Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering

Fall 2023

CIVE 495/700
Structural Design in Timber

Instructor: Tyler Hull

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 1

Contents
Building Codes ................................................................................................................................................3
Limit States Design .........................................................................................................................................4
Ultimate Limit States ...................................................................................................................................4
Serviceability Limit States ...........................................................................................................................5
Importance Factors .....................................................................................................................................5
Loads on Structures ........................................................................................................................................6
Permanent Loads .......................................................................................................................................6
Transient Loads ..........................................................................................................................................7
Load Path and Tributary Area ...................................................................................................................10
Forestry in Canada........................................................................................................................................13
Wood as a Building Material..........................................................................................................................15
Environmental Benefits and Life-Cycle Analysis (LCA).............................................................................15
Macro and Micro Structure of Wood .........................................................................................................16
Moisture Content and Mass-Water-Volume Relationships........................................................................19
Mechanical Properties of Wood ................................................................................................................24
Wood Products and Design Values ...............................................................................................................26
Sawn Lumber............................................................................................................................................26
Panel Products .........................................................................................................................................27
Engineered Wood Products ......................................................................................................................28
Proprietary Products .................................................................................................................................30
Visually Graded Lumber Design Parameters ............................................................................................31
Glulam Design Parameters .........................................................................................................................1
Modification Factors ....................................................................................................................................3
Tension Members ...........................................................................................................................................5
Tensile resistance of wood, parallel to grain: ..............................................................................................5
Compression Members ...................................................................................................................................8
Compressive resistance of wood, parallel-to-grain: ....................................................................................8
Designing a compression member............................................................................................................10
Round Poles .............................................................................................................................................10
Stud Walls.................................................................................................................................................10
Compressive resistance of wood, perpendicular-to-grain: ........................................................................11
Built-up Compression Members ................................................................................................................12
Spaced Compression Members ................................................................................................................12
Bending Members .........................................................................................................................................21
Solid lumber beams, joists and planks ......................................................................................................21

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Bending Members .........................................................................................................................................29

Straight, Prismatic Glulam Beams ............................................................................................................29
Tapered, Straight Glulam Beams ..............................................................................................................39
Curved Prismatic Glulam Beam ................................................................................................................41
Pitched Tapered Glulam Beam .................................................................................................................44
Members in bending with combined axial load ..............................................................................................50
Connections ..................................................................................................................................................52
Nails and Spikes .......................................................................................................................................52
Wood Screws............................................................................................................................................59
Bolts, Dowels and Lag Screws .................................................................................................................59
Lag Screws ...............................................................................................................................................62
Split Rings and Shear Plates ....................................................................................................................62
Timber Rivets (Glulam Rivets) ..................................................................................................................64
Proprietary Connectors .............................................................................................................................65
Panel Product Applications ...........................................................................................................................66
Structural Panels ......................................................................................................................................67
Shearwalls, Floor and Roof Diaphragms .......................................................................................................70
Design of Plywood Diaphragms ................................................................................................................71
Design of Shearwalls ................................................................................................................................72
Diaphragms and Shearwalls: Blocked versus Unblocked .........................................................................74
Diaphragm/Shearwall Design Example.....................................................................................................76
Timber and the Building Code .......................................................................................................................90
Light Wood Framing..................................................................................................................................91
Heavy Timber Construction ......................................................................................................................98
Heavy and Mass Timber Structures ........................................................................................................100
CLT Design Parameters .........................................................................................................................103
Flexural Design of CLT ...........................................................................................................................103
Protection ....................................................................................................................................................115
Protection ....................................................................................................................................................115
Wood and Fire ........................................................................................................................................115
Wood and the Building Code ..................................................................................................................115
Durability and Biological Attack ...............................................................................................................122
Renovation and Adaptive Reuse of Timber Buildings .................................................................................125
References: .................................................................................................................................................126

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Engineering Design
“Engineering is the art of modelling materials we do not wholly understand, into shapes we cannot precisely
analyse, so as to withstand forces we cannot properly assess, in such a way that the public has no reason to
suspect the extent of our ignorance.”
Dr. A. R. Dykes to the British Institution of Structural Engineers, 1976.

