“&ana¸ iva&ana AaiNa sausaMskar yaaMsaazI iSaxaNap`saar”

- iSaxaNa mahYaI- Da^ baapUjaI saaLuMKo

EaI svaamaI ivavaokanaMd iSaxaNa saMsqaa kaolhapUr saMcaalaIt

ivavaokanaMd ka^laoja kaolhapUr
XII SCIENCE
[PHYSICS]
SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES

XII SCIENCE NOTES

Prof. R. S. Gade.
May 19, 2020

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 6. SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES
Progressive wave:
Definition: A wave, in which the disturbance produced in the medium travels in a given direction
continuously, without any damping and obstruction, from one particle to another, is a
progressive wave. It may a longitudinal wave or transverse wave.
Properties of progressive wave:
1. Each particle of a medium in the path of mechanical progressive wave performs the simple
harmonic motions about their mean positions.
2. The amplitude, period and frequency of vibrations of each particle is same.
3. The phase the angle for the vibrational motion of each particle is different. It goes on
decreasing in the direction of propagation of waves. The particles separated by a distance
equal to wavelength of wave has the phase difference of 2π radian.
4. No particle remains permanently at rest. Each particle comes to rest momentarily while at
extreme position of vibration.
5. The particles attain maximum velocity when they pass through their mean positions.
6. During the propagation of wave, energy is transferred along the wave. There is no transfer of
matter.
7. The velocity of wave is constant through homogeneous medium and depends upon the
properties of the medium.
8. Progressive waves are of two types – transverse waves and longitudinal waves.
9. In a transverse progressive wave, vibrations of particles are perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation and wave produce crests and troughs in their medium of travel. While in
the longitudinal wave the particle vibrates parallel to the wave propagation and wave produce
compressions and rarefactions along the direction of wave propagation.
10. Both, the transverse as well as the longitudinal mechanical waves can pass through solids but
only longitudinal waves can pass through fluids.
* A progressive wave having the amplitude (A), frequency (n), wavelength (λ), velocity (v),
angular frequency (ω) and is travelling in the positive direction of x-axis is represented by the
equation: y = Asin(ωt – kx) -------- (i) where k = 2π/λ is the constant called progressive factor,
wave number of the wave. When the same wave is travelling in the negative directin of x-axis
then it is represented as: y = Asin(ωt + kx) .
* Wave velocity: The velocity of propagation of waves is called wave velocity and is given by:
V = n λ = ω/k. Wave velocity is different in different media; it depends upon various factors
such as modulus of elasticity, density, temperature etc.
Particle velocity: The velocity of the particle of the medium is called particle velocity and is

given by:V = ω a2 – x 2 .
Reflection of Waves:
For the point of convenient the particle velocity is taken as in the same direction as that
of wave velocity for the particle which lies in compression in longitudinal wave and in
opposite direction of wave velocity for the particle which lies in rarefaction of longitudinal
wave.
a) For transverse waves:
Case-I: When a transverse wave travelling through the rarer medium is incident on the
surface of denser medium, the particle velocity as well as wave velocity gets reversed. So that
crest reflects as a trough and vice versa, and hence there is phase change of π radian.

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 Case-II: When a transverse wave travelling through denser medium is reflected from the
surface of
Incident V rarer medium,
Incident VW wave
W then wave
VP velocity gets
wave VP
Reflected reversed but
VP
VW Reflected V W the particle
wave
wave V P velocity does
From Denser medium From Rarer medium not reversed
and hence
crest reflects as a crest (or trough as trough) and there is no any phase change.
b) For longitudinal waves:
Case-I: When a longitudinal wave travelling through rarer medium is reflected from the
surface of the denser medium, the wave velocity as well as particle velocity gets reversed so
that compression gets reflect as compression (or rarefaction as rarefaction) and there is phase
change of π radian.
Case-II: When longitudinal wave
travelling through denser medium is C R C R C
VP

Denser medium
Incident
reflected from surface of rarer medium Wav VW
the wave velocity gets reversed but the e
particle velocity does not. Hence the VP
Reflected
compression reflects as a rarefaction and Wave VW
vice versa, and there is no any phase
C R C R C
change.
Superposition of waves:
Principle of superposition: “When two or more waves travelling through a medium arrive at
a point of the medium simultaneously, each wave produces its own displacement at that point
independently of the others. Hence the resultant displacement at that point is equal to vector
sum of individual displacement of all the waves”.
Explanation: Let for convenience two waves travelling through the medium arrive at a point
of medium simultaneously. If they arrive in phase as shown in fig (a) then their displacements
are added and hence the resultant displacement is maximum, and intensity is also maximum.
Such an effect is called constructive interference.
∴ Resultant displacement is given by: Y = Y1 + Y2
On the other hand if the
waves arriving at point
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • are out of phase as
shown in figure (b) then
their displacements
cancels each other, hence
resultant displacement at
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • that point is minimum
therefore intensity is also
minimum. Such effect is
called destructive
interference.
∴ Resultant displacement
is given by: Y = Y1 ∿ Y2
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Fig (b): Destructive Interference

Fig (a): Constructive Interference

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 Constructive interference Destructive interference
When the waves meets a point with same phase, When the wave meets a point with opposite
constructive interference is obtained at that phase, destructive interference is obtained at
point (i.e. maximum sound). that point (i.e. minimum sound)
Phase difference between the waves at the point Phase difference ϕ = 1800 or (2n – 1)π;
of observation ϕ = 00 or 2nπ n = 1, 2, ….. .
Path difference between the waves at the point Path difference ∆x = (2n – 1)λ/2 (i.e. odd
of observation ∆x = nλ (even multiple of /2) multiple of /2)
Resultant amplitude at the point of observation Resultant amplitude at the point of
will be maximum Amax = a1 + a2 observation will be minimum Amin = a1 – a2
If a1 = a2 = a0 ⇒ Amax = 2a0 If a1 = a2 ⇒ Amin = 0
Resultant intensity at the point of observation Resultant intensity at the point of observation
will be maximum Imax = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 will be minimum Imin = I1 + I2 - 2 I1 I2
2 2
= I1 + I2 = I1 − I2
If, I1 = I2 = I0 ⇒ Imax = 4I0 If, I1 = I2 = I0 ⇒ Imin = 0

Amplitude of the Resultant Wave Produced due to Superposition of Two Waves:

