole class of
drives, needs, and similar forces that prompt a person to act in a
certain way or to develop a tendency for specific behavior.
Some theories of motivation suggest that it is ad hoc, short time
and fleeting. What motivates a person now ceases to motivate him
later since needs, values and environment change. While this concept
may be true sometimes, it should not be overlooked and denied that
people form habits and it has been rightly said that man is a bundle of
habits. A habit is something that makes a person do what he does
almost instinctively. It is an internal force that strongly influences how
a person responds to stimuli, including motivation techniques. In the
case of Filipinos, there is a notion on "katutubong ugali" (native
character) which gives rise to the expression "lalabas ang natural"
(one's nature shows). These internalized and inculcated habits are
difficult to remove. They also constitute an internal force for moti-
vation.
 Broadly speaking, when a manager motivates his subordinates,
it means that he structures the work environment in such a way that
their drives and needs are brought into play, instead of being
neglected. This environment should be conducive to the satisfaction
of those drives and needs so that workers may act in desired ways.

A Basic Motivation Model

A basic model of motivation is drawn in Figure 1.1. Internal

needs and drives produce some imbalance in the individual's internal
state. The imbalance creates tension and discomfort in the person. For
instance, the need for food produces discomfort in the form of hunger.
He identifies goals and then takes some kind of effort to fulfill his
goals. He examines the external environment to determine alternative
foods that will relieve his hunger. He may then decide to drive to a

Figure 1.1
A BASIC MODEL OF MOTIVATION

Goal Ability

Needs
and Tension Effort Performance Rewards
Drives

Needs Satisfaction
fast-food restaurant or go home to eat some food. The action, if
successful, produces need satisfaction and current behavior is ended.
The individual then turns his attention to some other activity. Other-
wise, there is need frustration. The individual may continue to engage
in other actions until a particular need is satisfied.
The motivational model can be seen as a chain and the various
elements therein as links. Needs create tension which stimulate effort
to perform. Rewards are received that bring about satisfaction. Needs
satisfaction completes the chain and provides a feedback mechanism
that controls both the intensity and direction of behavior.
Many human needs are biological in origin. These are the
primary needs which are essential for the survival of the person.
These consist of the needs for food, water, shelter, sleep, and so on.
However, there are also social and psychological needs. These are the
secondary needs which are learned or acquired as a person matures.
The desires for esteem, status, and fulfillment are some of these kinds
of needs.
The primary or biological needs are the same for everyone, but
they vary in intensity from one person to another. For example, a child
needs more sleep than an adult does. The secondary or social and
psychological needs, on the other hand, vary in levels not only among
individuals but across cultures as well. Thus the need for affiliation
varies in intensity not only among individuals, but its general level in
society as a whole may be higher in Asian cultures than that in the
Western cultures.
At the behavioral level, the action that each person takes in
response to these needs exhibits wide variations. The way in which
needs are satisfied varies with each individual and culture. Given the
opportunity, a Filipino would choose "lechon" or roasted pig in
response to hunger while a Japanese might select beef "teriyaki."

Whatever action is taken eventually, it is meant to satisfy the

need that, aroused it in the first place. This will restore the balance in
the individual's internal state and ease the previous tension and
discomfort.
Influence of Culture
Any society has values which are generally shared by its
members. Values are conceptions of the desirable. They influence an
individual's choices and actions. They define to a large extent the
patterns of relationships in a society. Socio-cultural values play an
important role in motivation and behavior.
Among Filipinos, four concepts have been found to be useful in
explaining behavior patterns.¹
1. Amor-propio or Self esteem. This is a deep sense of dig-
nity a desire to be treated as a human being rather than as a
thing. A Filipino is very sensitive to words or actions of
others which might be construed as violating his amor-
propio.
2. Hiya or Embarrassment. This refers to a feeling of infe-
riority, shyness, and alienation which is a painful experience.
This usually leads a Filipino to avoid hiya by behaving in
what is deemed to be an acceptable way.
3. Utang na Loob or Obligation. This is a sense of gratitude
for favors or help received from others. Because he has utang
na loob, a Filipino would exert effort to be able to repay
sometime in the future a favor given to him though not
necessarily in the same form as it was granted.
4. Pakikisama or Getting Along Together. This is a desire
for smooth interpersonal relations (SIR). Filipinos place a
high value in developing or maintaining good feelings with
others. In group work, the tendency is to maintain rather than
ignore pakikisama which may lead to inefficiencies.
Certain motives come about as a result of the cultural environ-
ment in which a person lives. The manager should understand that
these are some of the motives that employees bring with them when
they enter the organization. Such motives will affect how they view
their work and how important it is to them.
 In Western societies, McCleland identified three of the more im-
portant motives as achievement motive, affiliation motive, and power
motive.
Achievement Motive. People with a high need for achievement
have an intense desire for success. They work hard and take carefully
calculated risks. They take personal responsibility for getting a job
done. They want concrete feedback as to how well they are doing.
Accomplishment is important for its own sake, not for the rewards
that follow it.
Affiliation Motive. People with a high need for affiliation are
concerned with maintaining pleasant social relationships. They want
friendly interactions with others.
Power motive. People with a high need for power have a great
desire to influence people and control situations. They seek leadership
positions and are willing to take risks to get there.
In many parts of Asia, the Confucian tradition places a higher
value on community and harmony than on individual drives. Asian
societies typically emphasize family ties, group cohesion, conformity,
loyalty, hard work, and perseverance. This contrasts with the Western
liberalism that emphasizes individual achievement. The difference in
emphasis is a critical one in motivating individuals. The manager
blends his approach with the cultural environment.