Building Codes
In Canada, the Provinces hold jurisdiction over the regulation of building construction. A national model
code—the National Building Code of Canada (NBCC)—along with related commentaries is published by the
National Research Council. This document holds no legal standing unless endorsed provincially. Some
provinces endorse the NBCC directly (such as Nova Scotia and PEI), while other provinces issue a modified
version of the national model code as the legally binding document for building design (such as Ontario and
BC).
In Ontario, the Ontario Building Code (OBC) is issued by the Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Housing. The
OBC is largely based on the NBCC, with additional parts and minor modifications. In 2020, the 2012 Ontario
Building Code O. Reg. 332/12) was amended by O. Reg. 88/19 to harmonize the OBC with the 2015 NBCC.
The format of the code is objective-based. An objective-based code sets out a building’s design and
construction qualitatively, detailing acceptable solutions but providing a framework for alternative solutions
proposed by designers to meet the intent of the code’s objectives.
From a structural perspective, buildings fall under two categories: Part 4 and Part 9.
Part 4 of the Building Code is intended to address the structural design of large or complex buildings. It
presents loading combinations and specified loads for building design, however, though these requirements
are fairly comprehensive and, in most cases, provide an adequate level of safety, they are minimum
requirements only. In some cases, engineering judgement may dictate additional or higher loads.
While Part 4 may be applied to the design of all buildings, some building types can instead be designed to the
less stringent, prescriptive requirements of Part 9. Part 9 requirements are based, in part, on standard
practices developed over time and extensive performance history with small wood framed buildings in
Canada. Part 9 of the Building Code applies to the design of buildings subject to the following:
• three or fewer storeys in building height,
• having a building area not exceeding 600 m2, and
• used for major occupancies classified as,
o Group C, residential occupancies,
o Group D, business and personal services occupancies,
o Group E, mercantile occupancies, or
o Group F, Divisions 2 and 3, medium hazard industrial occupancies and low hazard
industrial occupancies.
An electronic version of the Ontario Building Code is available online at:
[Link]
You can also obtain a PDF copy of the NBCC free of charge through:
[Link]
7_1_71_63_73_6_9_3&uiarea=3&carea=0000000093&cpgsize=0)/.do?rf=y

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Limit States Design

Limit States Design is a design philosophy in which the performance of the structure is evaluated against
limiting performance conditions. The various limit states can be divided into three general categories: ultimate
limit states (ULS), fatigue limit states (FLS) and serviceability limit states (SLS). Of these, ultimate and
serviceability limit states are generally the prime interest in the design of buildings; fatigue generally only
becomes a concern for applications such as industrial structures (e.g. crane supports), bridges, and the like.

Ultimate Limit States

Ultimate limit states involve safety concerns: providing adequate strength, stability, etc. Serviceability limit
states involve performance concerns: limiting deflections, minimising vibration, etc. The design process
develops a structure and compares its expected performance against the conditions to which one can
reasonably expect it to be exposed. Resistance is based on the geometry of the member or system, and the
value of stress from established and accepted test values. Design load conditions have been established
through testing, historical precedent, climatic data, and so on.

The design equation: R   i S i

The design equation requires the factored resistance of the member, R, to exceed, or at worst be equal to,
the factored load effects. The factored loads involve various loads acting alone or in combination to present
the worst possible case reasonably considered to be resisted. Ultimate limit states are determined using
factored loads; serviceability limit states are determined based on service (un-factored) loads.
The loads and load combinations covered by code include provisions for loads due to occupancy (people,
traffic, et cetera), environmental (snow, rain, wind) and extreme events such as earthquake. These loads,
along with self-weight and imposed permanent loads, must be combined in such a way as to provide the
maximum reasonable load condition which the structure can reasonably be expected to experience.
Probability plays an important part in predicting such maximum effects. Combinations of transient loads
usually involve reductions of these transient loads since it is unreasonable to expect, for instance, full
occupancy from the dance party of the century during the windstorm of the century.
The table below outlines the load combinations relevant to ultimate limit states (i.e. strength) design.
Load Combination
Load Case Principal Loads Companion Loads
1 1.4D
2 (1.25D or 0.9D)+1.5L 1.0S or 0.4W
3 (1.25D or 0.9D)+1.5S 1.0L or 0.4W
4 (1.25D or 0.9D)+1.4W 0.5L or 0.5S
5 (1.0D or 1.0E) 0.5L or 0.25S
D=dead; L=Live; S=Snow; W=Wind; E=Earthquake
Which of the above load combinations controls the design of a given structural element depends upon the
relative magnitude of the different loads applied.