Consider the two waves having the same frequency but different amplitudes A1 and A2.
Let these waves differ in phase by ϕ. The displacement of each wave at x = 0 is given by:
y1 = A1sinωt and y2 = A2sin(ωt + ϕ).
According to the superposition of waves, the resultant displacement at x = 0 is:
y = y1 + y2 = A1sinωt + A2sin(ωt + ϕ)
= A1sinωt + A2sinωtcosϕ + A2cosωtsinϕ
∴ y = (A1 + A2cosϕ) sinωt + A2sinϕ cosωt
Substitute, A1 + A2cosϕ = Acosθ ------- (i) and A2sinϕ = Asinθ ------- (ii) we get,
y = Acosθsinωt + Asinθcosωt = Asin(ωt + θ) --------- (iii) This is the equation of the resultant
wave. It has the same frequency as that of the interfering waves. The resultant amplitude A is
given by squaring and adding equations (i) and (ii) as:
A12 + A22cos2ϕ + 2A1A2cosϕ + A22sin2ϕ = A2(cos2θ + sin2θ) = A2
∴ A = A21 + A22 + 2A1 A2 cosϕ --------- (iv)
Special cases:
1. When the interfering waves are in phase i.e. ϕ = 0 then the resultant amplitude is found to be:
A = A1 + A2 ⇒ Resultant amplitude is maximum if ϕ = 0. Further if amplitude of the waves
are equal then A1 = A2 = A say then resultant amplitude is 2A.
2. When the interfering waves are out of phase i.e. ϕ = 1800 = π then the resultant amplitude is
found to be: A = |A1 – A2|. ⇒ Resultant amplitude is minimum when ϕ = π. Further if
amplitudes are same i.e. A1 = A2 = A say then resultant amplitude is zero.
* Hence the maximum amplitude is 2A (i.e. addition of individual amplitudes) and minimum
amplitude is Zero (i.e. difference of individual amplitudes).
* The intensity of wave is proportional to the square of amplitude hence,
When ϕ = 0 then, Imax ∝ (Amax)2 = (A1 + A2)2 ----- (v) and
when ϕ = π then, Imin ∝ (Amin)2 = (A1 – A2)2 ------ (vi)
Stationary Waves:
When two identical progressive waves travelling in opposite directions superimpose,
they produce a wave known as the stationary wave. If the superimposing waves are
longitudinal waves then wave produced is longitudinal stationary wave and if superimposing
waves are transverse waves then the wave produced is called transverse stationary wave.

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 Equation of Stationary Wave:
Consider the two simple harmonic progressive waves of a equal amplitudes (a) and
equal wavelengths (λ) propagating on a long uniform string in opposite directions then they
are represented as:
y1 = asin[2π(nt – x/λ)] ------- travelling in +ve direction ------- (i)
y2 = asin[2π(nt = x/λ)] ------- travelling in –ve direction ------- (ii)
When these waves interfere, the resultant displacement of particle of string is given by:
y = y1 + y2
= a sin 2π (nt – x/λ) + a sin 2π(nt + x/λ)
A +B A −B
Using, sinA + sinB = 2 sin 2 cos 2 we get,
x x x x
nt − + nt + nt + – nt +
λ λ λ λ
y = 2a sin 2π × cos2π
2 2
∴ y = 2a sin (2πnt). Cos (2πx/λ)
i.e. y = A sin (2πnt) ------ (i) Where A = 2acos(2πx/λ) ------ (ii), which is the
amplitude of the resultant motion.
Equation (i) represent the resultant displacement of the particle. In this equation as the
progressive factor, (± x/λ) is absent the resultant wave is not the progressive but it is a
standing wave or stationary wave. The resultant amplitude is given by equation (ii) which
clearly represents that at some values of x the resultant amplitude is maximum known as
antinodes and for some values of x it will be minimum (zero) known as nodes.
Positions of antinodes:
At antinodes the amplitude is maximum i.e. for antinodes, A = ± 2a,
This is possible if, cos (2πx/λ) = ± 1
i.e. if 2πx/λ = 0, 2π, 3π, 4π, ……
i.e. if x = 0, λ/2, λ, 3λ/2, 2λ, …….
These are the points at which antinodes are formed. From these positions it is clear that the
distance between any two successive antinodes is λ/2.
Positions of nodes:
At nodes the amplitude is minimum i.e. for nodes, A = 0, which is possible if,
cos (2πx/λ) = 0
i.e. if 2πx/λ = π/2, 3π/2, 5π/2, ……
i.e. if x = λ/4, 3λ/4, 5λ/4, …….
These are the points at which nodes are formed. From these positions it is clear that the
distance between any two successive nodes is λ/2.
Thus in the stationary waves antinodes and nodes are equally spaced.
Characteristics of stationary waves:
1. Stationary waves are produced by the interference of two identical progressive waves
travelling in opposite direction.
2. In the stationary waves energy cannot be transported.
3. In the stationary waves nodes and antinodes are alternately situated.
4. In the stationary waves phase of the particle does not change from Particle to particle but all
the particles in between two successive nodes are in the same phase and the particles from the
opposite side of the nodes are in opposite phase.
5. Due to stationary wave medium is divided in to the nodes and antinodes.
6. In the stationary waves the amplitude of vibration of particles are different.
7. Stationary waves are periodic in time and periodic in space.
8. The pressure changes at antinodes are zero so displacement antinodes are known as pressure
node.
9. The pressure changes at nodes are maximum so displacement nodes are known as pressure
antinodes.

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 Comparison of Progressive Waves and Stationary Waves:

Progressive Waves Stationary Waves

1. They are produced when a disturbance is 1. They are produced due to interference
created in the medium. between two identical progressive waves
travelling in opposite directions.
2. They continuously travel away from the 2. They do not travel in either direction.
source.
3. Energy is transferred from one particle 3. There is no transfer of energy.
to the other particle.
4. Every particle of the medium is set into 4. There are some particles (at nodes)
vibration by these waves. which do not vibrate at all.
5. The phase changes continuously from 5. The phase does not change from particle
particle to particle. to particle, but changes from loop to
loop.
6. The phase difference continuously 6. The phase difference increases in steps of
increases along the direction of π, 2π, 3π, …
propagation.
7. All particles pass through their mean 7. All particles pass through their mean
position in succession but with same position simultaneously but with
particle velocity. different velocities.
Free and Forced Vibrations:
Free and forced vibrations:
Free vibrations: “When a body capable of vibration is displaced from its mean position and
released, it started to perform vibrations which are called free vibrations. The frequency of
such vibrations is called natural frequency of the body. This depends upon dimensions, mass,
elasticity & the mode of vibrations of body.”
Examples:
1) If a stretched string is plucked at some point it performs free vibrations with its natural
frequency.
2) When the bob of simple pendulum is displaced from its mean position and released it
performs the free vibrations with its natural frequency and amplitude of vibration decreases
due to air or frictional resistance and finally it comes to rest.
3) When a prong of a tuning fork is struck on a rubber pad, the prongs vibrates with a single
frequency and amplitude of vibration decreases due to frictional resistance of air and finally it
comes to rest. Here vibrations of the tuning fork are free vibrations.
4) Oscillations of a spring, current oscillates in an AC (LCR) circuit when capacitor discharges.
* When body performs free vibrations, it continuously loses energy due to frictional resistance
of the surrounding medium. Hence the amplitude of vibrations goes on decreasing and finally
the body comes to rest; such vibrations are damped vibrations. If there is no resisting force
acting on the vibrating body, vibrations are truly free and the amplitude will be constant. e.g.
oscillations of simple pendulum in vacuum.
* The natural frequency of the vibrations depends on the dimensions, mass, elastic properties
and mode of vibration of the vibrating body.
Forced vibrations: “When a body capable of vibrations is made to vibrate by applying the
external periodic force constantly then the vibrations of the body are the forced vibrations.”
The frequency of the forced vibrations is the frequency of the external periodic force
which is different than the natural frequency of that body.
Examples:
1) A person swinging in a swing without any one push it is an example of free vibrations. However
while swinging in a swing if you apply a push periodically by pressing your feet against the
ground or changing your position i.e. by changing moment of inertia, you find amplitude of
oscillation increases. This is an example of driven or forced vibrations.
2) The vibrations of a pendulum in a clock.

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3) A vibrating fork produces forced vibrations in an air column in a pipe.
* The amplitude of forced vibrations is inversely proportional to the difference in frequency of
external periodic force and natural frequency of the body.

Free Vibrations Forced Vibrations

1. Free vibrations are produced when a 1. Forced vibrations are produced by an
body is disturbed from its equilibrium external periodic force of any frequency.
position and released.
2. Initially to start free vibrations only 2. Continuous external periodic force is
force is required. required.
3. The frequency of free vibrations depends 3. The frequency of forced vibrations is
upon the body and is called natural equal to that of external periodic force.
frequency.
4. Energy of the body remains constant in 4. Energy of the body is maintained
the absence of friction, air resistance etc. constant by the external periodic force.
Due to damping forces total energy
decreases.
5. Amplitude of vibrations decreases with 5. Amplitude is small but remains constant
time. as long as external periodic force acts on
it.
6. Vibrations stops sooner or later 6. Vibrations stop as soon as external force
depending upon the damping force. is topped.

Harmonics And Overtones:

Harmonics: The integral multiple of fundamental frequency is called harmonics.
Fundamental frequency is the first harmonics. All harmonics may or may not be present. For
tube open at one end, the harmonic present are n, 3n, 5n….All harmonics are not overtones.
Second harmonic is twice the fundamental frequency.
Overtones: The vibration of higher frequencies which are actually present in addition to the
fundamental frequency is called overtones. Fundamental frequency is not the first overtone.
Overtones are actually present. For tube open at one end, the overtones present are 3n, 5n,
7n… All overtones are harmonics. Second overtone may be twice or thrice fundamental
frequency.
Harmonics Overtones
1. All harmonics are overtones. 1. All overtones may or may not harmonics.
2. First harmonic is fundamental 2. First overtone is the next higher
frequency. harmonics
3. Harmonics are integral multiples of 3. Overtones are not necessarily integral
fundamental frequency. multiples of the fundamental frequency.
4. Second harmonic is twice the 4. Second overtones may be twice or thrice
fundamental frequency. the fundamental frequency.
5. All harmonics may or may not present. 5. All overtones are always present.
Study of vibrations of air columns:
Longitudinal stationary waves can be produced in air columns in a pipe of finite length. We
shall study the production of longitudinal stationary waves in two types of air columns:
1) An air column in a pipe closed at one end. And
2) An air column in a pipe open at both ends.
1) Air columns in a pipe closed at one end:
When a longitudinal stationary waves are produced in a pipe closed at one end, they are
produced under the condition that, “at closed end there must be node and at the open end
there must be an antinodes.” This condition can be satisfied in different ways which are called
as modes of vibrations of the air column closed at one end. First three possible modes of
vibrations are as shown in fig.

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 In the first possible mode of vibration known as fundamental mode, the stationary waves are
produced as shown in fig. (a). If ℓ is the length of the air column, n is the frequency of wave
produced and λ is the wavelength of the wave produced then ,From fig. we can write:
Length of the air column = distance betn node & antinodes i.e. ℓ = λ/4 ∴ λ = 4 ℓ
∴ The frequency of vibration of air
A A A column in this mode of vibration is:
n = V/λ ∴ n = V/4ℓ ----- (i) This
N is the frequency of the fundamental
N mode of vibration and is known as
A
ℓ = λ/4 ℓ =3 λ1/4 ℓ =5 λ2/4 fundamental frequency or first
N harmonic.
A In the second possible mode of
A vibration known as first overtone the
stationary waves are produced as
shown in figure (b). If the frequency
N N N
and wavelength in this mode of
(a) (b) (C)
vibration is n1 and λ1 then from the
Fundamental First Second
figure (b) we write,-
Mode Overtone Overtone
Length of air column = 3 x distance
n
bet node & antinodes. ∴ ℓ = 3 x λ1/4 ∴ λ1 = 4 ℓ / 3
Therefore the frequency of vibration of the air column in this mode of vibration is: n1 = V/λ1
V
∴ n1 = 3 x 4ℓ = 3n ----- (ii) This is the frequency of the first overtone and is known as third
harmonic.
In the third possible mode of vibration known as second overtone the stationary waves
are produced as shown in figure (c). If the frequency and wavelength in this mode of vibration
is n2 and λ2 then from the figure (c) we write: Length of air column = 5 x distance betn node &
antinodes. ∴ ℓ = 5 x λ2/4 ∴ λ2 = 4 ℓ / 5
Therefore the frequency of vibration of the air column in this mode of vibration is: n2 = V/λ2
V
∴ n2 = 5 x 4ℓ = 5n ----- (iii) This is the frequency of the second overtone and is known as
fifth harmonic. In this way the different possible frequencies of this air column are n, 3n, 5n,
……. These are the fundamental frequency and its odd integral multiples only. Hence, “In
case of air column closed at one end only odd harmonics are presents.”
2) An air column in a pipe opens at both ends:
When a longitudinal stationary waves are produced in a pipe open at both ends, they are
produced under the condition that, “at both ends there must be antinodes.” This condition can
be satisfied in different ways which are known as modes of vibrations of air column open at
both ends. First three possible modes of vibrations are as shown in fig.
In the first possible mode of
A A A vibration known as fundamental
N mode, the stationary waves are
N produced as shown in fig. (a).
A
If ℓ is the length of
N ℓ = λ/2 A ℓ = λ1 N ℓ = 3λ2/2 the air column, n is the frequency
A of wave produced and λ is the
N N wavelength of the wave produced
then ,From figure we can write,-
A A A
(c) Length of the air column =
(a) (b)
Fundamental Second distance betn node & antinodes
First
mode Overtone Overtone i.e. ℓ = λ/2 ∴ λ = 2 ℓ
Therefore the frequency of