NEEDS SATISFACTION
The concept of needs satisfaction, shown in Figure 1.2, is a
natural starting point in understanding human motivation. People
have certain needs, wants, and desires. They behave in order to satisfy
them. The central question then remains: "What are those needs.
wants, and desires that move people to satisfy them?" After identi-
fying those needs, other questions come up as well. Is there a
configuration among human needs? If so, what is the form of this
configuration? Do needs operate simultaneously or in sequence?
Answers to these questions will provide a basis for managers to
respond to the needs of workers in order to motivate them toward the
actual accomplishment of tasks in the organization.
 Figure 1.2
NEEDS SATISFACTION APPROACH TO MOTIVATION

Internal Behavior
Needs Outcome

Needs Satisfaction

Hierarchy of Needs
People have a variety of needs; and needs manifest themselves
in many forms. Abraham H. Maslow placed human needs in a
hierarchy of relative prepotency, as shown in Figure 1.3.3 In this
scheme, there are lower-order and higher-order needs. The lower-
order needs are prepotent in the sense that they highly determine
behavior until they are satisfied. Once satisfied, they cease to act as
motivators. That is when the higher-order needs are activated and
they in turn organize behavior until they too are gratified.

Figure 1.3
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Higher-order
Self- Needs
Actualization
and Fulfillment
Esteem and Status
Love and Social Needs
Safety and Security Needs Lower-order
Needs
Physiology Needs
 Maslow identified five basic human needs and arranged them
in ascending order as follows:
1. Physiological Needs. These are the basic needs for sur-
vival, such as food, water, sleep, and air.
2. Safety and Security Needs. These are needs to be free from
physical and psychological harm, threat and deprivation. An
aspect of these needs is the preference for familiar rather than
unfamiliar things, for the known instead of the unknown.
3. Love and Social Needs. These are needs for love, affection,
and affiliation as well as the need to belong.
4. Esteem and Status Needs. These are the desires for self-
respect, or self-esteem, and for the esteem of others. These
include the desires for achievement, confidence, independ-
ence, and freedom as well as reputation, prestige, recogni-
tion, attention, importance and appreciation.
5. Self-actualization or Self-fulfillment Needs. These are
desires to realize one's potential, to become everything that one
is capable of becoming. In Maslow's words, "A musi-
cian must make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write, if
he is to be ultimately happy."
Assuming that all the needs are unsatisfied, the physiological
needs will be the main determinants of behavior. All other needs will
lie dormant in the background, as if they were not even there. But as
soon as the physiological hungers are chronically satisfied, they cease
to act as organizers of behavior. A want that is satisfied is no longer a
want. A satisfied need is not a motivator. Only ungratified needs
motivate and organize behavior. Thus, the higher needs emerge, and
these, rather than the physiological ones, dominate the individual. And
when these, in turn are satisfied, again new and still higher needs
emerge, and so on.
As one need is satisfied, another need emerges. But the progres-
sion from lower to higher needs is not necessarily sudden and dis-
continuous so that a prior need will have to be 100 percent satisfied
before the next higher need emerges. There are, in fact, degrees of
relative satisfaction. The higher needs may emerge even when the
lower ones are only partially satisfied and hence the needs themselves
may overlap. According to Maslow, most people are partially satisfied
in all their basic needs and partially unsatisfied in all their basic needs
at the same time. However, a person will want the more basic of two
needs, ie, the lower one, if deprived of both.
From one culture to another, the same needs may exist but in
different intensities and in a different hierarchy. That need hierarchies
can differ between cultures and indeed among individuals within the
same culture should not be overlooked by a manager. In the Philip-
pines, amor propio is a concept that is closely related to self-esteem.
It reflects a desire to be treated with dignity and respect. Central to
amor propio is a Filipino's desire to be treated as a human being
rather than as an object or a mere tool. This desire is so strong and
primary that for many Filipinos it may rank in the same order as the
physiological needs.
Similarly, in Japan, the sense of belonging is very strong. This
is manifested in an important way by the individual's overriding
commitment and loyalty to his group. It also underpins the relation-
ship between the employer and the employee. Takie Sugiyama Lebra
puts it this way: "The Japanese employee tends to find his identity
in belongingness rather than in the cultivation and exhibition of
professional expertise. The employer, for his part, is more interested
in recruiting a novice who may have no special skill but enough
aptitude and motivation to leam a skill after being employed than he
is in finding an established expert who could immediately improve
productivity. Employment seems to mean, above all, the teaching and
leaming of the employee's role in relation to the employer and other
senior employees, with emphasis upon loyalty and group identi-
fication. Through such personal loyalty, the impersonal rules of a
bureaucracy are learned and followed."
It should be understood that motivation is situational. Both
individual and cultural differences are contingent factors in motiva-
tion that managers should pay attention to.
 The value of Maslow's theory to the executive, whether he or
she is a Filipino, a Japanese, a German, or an American executive
and whenever he or she manages people, lies in the insight that the
concept of marginal utility applies also to human needs. Human needs
are not absolute. The more one need is satisfied,the less its satisfaction
matters. As the need for economic rewards becomes satisfied, it
becomes less satisfying to obtain more of the same. This implies that,
at some point, the provision of additional rewards for the satisfaction
of any one particular need, regardless of hierarchical configuration,
may no longer bring about corresponding increases in productivity.
Thus, for individuals who are already receiving substantial financial
rewards, an increase in pay may no longer be motivating. What they
may need are challenging work, growth, responsibility, autonomy.