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 vibration of the air column in this mode of vibration is: n = V/λ ∴ n = V/2ℓ ----- (i) This
is the frequency of the fundamental mode of vibration and is known as fundamental
frequency or first harmonic.
In the second possible mode of vibration known as first overtone the stationary waves
are produced as shown in figure (b). If the frequency and wavelength in this mode of
vibration is n1 and λ1 then from the figure (b) we write,-
Length of air column = 2 x distance betn the two successive antinodes
∴ ℓ = 2 x λ1/2 ∴ λ1 = ℓ
Therefore the frequency of vibration of the air column in this mode of vibration is: n1 = V/λ1
V
∴ n1 = 2 x 2ℓ = 2n ----- (ii) This is the frequency of the first overtone and is known as
second harmonic.
In the third possible mode of vibration known as second overtone the stationary waves
are produced as shown in figure (c). If the frequency and wavelength in this mode of vibration
is n2 and λ2 then from the figure (c) we write,-
Length of air column = 3 x distance betn two successive antinodes
∴ ℓ = 3 x λ2/2 ∴ λ2 = 2ℓ / 3
Therefore the frequency of vibration of the air column in this mode of vibration is: n 2 = V/λ2
V
∴ n2 = 3 x 2ℓ = 3n ----- (iii) This is the frequency of the second overtone and is known as
third harmonic. In this way the different possible frequencies of this air column are n, 2n, 3n,
……. These are the fundamental frequency and its all integral multiples. Hence, “In case of
air column open at both ends all harmonics are presents.”
Remarks:
1) Fundamental frequency of the air column closed at one end is given by: nC = V/4L ----- (i)
Fundamental frequency of the air column open at both ends having the same length as that of
closed air column is given by: nO = V/2L --- (ii)
Dividing (i) by (ii) we get: NC/nO = (V/4L) x (2L)/V =L/2L = 1/2
∴ nO = 2 nC i. e. for the same length the fundamental frequency of the air column open at
both ends is twice the fundamental frequency of air column closed at one end.
2) It can be shown that, for same fundamental frequency, LO = 2LC
End Correction:
In the modes of vibrations of air column, the antinodes is not formed exactly at the open end
but a little distance beyond it. This distance between open end and antinodes is called end
correction. It is found that e = 0.3 d, where d is the inner diameter of tube.
* Hence corrected length of air column = length of air column + end correction
i.e. L = ℓ + 0.3 d
In the fundamental mode, pipe closed at one end, v = nλ = 4 nL = 4n (ℓ + 0.3 d)
Hence knowing n, ℓ and d velocity of sound in air at room temperature can be determined.
* End correction arises because air particle in the plane of the open end of tube are not free to
move in all directions. Hence reflection takes place at the plane, at small distance outside the
tube.
* For pipe closed at one end:
v = 4 n1 L1 = 4 n2L2 ⇒ n1 L1 = n2 L2 ⇒ n1 (ℓ1 + e) = n2 (ℓ2 + e)
n 1 ℓ1 − n 2 ℓ2 n 2 ℓ2 − n 1 ℓ1
∴e= or e =
n2 − n1 n1 − n2
* For pipe open at both end:
v = 2 n1 L1 = 2 n2L2 ⇒ n1 L1 = n2 L2 ⇒ n1 (ℓ1 + 2e) = n2 (ℓ2 + 2e)
n ℓ − n ℓ n ℓ − n ℓ
∴ e = 21 n1 − n2 2 or e = 22 n2 − n1 1
2 1 1 2
Limitations of end correction:
(a) Inner diameter of tube must be uniform throughout its length.
(b) Effect of flow of air outside tube is to be neglected.
(c) Effect of temperature of air outside is to be neglected.

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(d) Tip of the prong of vibrating tuning fork must be held horizontally i.e. perpendicular to
resonance tube at the centre and at a small distance above open end of the tube.
* Vibrations on a stretched string:
If a stretched string, fixed at both ends is plucked at some point, in a direction
perpendicular to its length transverse waves are produced along the string. These waves travel
towards both the fixed end with the velocity of (T/m) where T is the tension in the string
and m is the linear density i.e. mass per unit length of the string. These waves get reflected
from the ends, superimpose and the stationary waves are produced on the string with nodes at
both the fixed ends. This can be done in different ways which are known as different modes
of vibrations of stretched strings explained as follows.
Different modes of vibrations on a stretched string: We know that the stretched
string can vibrate in different ways with different frequencies subjected to the boundary
condition that at both the ends there must be nodes. These are known as modes of vibrations
of the strings and the frequencies are called natural frequencies of the string. First three
possible modes of vibrations are as shown in figures.
In the first possible mode of vibration
ℓ known as fundamental mode, the stationary waves
are produced as shown in fig. (a). If in this mode the
N A N frequency and wavelength of the wave produced is n
and λ respectively. Then from the figure: Length of
ℓ = λ/2 string is equal to the distance betn two successive
(a) nodes. i.e. ℓ = λ/2 ∴ λ = 2ℓ
∴ The frequency (n) of vibrations of the string is
N A A N given by: n =V/λ = V/2ℓ
ℓ = λ1 But, V = T m ∴ n =
1 T
(b) 2ℓ m

A This is the lowest frequency of the vibrating string

N A A N
&is known as fundamental frequency.
ℓ = 3λ2/2 In the second possible mode of vibration known
(c) as first overtone the stationary waves are produced
as shown in fig. (b). If the frequency and
wavelength in this mode of vibration are n1 and λ1 then from fig. (b) We get: ℓ = λ1
1 T 1 T
∴ Frequency, n1 = V/λ1 = V/ℓ = ℓ = 2 x2ℓ ∴ n1 = 2 n
m m
Therefore first overtone is also known as second harmonic.
In the third possible mode of vibration known as second overtone the stationary waves
are produced as shown in fig. (c). If the frequency and wavelength in this mode of vibration
are n2 and λ2 then from fig. (c) We get: ℓ = 3λ1/2 ∴ λ2 = 2ℓ/3
31 T 1 T
∴ Frequency, n2 = V/λ2 = 2 = 3 x2ℓ ∴ n2 = 3 n Therefore second overtone
ℓ m m
is also known as third harmonic. In this way the frequencies of vibrating string are: n, 2n, 3n,
4n… These are the natural frequencies of the vibrating string.
∴ In case of vibrating string all harmonics are present.
Laws of vibrating string: There are three laws of vibrating string as:
I) Law of length: “The fundamental frequency of vibrating string is inversely proportional to
its vibrating length, if the tension and mass per unit length of the string are kept constant.”
i. e. n ∝ 1/ℓ , if T and m are constant.
II) Law of tension: “The fundamental frequency of vibrating string is directly proportional to
the square root of tension, if the vibrating length and mass per unit length of the string are
constant.”
n1 T1
i. e. n ∝ T , if ℓ and m are constants. ∴ = , if ℓ and m are constants.
n2 T2

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 III) Law of linear density: “The fundamental frequency of vibrating string is inversely
proportional to the square root of mass per unit length, if the tension and vibrating length of
the string are constant.”
1 n1 m2
i. e. n ∝ , if T and ℓ are constants. ∴ = , if ℓ and T are constants.
m n2 m1
* The mass per unit length of the string can be expressed as, m = πr2ρ where ρ is the density of
material of wire. Therefore the fundamental frequency of vibrating string is given by:
1 T 1 T 1 T
n = 2ℓ = = ; where d is diameter of wire. From this equation we
πr 2 ρ 2 rℓ πρ dℓ πρ
get:
i) n ∝ 1/r if T, ℓ, and ρ are constant. i.e. “The fundamental frequency of vibrating string is
inversely proportional to the radius of the string, if the tension, vibrating length and density of
the string are constant.”
ii) n ∝ 1/ ρ if T, ℓ, and r are constant. i.e. “The fundamental frequency of vibrating string is
inversely proportional to the square root of density of material of the string”
Specific gravity or Relative density (σ):
It is the ratio of weight of body in air to loss of weight of body in water. OR It is the
ratio of density of substance to density of water.
mass of body Weight of body in air
Specific gravity, σ = mass of equal volume of water = weight of body ib air
– weight of body in water
T1 1 T1 − T2 T T σ n T1 σ
σ=T ⇒σ= = 1 - T2 ⇒ T1 = ⇒ n1 = =
1 − T2 T1 1 2 σ− 1 2 T2 σ− 1
Sonometer and its applications
Sonometer is a stringed device which works on the principle of resonance along with the
laws of transverse vibrations. A Sonometer consists of a
hollow rectangular wooden box provided with two or
three holes on one of its side surfaces as shown in figure.
A thin uniform metal wire is fixed to the hook at one top
end of the box, wire then first passes over two movable
bridges (P and Q) and then over a frictionless pulley fixed
to the other top end of the box. To the other end of the
wire there is a slotted weight hanger. By placing suitable
weights in hanger we can apply the desired tension in the
wire. By changing the distance between the bridges we can change the length of vibrating
wire. To detect the vibrations of the wire a light v-shaped paper rider is placed on wire
midway between the bridges.
Sonometer can be used:
(i) To find the unknown frequency of the tuning fork.
(ii) To verify the laws of a vibrating string.
Verification of laws of vibrating string:
1. Verification of the first law of a vibrating string:
According to this law, fundamental frequency is inversely proportional to the vibrating
length of the sting provided tension in the string and linear density of the string is kept
constant i.e. n ∝ ℓ -1 or nL = constant, if T and m are kept constant.
To verify this law, take a set of tuning forks of different frequencies say n1, n2, n3, ……
such that n1 > n2 > n3 > ……… Apply some suitable mass M in the hanger so that tension in
the string is T = Mg. Keep it constant throughout the experiment. Take the first fork i.e. of
frequency n1 and vibrate it, keep on the Sonometer top and simultaneously adjust the distance
between the two bridges such that the paper rider will vibrate with maximum amplitude.
When this happens the wire is said to vibrate in unison with the fork and this distance will be
the resonating length (ℓ1) for n1. In the same way find the resonating lengths for the remaining
forks by keeping the tension same and using the same string (m remains constant). Let these
lengths are ℓ2, ℓ3, …….. Then it is found that:

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 n1 ℓ1 = n2 ℓ2 = n3 ℓ3 = …….. ⇒ n ℓ = constant which verifies the first law or low of
length.
2. Verification of the second law of a vibrating string:
According to this law, fundamental frequency of vibrating string is directly proportional
to the square root of tension applied in the string provided the vibrating length and linear
density of the string are kept constant. i.e. n ∝ T if ℓ and m are constants.
To verify this law the vibrating of the string (ℓ) i.e. distance between the bridges is kept
constant. By changing the tension the same length is made to vibrate in unison with different
tuning forks of various frequencies. If tensions T1, T2, T3, …… corresponds to the frequencies
n1, n2, n3, ….. respectively. Then it is found that:
n1 n n n
= 2 = T3 = ………. or T = constant ⇒ n ∝ T for constant ℓ and M. This is second
T1 T2 3
law of vibrating string or law of tension.
3. Verification of third law of vibrating string:
According to this law, the fundamental frequency of vibrating string is inversely
proportional to the square root of its linear density provided that the tension in the string and
1
length of the vibrating string are kept constant. i.e. n ∝ m if T and ℓ are kept constant.
To verify this law, two wires having different linear densities m1 and m2 are used. The
first wire is subjected to suitable tension and made to vibrate in unison with given tuning fork.
The vibrating length is noted as ℓ1. using the same fork, the second wire is made to vibrate
under the same tension nad vibrating length ℓ2 is determined. Thus the frequency of vibration
of the two wires is kept same under same tension T. It is found that,
1
ℓ1 m1 = ℓ2 m2 ⇒ ℓ m = constant if T and n are constants. Again from the first law, n ∝ ℓ .
1
Therefore the combination of these two we get, n ∝ m if T and ℓ are constant. This
verifies the third law.
Beat phenomenon:
Definition: “The formation of alternate waxing and waning due to superposition of two sound
waves of equal amplitudes but slightly different frequencies is called beat phenomenon”.
One waxing along with one waning is called a beat. The number of such beats formed in
one second is called a beat frequency.
Conditions to obtain beats:
1. The two sound waves must have the same amplitude.
2. The two sound waves must have slightly different frequencies.
3. The two sound waves are travelling through same medium.