E-R-G Model
Maslow identified five sets of human needs and related them to
one another through a hierarchy of prepotency. Could man have fewer
sets of needs? Should there be a undirectional progression from a
lower need to a higher one? It would seem evident that certain needs
may operate all the time, albeit at varying intensities, rather than
follow some predetermined sequence. For instance, pakikisama is a
social need that is akin to the need to belong. It is a Filipino term
that literally means getting along well with other people. Since
Filipinos commonly value membership in a group, whether family,
clan, or work group very highly, there is a strong desire to maintain
good interpersonal relationships with other group members. Pakikis-
ama is generally active all the time. It is not something that is
awakened as if on cue when some arbitrary prior need is supposedly
satisfied.
Clayton Alderfer made a similar point when he proposed a need
hierarchy with only three instead of five levels, as illustrated in Figure
1.4. He redefined the basic human needs as existence, relatedness, and
growth needs and postulated that they may be active as motivators
simultaneously.
1. Existence Needs. These needs include Maslow's physio-
logical and security needs.
 Figure 1.4
ALDERFER’S E-R-G MODEL

Growth
Self-esteem and
self-actualization
Relatedness
Being understood and
accepted by people
Existence
Physiological and
security factors

2. Relatedness Needs. These needs refer to social and belong-

ingness needs.
3. Growth Needs. These involve both the desire for self-esteem
and self-actualization.
The E-R-G model does not presume a strict progression from
one need level to another. It accepts the possibility that all three needs
may be active at any time, instead of any of them being activated only
upon substantial satisfaction of the others. In other words, the acti-
vation of one need does not necessarily depend upon the satisfaction
of the others. In addition, if a person experiences frustration at either
of the two higher levels, he may slide back to concentrate on a lower
level. A person who is receiving a substantial compensation package
may still want more economic benefits if his goal of social acceptance
is continually thwarted.
Furthermore, although the existence and relatedness needs may
decrease in intensity as gratification is experienced, the growth needs
do not. That is, at every instance that growth needs are satisfied, they
are further awakened. If a person desires recognition and then
receives it, that desire does not subside, instead, he strives further to
gain more recognition. Success breeds the desire for more success.
Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Frederick Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory suggests that
the factors involved in producing job satisfaction are separate and
distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction. Previously, it had
been thought that satisfaction and dissatisfaction were opposites of
only one set of factors. Herzberg found that two sets of factors were
involved instead. That means that the opposite of job satisfaction is
not job dissatisfaction but, rather, no job satisfaction. Likewise, the
opposite of job dissatisfaction is not job satisfaction, but no job
dissatisfaction
Herzberg's two-factor model is depicted in Figure 1.5. Two
different sets of needs are involved:
(1) the need to avoid pain, and
(2) the need for achievement and psychological growth.
The stimuli inducing pain avoidance behavior are the hygiene
factors. They relate mainly to job context, i.e., factors that are
extrinsic to the job. These are company policy and administration.
Figure 1.5
HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR MODEL

Need to Avoid Pain Need for Achievement

Hygiene Factors Motivational Factors

 Job context  Job context
 Extrinsic Factors  Extrinsic Factors
 Dissatisfiers  Dissatisfiers
Examples Examples

- Company policy & adm - Achievement

- Quality of Supervision - Recognition
- Relations with supervisors, - Work itself
peers, & subordinates - Responsibility
- Pay, Job security, Status - Advancement
- Work conditions - Growth
supervision, interpersonal relationships, working conditions, salary,
status, and security. Their presence will not generally motivate
employees in an organization, but their absence will produce dis-
satisfaction. So these factors must be there to prevent dissatisfaction,
not to produce motivation. These are called dissatisfiers. They are
limited in their potential to provide a positive incentive, but their
capacity to create dissatisfaction when disappointed is very high.
The stimuli for achievement and growth needs are the moti-
vators. They relate to job content, i.e, recognition for achievement, the
work itself, responsibility, growth, and advancement. Their presence
yields satisfaction and they are therefore satisfiers. However, their
absence does not generally produce dissatisfaction, but no satisfaction.
Figure 1.6 illustrates the operation of Herzberg's two-factor
model. The presence of motivators leads to high levels of satisfaction,
but their absence puts workers only to a neutral state. Looking at the
hygiene factors, on the other hand, their absence leads workers to high
levels of dissatisfaction while their presence generally brings employ-
ees only to a neutral state.

Figure 1.6
OPERATION OF HEZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR MODEL

High Neutral High

Job Dissatisfaction State Job Satisfaction

(Absence) (Presence)

Hygiene Factors

Motivational Factors

(Absence) (Presence)
 From a managerial standpoint, the distinction between hygiene
and motivation factors is a significant one. Thus, managers should
focus their attention on hygiene factors if they aim to prevent dis-
satisfaction. However, if they want to motivate employees, they
should concentrate instead on the motivators.
To motivate employees, Herzberg proposed job enrichment. It
means making the job challenging and meaningful. Table 1.1 outlines
the techniques of job enrichment as well as the motivators involved.
Table 1.1
Techniques of Job Enrichment