Derivation of beat frequency (N):

Consider two sound waves of equal amplitudes (a) but slightly different frequencies, n1
and n2 such that n1 > n2. Their displacements are given by:
y1 = a sin 2πn1t and y2 = a sin 2πn2t
∴ The resultant displacement at that point is:
y = y1 + y2 = a sin 2πn1t + a sin 2πn2t
= a [sin 2πn1t + sin 2πn2t]
Using the trigonometric relation:
C +D C −D
Sin C + Sin D = 2 Sin 2 .Cos 2
The above relation can be expressed as:
n +n n −n
y = 2a sin2π 1 2 2 t. cos2π 1 2 2 t
n −n n +n
y = 2a cos2π 1 2 2 t. sin2π 1 2 2 t
∴ y = A Sin 2πnt ------- (1)
n −n
Where, R = 2a cos2π 1 2 2 t and n = (n1 + n2) / 2
Equation (1) gives the resultant motion which
cleanly represent that the resultant motion is the linear

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 SHM having resultant amplitude „A‟ which varies with time. At some times it will be
maximum giving waxing and at some times it will be minimum giving waning. Thus there is
formation of beats with frequency, N.
For the waxing i.e. having maximum amplitude,
n −n
R = ± 2a which is possible when: cos2π 1 2 2 t = ± 1
n −n
i.e. if 2π 1 2 2 t = 0, π, 2π, 3π …
i.e. if t0 = 0, t1 =1/n1-n2, t2 =2/n1-n2, t3 = 3/n1-n2, …….
∴The time interval between the two successive waxing will be the beat period and is given by:
T = t3-t2 = t2-t1 = t1-t0 = 1/n1-n2.
Therefore the beat frequency will be: N = 1/T = n1 – n2.
* From above discussion the maximum intensity will be Imax∝ 4a2 and Imin = 0.
If amplitudes a1 and a2 are not equal then Imax∝ (a1 + a2)2 and Imin∝ (a1 – a2)2
Applications of beats: Phenomenon of beats is used:
1. To determine the unknown frequency:
The sound note of unknown frequency is sounded simultaneously with a note of known
frequency which can be changed. The known frequency is so adjusted that beats are heard.
The further adjustment is made till beats reduce to zero i.e. the frequency of the two notes
becomes equal.
2. To tune the musical instruments such as Sitar:
To tune a new musical instrument to particular frequency, it is sounded together with
the instrument of that frequency and the frequency of new instrument is so adjusted that the
number of beats reduces to zero. It represents that the new instrument is tuned to that
particular frequency.
3. To detect the presence of poisonous gas in mine:
A pure air from the reservoir is blown through a pipe. Air from mines is blown through
another similar pipe. If no dangerous gases are present in air from mine, the two pipes will
vibrates with same frequencies and no beats are produced. So either beats are produced or not
will decide the purity of air from the mine.
4. To produce sound note of very low frequency:
The phenomenon of beats can be used to produce low frequency notes used in Jazz
orchestra or western music. It is formed by using the sound waves having very low frequency
difference.
Characteristics of Sound:
Musical sound and noise:
All the sounds are roughly classified as: (1) Musical sound and (2) Noise.
1. Musical sound: “The sound which produces a series of similar pulses following each other
regularly and periodically, without any sudden change in their amplitudes (intensities) is called
as musical sound.
Ex. Music on flute, music played on sitar, etc.
2. Noise: “The sound which produces in complex nature having irregular periods and amplitudes
are called noise.”
Characteristics of musical sounds:
The distinguishing characteristics of musical sound are:
1. Loudness: Loudness can be roughly defined as magnitude of hearing sensation produced
on the ear. Loudness depends on intensity of sound. Intensity means the energy of wave
transferring per unit time through unit area at right angles. Its unit is phon and its SI unit is
known as bel. Its magnitude is given by: L = K log (I) where L is loudness, I is intensity and K
is constant.
Ex. We hit the bell hardly then sound produced is of larger loudness.
* Scientifically, sound is specified not by its intensity but by the sound level β ([expressed in
decibels (dB)] defined as: β = 10 log10(I/I0) where I0 is a minimum reference intensity
(10-12W/m2) that a normal human ear can bear. 1 decibel = 0.1 bel

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 2. Pitch: It is the characteristics of musical sound which distinguishes between shrill (kk-Sa)
and grave (ivacaarSaIla ‚ gaMBaIr) sound from flat.
It depends upon frequency of sound. Greater the frequency of musical sound note, higher is
the pitch and vice versa. Note of higher pitch is shrill and that of low pitch is grave.
Ex. Mosquito sound, sounds of children, male are of higher pitch i.e. shrill sounds.
Roaring of lion, sound of women are of lower pitch and are grave.
3. Quality of sound or timber: It is the measure of complexity of sound and which enables
to distinguish sounds having same pitch and loudness. Quality of sound depends on the
number of harmonics present in a note. If the number of harmonics is large then higher is the
quality of musical sound.
Ex. A note of open pipe is sweeter than that of closed pipe because open pipe produces all the
harmonics.
Musical scale: A sequence of frequencies which have a specific relationship with each other is
called a musical scale. The musical scale consists of a series of eight sound notes which, when
sounded in succession, produce the most pleasing effect. The basic note is called keynote of
the scale. Musical scale is represented in the form of musical intervals. Musical interval
between the two notes is defined as the ratio of frequency of the higher note to the frequency
of lower note. Musical interval depends upon the ratio of frequencies & not their difference.
Ex. Unison (1 : 1); Octave (2 : 1).
Consonance and dissonance: When two or more than two notes are sounded together or one
by one then the resultant note is called chord. If this chord is pleasant then it is called
consonance while if this chord is unpleasant then the chord is called dissonance.