Technique Motivators Involved

a) Removing some controls while Responsibility and personal
retaining accountability advancement
b) Increasing the accountability of
individuals for own work Responsibility and
c) Giving a person a complete recognition
natural unit of work (module,
division, area, etc) Responsibility, achievement,
d) Granting additional authority to and recognition
an employee in his activity; job
freedom Responsibility, achievement,
e) Making periodic reports directly and recognition
available to the worker himself,
rather than to the supervisor Internal recognition
f) Introducing new and more
difficult tasks not previously Growth and learning
handled
g) Assigning workers specific or Responsibility, growth and
specialized task, enabling them to advancement
become experts
Comparing Needs-Based Theories of Motivation
A comparison of the aforementioned models of motivation is
shown in Figure 1.7. The basic similarity among the three models
stems from the fact that all of them point to human needs as the main,
though certainly not the sole, determinants of behavior. Herzberg's
hygiene factors can be related to Maslow's physiological, safety, and
 Figure 1.7
COMPARISON OF MASLOW’S, ALDERFER’S, AND HERZBERG’S
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Maslow’s Hierarchy Alderfer’s E-R-G Herzberg’s

of Needs Model M-H Model

Work itself
Self-actualization Growth achievement
and fulfillment responsibility
Esteem and status Advancement
Relatedness Recognition
Love and Social
Status
Needs Interpersonal
Safety and security relations: Quality of
Existence supervision
Company policy
Physiological needs
Job security
Pay

social needs as well as to Alderfer's existence and relatedness needs.

On the other hand, the motivational factors can be related to status,
self-actualization, and growth needs. However, there are important
differences as well. Human needs are not seen as operating in the
same way. While Maslow's theory suggests that all needs are
motivators so long as they remain unsatisfied, in Herzberg's scheme,
only the higher-order needs are motivators.
Herzberg's model is also more specific in providing a framework
by which these needs can be satisfied in the work setting. He related
need satisfaction to job conditions: job content and job context. But
only the job content factors are motivators.
In applying the three models of motivation in the organizational
setting, the manager should assess the need level at which a particular
employee is in as well as the actual job conditions at the time.
Concentration on lower-order needs or hygiene factors are essential
to establish the proper job context. The lower-order needs will have
to be satisfied first. Assuming that salaries, benefits and tenure are
subsequently reasonably satisfied, then they will cease to act as
effective motivators. In other words, there comes a point where even
as pay and benefits are increased further, the manager can only expect
diminishing returns in terms of human performance.
A proper job context is necessary for without. it, workers can
become disenchanted and restless, but it is not sufficient. To obtain
superior performance, the manager then addresses the higher-order
needs such as esteem and self-actualization. He concentrates on job
content. That means that the job itself must provide opportunity for
achievement and psychological growth. The motivators involved here
are work that is inherently satisfying, achievement, recognition,
responsibility, professional advancement and growth in task
capability. At this point, the techniques of job enrichment will be
useful to the manager.
Surveys have been taken to identify the values of Filipino
workers. Some of these surveys measured the degree to which a
respondent considers certain characteristics of a job as important or
ideal. Arce and Poblador examined the profiles of eight groups of
individuals. Overall, there was a total of 109 respondents from three
different firms and all were candidates for promotion in their respec-
tive firms. It was found that respondents consistently assigned the
highest importance to the following characteristics of a job:
a. being able to make use of individual abilities;
b. getting a feeling of accomplishment in the job; and
c. having opportunities for advancement.
On the other hand, two characteristics are consistently con-
sidered as less important:
a. the pay comparing well with that of other workers; and
b. the job enabling the individual to be "somebody" in the
community.
The results suggest that among those being considered for
promotion in those three organizations the ideal job is one that is
intrinsically rewarding. Extrinsic rewards matter too, but they are of
lesser importance.
 Furthermore, some Filipino workers appear to have two broad
areas of concern. From an examination of a study of 73 women
workers in a Manila garment factory, it was noted that the concerns
of the workers can be classified as follows:
1. the area of rewards, and
2. the area of relationships.
In turn, rewards consist of two types: the intrinsic (personal) and
the extrinsic (material). Likewise, relationships consists of two types:
relationships with people and relationships with machines and the
like.
The application of the need theories of motivation requires an
accurate assessment of individual needs. This would, however, be
almost impossible to do in some instances where the individual
himself is not aware even of his own needs. Moreover, the manager
considers not only personal needs but organization needs as well. He
acts to make those needs congruent.

BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
People respond not only to their internal needs but also to the
external consequences of their actions. Behavior modification,
shown in Figure 1.8, is based on the premise that behavior is
controlled by the nature of its consequences. The likelihood that
behavior will be repeated increases when it is accompanied by
favorable consequences while it decreases when accompanied by
unfavorable consequences. Absence of any significant consequences
leads to extinction of behavior. Thus, in order to obtain the desired
behaviors over the long term, these must be accompanied by favorable
consequences. To deter undesirable behavior, it must be followed by
unfavorable consequences to prevent its recurrence. Behavior
modification is based on B.F. Skinner's pioneering work on operant
conditioning." Since then, behavior modification has gained much
ground as a motivational tool. It involves the systematic application
of rewards to effect desired behaviors.
 Figure 1.8
BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
External
Consequences
Increase Likelihood
Favorable
of Repetition

Behavior Extinction of
None
Behavior
Decrease Likelihood
Unfavorable
of Repetition