Musical Instruments: Musical Instruments: Musical instruments can be classified as

follows.
Musical Instruments

Percussion Instruments Solid Instruments

Stringed Instruments Wind Instruments
𝐃𝐫𝐮𝐦𝐬, 𝐓𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐚,
𝐌𝐫𝐢𝐝𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐚𝐦
1. Plucked string type 𝟏. 𝐅𝐫𝐞𝐞𝐰𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐲𝐩𝐞
𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐫𝐚, 𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐫, 𝐠𝐮𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐫, 𝐯𝐞𝐞𝐧]𝐚 𝐦𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐫𝐠𝐚𝐧, 𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐦𝐨𝐧𝐢𝐮𝐦
2. Bowed string type 𝟐. 𝐄𝐝𝐠𝐞 𝐭𝐲𝐩𝐞
(violin, sarangi) 𝐅𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞
𝟑. 𝐑𝐞𝐞𝐝𝐩𝐢𝐩𝐞
3. Struck string type 𝐬𝐚𝐱𝐨𝐩𝐡𝐨𝐧𝐞, 𝐜𝐥𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐭,
(santoor, piano)
𝐛𝐚𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐨𝐧, 𝐛𝐮𝐠𝐥𝐞

* Principle and working of flute:

Principle: Flutes are based on the principles of vibration of air column in a pipe.
Construction: It consists of tube closed at one end C and open at the other end E and a hole,
M near the closed end. There are seven more holes from 1 to 7, along the length between M
and the open end E. Holes can be closed by three fingers of one hand and four fingers of the
other hand.
Working: When holes are closed and air is blown by the mouth across the hole M the flute
works like open end flute pipe of length ME and the corresponding tone is produced. On
opening the holes 1 to 7 in turn, tones of
different frequencies are produced; the 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 M C
opened hole is limiting the effective length E
of the pipe to its distance from M. On over
blowing the flute, octave of the tone emitted in the first case by opening any of the holes may
also be obtained. The flute produces almost pure tones when played softly.
* Principle and working of harmonium:

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 Principle: It is a wind instrument with keyboard type system. Air is set into vibrations by
means of thin oblong metal reeds each one of which is turned to its approaching pitch. A reed
is fastened at one end to a block in which there is holes behind the reed of the same shape but
bigger in size as that the reed can vibrate freely.
Construction: The key board of harmonium consists of series of notes on the equally
tempered scale. There are 13
notes in an octave, each a
semitone apart. The major
notes of the diatonic scale sa, ´ ´ ´ ´ ´ ´ ´ ´´ ´´ ´´ ´´ ´´ ´´ ´´ ´´´ ´´´
re, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa are C D E F G A BC D E F G A B C D E F G A B C D E´´´
indicated by the white keys and
the five additional notes, in each octave re flat, ga flat, etc, by black keys. In all there are
generally three and a half octaves with about 41 reeds each one of which is controlled by a
key.
Working: When the wind is forced from the bellows through the aperture underneath, reed
and a key is pressed down thus opening the passage for the air. The blast of air sets the reed
into vibrations and produces, a fairly loud sound.

* * * * *
Exercises
1. Choose the correct option.
i) When an air column in a pipe closed at one end vibrates such that three nodes are formed in
it, the frequency of its vibrations is ……… times the fundamental frequency.
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 5
Ans: (D) 5.
From given information air column is vibrating in second overtone, so it is the 5th harmonic
i.e. frequency is 5 times the fundamental.
ii) If two open organ pipes of lengths 50cm and 51cm sounded together produce 7 beats per
second, the speed of sound is
(A) 307m/s (B) 327m/s (C) 350m/s (D) 357m/s
Ans: (D) 357 m/s
n1 – n2 = 7 ⇒ V/2L1 – V/2L2 = 7
⇒ V = 7 x 2 [L1L2 /(L2 – L1)] = 14 x 0.5 x 0.51 / 0.01 = 357 m/s
iii) The tension in a piano wire is increased by 25%. Its frequency becomes ……. times the
original frequency.
(A) 0.8 (B) 1.12 (C) 1.25 (D) 1.56
Ans: (B) 1.12
n ∝ T ⇒ n2 = n1 [T2/T1]1/2 = n1 x (1.25)1/2 = 1.118 n1 = 1.12 n1
iv) Which of the following equations represents a wave travelling along the y-axis?
(A) x = Asin(ky – ωt) (B) y = Asin(kx – ωt)
(C) y = Asin(ky)cos(ωt) (D) y = Acos(ky)sin(ωt)
Ans: (A)
v) A standing wave is produced on a string fixed at one end with the other end free. The length
of the string
(A) must be an odd integral multiple of λ/4 (B) must be an odd integral multiple of λ/2
(C) must be an odd integral multiple of λ (D) must be an even integral multiple of λ
Ans: (A)
Consider the diagrams showing the different modes of vibrations with one end fixed and other
forming antinode. It is likely to be air column closed at one end. Hence the requirement.
2. Answer in brief.
t x
v) The equation of the wave is represented by y = 0.2 sin4π 0.08 − 0.8 in SI units. Find (a)
wavelength, (b) frequency and (c) amplitude of the wave.
n t x
Sol : Given equation can be written as: y = 0.2 sin2π 0.04 − 0.4

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 t x
Comparing this equation with standard equation, y = A sin2π T − λ we get,
(a) Wavelength, λ = 0.4 m.
(b) Frequency, n = 1/T = 1/0.04 = 100/4 = 25 Hz
(c) Amplitude, A = 0.2 m.
10. A wave of frequency 500 Hz is travelling with a speed of 350 m/s. (a) What is the phase
difference between two displacements at a certain point at times 1.0 ms apart? (b) What will
be the smallest distance between two points which are 450 out of phase at an instant of time?
Soln: We know there is a phase difference of 2π over the time equal to time period T. hence phase
difference corresponding to time t is: δ = 2πt / T = 2πnt = 2π x 500 x 10-3 = π rad.
Also, Phase difference, δ = 2πx / λ [∵ δ corresponding to distance λ is 2π]
⇒ x = δλ / 2π = δV/2πn = (π/4) x 350 / 2π x 500 = 8.75 x 10-2 m = 8.75 cm
11. A sound wave in a certain fluid medium is reflected at an obstacle to form a standing wave.
The distance between two successive nodes is 3.75cm. If the velocity of sound is 1500m/s,
find the frequency?
Soln: Distance between two successive nodes = λ/2 = 3.75 cm ⇒ λ = 7.5 cm
V = nλ ⇒ n = ν/λ = 1500 / 7.5 x 10-2 = 2 x 104 Hz = 20 kHz
12. Two sources of sound separated by a distance 4m. They both emit sound with the same
amplitude and frequency 330Hz, but they are 1800 out of phase. At what points between the
two sources, will the sound intensity be maximum? (Speed of sound = 330 m/s)
n
Sol : V = nλ ⇒ λ = V/n = 330/330 = 1m. ∴ loop length = 0.5m. Hence as the sources are separated
by 4m there produce 8 loops with at both sources as nodes as shown in figure. Intensity will
be maximum at antinodes which are shown by A in figure.