Behavior modification through reinforcement gives a greater

degree of control to the manager. The manager can administer
favorable or unfavorable consequences on a selective basis upon each
occurrence of desirable or undesirable behavior. He must make sure,
however, that the employee is able to connect the consequences to
the corresponding behavior so as to encourage or deter its repetition.
Behavior modification can be accomplished in four ways: positive
reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction.
Positive reinforcement provides a favorable consequence that
encourages the recurrence of a specified behavior. A student who
studies diligently receives favorable consequences in the form of high
grades in the exams. He therefore continues to study hard. A worker
may find that when he does some high-quality work, the supervisor
praises him for doing so. Since the worker likes praise, he is encour-
aged to do high-quality work again.
Positive reinforcement is effective in shaping behavior. Nor-
mally, the desired behavior will not come about immediately, but
evolve over a period of time. Thus, reinforcements are given succes-
sively along the way so long as behavior is in the desired direction,
rather than only at the end when the proper behavior is already clearly
a
visible. This way, reinforcements are used to sustain progress toward
the desired behavior. Once attained, the proper behavior is regularly
reinforced as behavior tends to diminish through lack of reinforce-
ment.
Negative reinforcement is characterized by the removal of an
unwanted consequence upon correct behavior. An electrician finds
that when he wears safety gloves while working, he avoids the pain,
if not death, due to electric shock. Thus he continues to wear safety
gloves.
Punishment refers to the provision of an unwanted consequence
upon occurrence of incorrect behavior so as to discourage it. An
employee is suspended from work for habitual tardiness. The
employee then is deterred from committing the same violation again.
By definition, punishment is used to deter undesirable behavior.
but there are limitations to that. Skinner says that "the person who
has been punished is not thereby simply less inclined to behave in
a given way; at best, he learns how to avoid punishment."
Also, punishment, unlike positive reinforcement, does not
directly encourage any kind of desirable behavior. In addition, in a
typical work setting, the supervisor who administers the punishment
is usually the same one who offers positive reinforcement as well at
other instances. The resulting confusion between the two roles may
reduce the supervisor's credibility when giving positive reinforce-
ments in the future.
Extinction may occur when behavior is not accompanied by any
significant results. Wittingly or unwittingly, a particular behavior may
have been deemed neither desirable nor undesirable. Hence it is
neither explicitly rewarded nor punished but simply ignored. In a
committee meeting, somebody suggests several ideas for considera-
tion. He does not receive any response. There is neither acceptance
nor rejection, but the members simply move on to another topic each
time. What can happen is that this person will no longer offer
suggestions or he may not even bother to attend committee meetings
anymore. In that case, lack of consequences has extinguished his idea
sharing behavior.
 As a motivational tool, positive reinforcement is the most
valuable. Performance feedback in terms of rewards not only shapes
behavior but also enhances one’s self-esteem and status. In this way,
one learns that specific behavior patterns lead to rewards that, in turn,
satisfy his need to enhance his self-esteem. However, to be effective,
positive reinforcement has to be managed well.

Reinforcement Guidelines
The way the reinforcement is carried out is more important than
the amount or value of the rewards. Table 1.2 summarizes the guide-
lines for reinforcements.
Table 1.2
Reinforcement Guidelines
1. Specify behavior to be reinforced
2. Reinforce specified behavior at once
3. Reward small achievements as well
4. Provide material as well as non-material incentives
5. Offer small rewards, too.
6. Reinforce at intermittent intervals

1. The behavior to be reinforced should be clearly identified.

The more information content there is, the better. "Reduce
the number of defects by 5% at the end of this year," is better
than simply saying, "Improve quality."
2. The reinforcement should be immediate. As much as pos-
sible, the reinforcement should be given right after the
achievement of specified behavior.
3. The feedback mechanism should take account even of small
achievements. Big achievements are rare relative to small ones,
so the reward system should recognize small achieve- ments
too.
4. The system should offer both tangible as well as intangible
rewards. Material rewards are necessary, but praise, recog-
nition, and attention are powerful reinforcements also.
 5. The value of small rewards should not be underestimated.
Just because the reward is small does not mean that it should
not be given at all. On the contrary, rewards, big and small
alike, should be there. But, aside from the question of
affordability, large rewards can become the subject of
political maneuvers as people may concentrate on getting
them rather than on performing. The small rewards, espe-
cially the symbolic ones, on the other hand, become a cause
for celebration, not political intrigues.
6. Reinforcements should occur at variable intervals. This kind
of schedule works better. Reinforcement loses much of its
power when it comes to be expected.

THE ROLE OF EXPECTATIONS

While the needs satisfaction approach focuses on internal needs
that arouse behavior and behavior modification concentrates on
extemal reinforcements, social learning theory, illustrated in Figure
1.9, stresses the importance of cognitive processes instead. People

Figure 1.9
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Observation and
Experience
V
C a
Anticipated r
o
Consequences i
m
p a
Behavior a n
r c
e e
Actual
Consequences
select behavior patterns by direct experience or by observing others.
Likewise, people can think and represent situations symbolically.
Thus, they are able to foresee the probable consequences of their
actions and thereby alter their behavior accordingly. People's actions
are determined in large measure by anticipated consequences. A
person does not walk through the rain and wet himself before he
decides to use an umbrella. The anticipated consequences,
represented symbolically in a person's thoughts, motivate behavior in
much the same way as actual consequences do.
Man does not simply react; he thinks before he acts. In under-
standing what a person actually does, the manager must look beyond
internal needs or external reinforcements,important though they may
be. More specifically, the manager must bear in mind that an
employee will make judgments about the probable outcomes of his
actions before he takes them. In this respect, the employee's expec-
tations play a major role. What is relevant to him is whether his effort
will result in performance, whether performance will lead to rewards,
and whether rewards will, in turn, lead to satisfaction. These issues
can be visualized as elements in an effort-performance-rewards-
satisfaction chain. It is obvious that the higher the expectations, the
stronger will be the motivation to perform.
A motivation theory that takes into account the role of expec-
tations will necessarily be a more complex one. But it would also be
more complete. The foundation of the expectancy theory was devel-
oped by Victor H. Vroom" and was subsequently expanded by Lyman
W. Porter and Eward E. Lawler III". In essence, the expectancy theory
states that motivation is a product of three variables; namely, valence
which represents how much a person wants a reward, expectancy
which refers to a person's estimate of the probability that effort will
result in effective performance, and instrumentality which relates to a
person's estimate that performance will lead to receiving the reward,
Figure 1.10 shows the operation of the expectancy model in diagram-
matic form. In formula form, the relationship can be portrayed as
follows:

Motivation = Valence x Expectancy x Instrumentality

 Figure 1.10
OPERATION OF THE EXPECTANCY THEORY

Valence

Instrumentality Expectancy

Motivation

Effort

Performance

Rewards Intrinsic &

Extrinsic

Satisfaction

Valence
Valence is the value that a person places upon the reward
associated with doing anything. It is an expression of one's preference
for a reward. It reflects the intensity of one's desire for a goal. Thus,
if an employee strongly desires recognition, then recognition has a
high valence for him. It is not only the reward itself that matters but
its level as well. Salary will be valued not only because it is desired
but also whether it is high or low.
Valence for a reward is unique to each employee. This implies
that what is important to an employee may not necessarily be so to
another. For example, additional pay as a result of overtime work may
be desirable to a worker but it may not be to another. In addition,
not all rewards will have the same value to him. Some will be valued
more than others. A young employee who is raising a family would
probably value salary increases more than praise or recognition.
Finally, valence can change substantially over time. Variations in
valence are conditioned by experience as needs become satisfied
while others emerge.
Since people can like or dislike an outcome, preferences for it
can assume both positive and negative values. When a person would
rather not attain an outcome, valence is negative. If he is indifferent
to it, valence is zero. The range of values is from -1 to +1.

Expectancy
Expectancy relates to the connection between effort and per-
formance. This is the confidence that an employee has that his effort
will result in performance, the successful completion of a task. It
indicates the strength of belief that performance will be determined
materially by corresponding effort. The stronger the connection
between effort and performance, the higher the expectancy. For
example, a functional specialist knows from experience that he can
accomplish tasks if they fall within his area of specialization.
Expectancies are stated as probabilities which represent an
employee's estimate as to the cause and effect link between effort and
performance. The value may range from 0 to 1. If an employee thinks
that no matter how hard he tries he will still be unable to accomplish
a certain task, the expectancy approaches 0. If, on the other hand, the
employee strongly believes that a task can be done easily, the
expectancy approaches the value of 1. In general, probability esti-
mates will be between the two extreme points.
The formation of expectancies is influenced by the worker's own
evaluation of his competence. If he thinks of himself as possessing
the requisite skills and abilities to do a job, fulfill role expectations,
or meet challenges, then his expectancy assessment would likely be
high. Another way of saying this is that a person with a high level
of self-confidence tends to be more optimistic about work accomplish-
ment. But there are those who are filled with self-doubt. They believe
that they are less capable than they seem to be. They fear that failure
will only expose their weakness. Consequently, their expectancy
assessment tends to be on the low side.
Instrumentality
Instrumentality refers to the link between performance and
reward. This represents the strength of belief that a reward will be
received once the task is accomplished. The worker makes subjective
judgments as to whether performance leads to rewards. The stronger
the belief that rewards accompany performance, the higher the
instrumentality. For example, if the worker thinks the organization
administers rewards based on performance, instrumentality would be
high.
Like expectancy, instrumentality is also expressed in terms of
probabilities. Its value ranges from 0 to 1. A worker's estimate of
instrumentality would be low if he thinks, for instance, that promo-
tions are not forthcoming no matter how excellent performance is.
However, if he thinks that the organization values performance highly
and subsequently rewards it, instrumentality estimate would tend to
be high.
One of the factors that influences instrumentality is the consis-
tency with which the organization rewards performance. The worker
will evaluate the organization's record with respect to the administra-
tion of rewards contingent on performance. If on this basis, he sees
that most of his performance goes unrewarded, his estimates of
instrumentality would likely be low.

Strength of Motivation or Avoidance

Motivation is the product of valence, expectancy, and instrumen-
tality. The multiplicative combination of three variables results in an
infinite number of possibilities. However, only a relatively few
combinations are significant to the manager. Also, since valence can
be either positive or negative, this implies that motivation can also
be positive or negative.
As to positive motivation. Table 1.3 shows some possible
Combinations when valence is positive. Motivational strength, i.e.. the
Strength of a drive toward an action, depends on the levels of valence,
expectancy, and instrumentality.
 Table 1.3
Positive Motivation
Positive Valence Expectancy Instrumentality Motivation
1. High High High Strong
2. High High Low Moderate
3. High Low High Moderate
4. High Low Low Weak

As can be seen, the combination that yields the strongest

motivation is the first situation, were high positive valence exists with
high expectancy and high instrumentality. If there is a high valence
for a reward but either expectancy or instrumentality is low, as in the
second and third scenarios, only moderate motivation is likely. If it
happens,as in the fourth situation, that expectancyand instrumentality
are simultaneously low,then even if valence is high, motivation will
still be low.
What happens when valence is negative is shown in Table 1.4.
In this case, instead of positive motivation, there is negative
motivation or avoidance. Negative motivation can be understood in
the light of positive motivation. When compared with Table 1.3, it
can be noted that Table 1.4 is a mirror image of Table 1.3, except
that valence is negative. In so far as levels of valence, expectancy,
and instrumentality are concerned, they are the same for all four
scenarios in both tables. However, since valence for a reward is
negative in Table 1.4, the various combinations of valence, expec-
tancy, and instrumentality now work in the opposite direction. There
is avoidance in doing something rather than motivation in doing so.
Table 1.4
Negative Motivation- Avoidance