Centre
S1 S2
A A A A
λ/4 = 0.25 3λ/4 = 0.75 5λ/4 = 1.25 7λ/4 = 1.75

13. Two sound waves travel at a speed of 330m/s. If their frequencies are also identical and are
equal to 540Hz. What will be the phase difference between the waves at a point 3.5m from
one source and 3m from the other if the sources are in phase?
Soln: Wavelength, λ = V/n = 330/540 = 11/18 m.
Distances of the point from the sources are 3.5 m and 3m. Hence path difference at that point
is ∆x = 0.5m. ∴ Phase difference, δ = 2π ∆x / λ = 2π x 0.5 x 18 / 11 = 1.64π
14. Two wires of the same material and same cross-section are stretched on a Sonometer. One
wire is loaded with 1.5kg and another is loaded with 6kg. Tλ/4he vibrating length of first wire
is 60cm and its fundamental frequency of vibration is the same as that of the second wire.
Calculate vibrating length of the other wire.
Soln: Fundamental frequencies are same ⇒ n1 = n2
1 T1 1 T2 T2 6
∴ 2ℓ = 2ℓ But m1 = m2 ∴ ℓ2 = ℓ1 = 0.6 x = 1.2 m
1 m1 2 m2 T1 1.5
15. A pipe closed at one end can produce overtone at frequencies 640Hz, 896Hz and 1152Hz.
Calculate the fundamental frequency.
Soln: In case of pipe closed at one end the harmonics are, n, 3n, 5n, 7n, ……….. ⇒ The difference
between any two successive frequencies is double the fundamental frequency.
∴ 2n = (1152 – 896) = (896 – 640) = 256 ⇒ n = 128Hz
16. A standing wave is produced in a tube open at both ends. The fundamental frequency is 300
Hz. What is the length of tube? (Speed of the sound = 340m/s)
n
Sol : For open pipe fundamental frequency, n = V/2L ⇒ L = V/2n = 340/600 = 0.5666m = 0.57m
17. Find the fundamental, first overtone and second overtone frequencies of a pipe, open at both
the ends, of length 25cm if the speed of sound in air is 330 m/s.
n
Sol : Fundamental frequency, n = V/2λ = 330/2 x 0.25 = 660 Hz
First overtone, n1 = 2n = 2 x 660 = 1320 Hz
Second overtone, n2 = 3n = 3 x 660 = 1980 Hz

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18. A pipe open at both the ends has a fundamental frequency of 600 Hz. The first overtone of a
pipe closed at one end has the same frequency as the first overtone of the open pipe. How
long are the two pipes? (Speed of sound = 330m/s)
Soln: For pipe open at both end, fundamental frequency, no = V/2L0
⇒ L0 = V/2n0 = 0.275m = 27.5cm
For the pipe closed at one end, first overtone, n1 = 3 x (V/4Lc) = 1st overtone of open pipe is
given. ⇒ 3V/4Lc = 1200 ⇒ Lc = 3 x 330 / 4 x 1200 = 0.20625 m = 20.625 cm
19. A string 1m long is fixed at one end. The other end is moved up and down with frequency
15Hz. Due to this, a stationary wave with four complete loops, gets produced on the string.
Find the speed of the progressive wave which produces the stationary wave. [Hint: Remember
that the moving end is an antinode]
Soln: As shown in figure,
2.25λ = 1 Rigid
∴ λ = 1 / 2.25 support A A A A
Now, V = nλ = 15 / 2.25
1m = 2.25λ
∴ V = 6.6 m/s
20. A violin string vibrates with fundamental frequency of 440 Hz. What are the frequencies of
first and second overtones?
Ans: First overtone, n1 = 2n = 2 x 440 = 880 Hz
Second overtone, n2 = 3n = 3 x 440 = 1320 Hz
21. A set of 8 tuning forks is arranged in a series of increasing order of frequencies. Each fork
gives 4 beats per second with the next one and the frequency of last fork is twice that of the
first. Calculate the frequencies of the first and the last fork.
Sol : For the series of fork, the frequency of kth fork is given by:
n

nk = n1 ± (k – 1) N where N is beat frequency between successive forks. + sign is for

ascending series and – ve sign is used for descending series.
∴ n8 = n1 + (8 – 1) 4 ⇒ 2n1 = n1 + 28 ⇒ n1 = 28 Hz
∴ n8 = 2n1 = 56Hz
22. A Sonometer wire is stretched by tension of 40N. It vibrates in unison with a tuning fork of
frequency 384Hz. How much number of beats get produced in two seconds if the tension in
the wire is decreased by 1.24N?
n n1 n2 T2 38.76
Soln: = constant ⇒ = ⇒ n2 = n1 = 384 x = 378 Hz
T T1 T2 T1 40
∴ Number of beats per second = Beat frequency = n1 – n2 = 384 – 378 = 6
∴ Number of beats in two seconds = 6 x 2 = 12
23. A Sonometer wire of length 0.5m is stretched by a weight of 5kg. The fundamental frequency
of vibration is 100 Hz. Calculate linear density of wire.
1 T
Soln: n = ⇒ m = T / 4ℓ2n2 = 5 x 9.8 / 4 x 0.25 x 104 = 4.9 x 10-3 kg/m
2ℓ m
24. The string of a guitar is 80cm long and has a fundamental frequency of 112Hz. If a guitarist
wishes to produce a frequency of 160 Hz, where should be person press the string?
Soln: n1ℓ1 = n2ℓ2 ⇒ ℓ2 = n1ℓ1 / n2 = 112 x 80 / 160 = 56 cm

* * * * * *

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