Negative Valence Expectancy Instrumentality Avoidance

a. High High High Strong
b. High High Low Moderate
c. High Low High Moderate
d. High Low Low Weak
 A person will exhibit avoidance behavior when valence for a
reward is negative. In this instance, he would rather not earn it. This
occurs, for instance, when an employee does not wish to be promoted,
perhaps becausethis wouldentail his transfer to another location away
from his family and friends. But the strength of avoidance will vary
depending on the levels of expectancy and instrumentality as well.
Managers need to collect information as to the reward prefer-
ences of a particular employee among a set of rewards that are
available at a specific point in time. Since valence changes, he also
needs to monitor shifts in preferences. This way, rewards may be
geared more accurately to what is valuable to an employee.
It should also be noted that only the extrinsic rewards, i.e..
outcomes that are apart from the work itself such as pay and benefits,
are largely under the control of the manager. Intrinsic rewards, those
that come from the performance of the work itself, such as the
satisfaction felt directly by an employee after a job well done, are
mainly under the employee's own control.
Managers can increase an employee's expectancy by clarifying
the relation between effort and performance. For example, the
manager can explain to the new salesman how increasing the number
of sales calls can increase his sales volume. Furthermore, training can
be provided so that employees acquire job-relevant knowledge and
skills. This will increase their competence to do a job well, so that
once effort is expended the chances of successful performance is high.
Managers may increase instrumentality estimates by employees
by explaining the design of the organization's reward and incentive
system. He may discuss with them company policies regarding pay
increases and promotions and the bases by which these are made. This
gives employees a clearer understanding of the level of performance
that is expected and the relationship between performance and
rewards as well.
A Different Perceptions
The expectancy model illustrates that motivation cannot be
regarded as a simple matter of cause and effect. It portrays people as
behaving like human beings, not as machines. With a machine, one
merely switches it on and it works until it is switched off. It is clear
that motivation does not occur in a mere on-off fashion.
It is obvious that for each effort that is exerted, there is a
corresponding cost, and that for every reward that is received, there is
a corresponding benefit. People will normally exert effort when the
benefits of such effort outweigh the costs. Here, perceptions play a
key role.
The role of perception in motivation and behavior is a critical
one. People perceive their environment through an organized frame-
work that is based on their experience and values. Perception is a
person's own view of the world. It controls the way he processes
incoming information.
Perception is a personal matter. Individuals behave on the basis
of "what is perceived," not on "what is." Basically, this implies that
each person behaves in accordance with the information as he sees
it, not as another does. He will act on the basis of his perception of
himself and of those around him. His actions will be based on what
he sees in terms of his own values and beliefs.
Perception is necessarily selective to enable the individual to
handle the large volume of information that he is normally exposed
to everyday. Otherwise, information would overload him. Individuals
tend to select information that is supportive and satisfying and ignore
that which is disturbing. For example, information that is consistent
with what the individual already believes in is typically selected. This
can be observed during discussions. People tend to listen more to
ideas that support their position than those which oppose it.
The interpretation of stimulus may also differ among individuals.
Reactions to stimuli are filtered through an individual's value system.
As a result, a common stimulus may produce different responses from
different people depending on specific value patterns of these people
at the time. A certain level of reward can be seen as satisfying by
one person yet be viewed as frustrating by another. The individual
likewise tends to interpret the stimulus in a way in a way that will be
supportive. Which interpretation is "correct" depends upon the
person's system of values and beliefs
 Perception tends to be holistic. Thus, while an individual may
have only partial information about a situation, he completes the
picture anyway by adding whatever is necessary in order to make the
situation meaningful and intelligible. So it is possible that an indi-
vidual may perceive more than what the information would seem to
indicate. For instance, if a speaker suddenly stops in mid-sentence,
a listener would be able to complete it anyway so it would make sense
to him. An employee who has not been rewarded for a long while
despite high performance is likely to believe that he would never be
rewarded at all.
People undertake a benefit-cost analysis in terms that are
meaningful to them, not in terms that are meaningful to others. As
such, managerial directives to increase performance will be appraised
by employees in the context of their individual benefit-cost compu-
tations. Unlike machines, reaction to managerial stimuli by individual
workers may or may not be in the direction intended.
People acquire and accumulate experience over time. Through
experience, they learn to place values on the rewards available to them
and also on the varying levels of these rewards. Through experience
also, they learn to develop expectancy and instrumentality estimates
as to whether the rewards available are, in fact, attainable. What if
previous experience leads them to perceive that the rewards are neither
worth the effort nor attainable? Motivational strength would thus be
weak. The route to motivation therefore is through altering the ex-
perience. Put simply, the reward system design should not be taken
for granted since it might create the "wrong experience." Instead, the
system should be designed carefully so that it results in employee
experience that, in turn, motivates him.
Impact of Uncertainty
Motivation is a process that involves a long time horizon. In
designing the reward system, managers should take consideration
the impact of uncertainty. It will be noted that the effort-performance-
reward-satisfaction chain is fairly long one. Effort does not neces-
sarily lead directly to satisfaction. There are intervening variables
between effort and satisfaction and there is normally a time lag, large
or small, between them as well. There are multiple and overlapping
relationships in a situation that rarely can a worker be sure that a
preferred reward will follow a specific action. In addition, not all
outcomes are controllable by the employee. For instance, whereas
financial rewards are given by management, status is conferred by
one's colleagues. All these tend to increase the level of uncertainty
and corresponding risks, and hence lower the level of motivation.
Thus, a simple and straightforward reward system where the connec
tions between the various elements of the chain are clear is preferable
to a complex one.
FAIRNESS OF THE REWARD SYSTEM
The value of a reward to a person is relative, a reward can be
large or small, but only when compared to another. The effort exerted
to obtain the reward is also not absolute. It can be large or small when
compared to another. Yet the reward can very well be compared to
the effort by means of a ratio. Then a person can calculate his own
reward-to-effort ratio as well as that of another and finally compare
the two. What is happening here is social comparison. On the basis
of these comparisons, a person can make judgments as to the fairness
of the reward system, Expectedly, a reward system that is not fair will
not motivate people.
The various motivational models discussed so far do not directly
account for the impact of the faimess of the reward system on
individual motivation. Yet the faimess of the reward system is a
significant factor in motivation which should not be overlooked. In
reality, individuals have multi-directional interactions with many
people in the work place and outside of it. Filipinos, for instance,
typically form informal groups, both inside and outside the organi-
zation. They meet regularly to discuss common concerns and share
experiences with one another. They observe each other, make
comparisons with each other, and make judgments about one another.
In short, motivation occurs in a social context. This is only as it should
be since people, after all, are social beings. So the notion of social
comparison introduces a significant dimension which enhances
understanding of motivation.
 The equity theory, illustrated in Figure 1.11, suggests how
employees judge the fairness of the reward system. Fairness of the
reward system is evaluated on the basis of:
(a) the ratio between an employee's outcomes and inputs, and
(b) on how this ratio compares with those of others.
In J. Stacy Adams' formulation of the equity theory, the reward
system would be considered fair when:

Outcomes by a person Outcomes by another person

=
Inputs by a person Inputs by another person
Inputs may consist of effort, education, experience, seniority,
and task difficulty while outcomes may include pay and benefits as
well as social and psychological rewards. The referent person may
be another worker or even some other person in the community or
society

Figure 1.11
EQUITY THEORY
INPUTS OUTCOMES
Effort Pay
Education Benefits
Seniority Recognition
Job Difficulty Promotion

Inputs and outcomes are compared with those of others, too

Reactions to Inequity
If people perceive the reward as equitable, they will probably
continue to perform at the same level of output. They maintain the
status quo as far as their behavior is concerned. However, if the reward
is perceived as inequitable, they will experience tension that motivates
them to react in a manner so as to reduce the inequity. The reaction
aims to bring outcomes and inputs on balance with each other and
with those of others.
The equity theory makes a number of predictions about the
behavioral reactions of people to perceived inequity. These help
managers appreciate how inequity influences behavior. Some of these
are shown in Table 1.5.
Table 1.5
Possible Behavioral Reactions to Perceived Inequity

Over-reward Under-reward

Work more Work less

Increase the quality and quantity of output Decrease the quality and quantity of
output
Undervalue the reward
Overvalue the reward
Urge referent person to ask for more
rewards Ask for additional rewards, or leave
the organization
Choose another referent person
Choose another referent person

If the rewards are perceived as more than equitable, employees

are likely to feel an imbalance and seek to restore balance. They may
then increase their level of performance by working harder and
increasing the quantity and quality of their outputs. They may discount
the value of the reward. They may also encourage other employes to
seck more rewards. Or, they may use another person, even one from
outside the organization, for purposes of comparison. That way, the
seeming over-reward may look trivial.
 On the other hand, employees who think that the rewards are
less than equitable would likely use the same strategies but in the
opposite direction. Thus, to redress the perceived imbalance, they may
decrease their level of performance by working less and reducing the
quantity and quality of their outputs. They may overvalue the reward.
They may seek more rewards or, otherwise, quit. Then, again, they
may select someone else as reference so as to obtain a more favorable
comparison.
Thus, the manager not only considers needs satisfaction, external
reinforcements, and expectations of employees, but the faimess of the
reward system as well. The equity model shows that motivation does
not occur in a vacuum, but in a social system. People operate as
members of groups in organizations. They have multiple social
relationships and there are lots of opportunities for comparison. In
making these comparisons, their perceptions play a key role, just as
perceptions do in the expectancy model when employees develop
valence, expectancy, and instrumentality estimates. In applying the
equity model, the task of the manager is to determine how employees
place values on their outcomes and inputs, who their referent persons
are, and how they assess those referent persons' outcomes and inputs
in relation to theirs, instead of merely forcing his own perceptions on
them.
SUMMARY
Motivation underlies almost all human behavior. It is an urge
that prompts action toward a certain direction. The motivated person
displays the kind of dedication and commitment to performance that
is the ultimate foundation of excellence. In eliciting superior perform-
ance, the manager does not force employees to do so, instead, he
motivates them to do so.
The idea of needs satisfaction provides a natural starting point
in understanding human motivation. People have needs that cause
tension and discomfort. They respond and act in order to satisfy those
needs and thus relieve the tension. Several theories based on needs
satisfaction describe in alternative ways the configuration of human
needs. There are primary needs such as physiological and security
perform when the reward system is perceived to be unfair to them.
The job of the manager is to assess employee perceptions objectively.
not to replace them with those of his own.
Motivation is not a simple matter, but, in fact, is a complex
process. Multiple factors define its intensity and direction. To the
manager, motivating people is perhaps the highest challenge. His task
is to motivate employees toward excellent performance, not once, not
usually, but all the time