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Serviceability Limit States

While ULS can be relatively easily defined, serviceability considers the intended use of the structure, and is
concerned with the structure’s performance relative to limiting criteria that are more subjective in nature. SLS
criteria vary depending upon a variety of factors. The intent can be to limit damage to non-structural members
or to the structure itself, establish performance levels for occupant comfort, or reflect the limitations of specific
materials or structural systems. Such limiting criteria can include deflection limits, vibration behaviour,
temperature effects. The service condition is based on service loads, as opposed to factored loads considered
in ULS.
The table below outlines the load combinations relevant to serviceability limit state design.
Load Combination
Load Case Principal Loads Companion Loads
1 1.0D
2 1.0D + 1.0L 0.5S or 0.4W
3 1.0D + 1.0S 0.5L or 0.4W
4 1.0D + 1.0W 0.5L or 0.5S
D=dead; L=Live; S=Snow; W=Wind; E=Earthquake
Typical SLS criteria include limiting live load deflection of a floor beam to its span divided by 360 or limiting
vertical acceleration of floor vibrations to 0.5% of gravity.

Importance Factors
In addition to the load factors given above for ULS and SLS combinations, importance factors apply to snow,
wind and earthquake loads, and depend upon the relative importance of the building. All buildings fall into one
of four importance categories:
• Low: buildings with low direct or indirect hazard to human life (e.g. agricultural buildings)
• Normal: all buildings that do not fall into any of the other three categories
• High: buildings that are likely to serve as post-disaster shelters (schools, community centres);
buildings storing hazardous materials
• Post-Disaster: buildings essential to providing services following a disaster event (hospitals, police,
fire and EMS stations, critical infrastructure, etc.)
Importance
Earthquake, IE Wind, IW Snow, IS
Category
ULS SLS ULS SLS ULS SLS
Low 0.8 0.8 0.75 0.8 0.9
Normal 1.0 1.0 0.75 1.0 0.9
N/A
High 1.3 1.15 0.75 1.15 0.9
Post-disaster 1.5 1.25 0.75 1.25 0.9

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Loads on Structures

Figure 1: Loads on a Structure

Permanent Loads
Dead (permanent) loads include the self-weight of the structure, itself, plus all permanent loads due to such
items as finishes (flooring, toppings), partitions, mechanical systems (HVAC ducts, water pipes), and any
other items that will remain unchanged throughout the service life of the structure. Note that the NBCC and
provincial building codes require an allowance for partitions in some circumstances.
Various material loads are given beginning on p.954 in the WDM.

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Transient Loads
Changes in one or more of the load attributes (magnitude, direction, location) with time define a transient (or
live) load. Transient loads include:
▪ Occupancy (people, traffic)
▪ Environmental (snow, wind, rain, temperature)
▪ Earthquake
▪ Strain induced (support settlement, shrinking/swelling)
▪ Earth or hydrostatic pressure
Live loads may act on all or only part of a structural system at any one time. A continuous system (such as a
continuous beam or slab) may experience full loading on all areas, or full loading only on some areas while
other areas experience no load at all. The latter case may provide the worst load scenario for the system even
though it does not represent the highest total load. To account for this possibility, analysis must look at pattern
loading on a continuous structural system; that is various combinations of loaded and unloaded spans must
be investigated to determine which produce the worst loading effects.

Occupancy Loads
Occupancy loads have been established from statistical information obtained through studies to determine
minimum reasonable loads. The load value varies based on the expected use of the structure and, in some
cases, the expected level of accessibility. Typical occupancy loads are:
Assembly areas 4.8 kPa
Classrooms 2.4 kPa
Office (ground floor) 4.8 kPa
Office (2nd Floor and above) 2.4 kPa
Library 7.2 kPa
Retail Areas 4.8 kPa (minimum)
Parking Garage (vehicles ≤4000kg) 2.4 kPa
Sidewalk/Driveway over basement 12.0 kPa
Residential 1.9 kPa
Balcony 4.8 kPa/1.9 kPa if accessible only from a bedroom

In some situations, occupancy loads may be reduced based on tributary area. One can reasonably expect,
for example, the simultaneous occurrence on the full occupancy load on every floor of a high-rise apartment
to be highly unlikely. As a result, the design live load on the ground floor columns should be far less than
simply the sum of the full live load on each floor. Provisions for live load reduction are given in Part 4 of the
Code.
In addition to uniformly distributed loads, non-concurrent concentrated loads must be considered as an
occupancy based on a low uniform load may include a high concentrated load.

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Snow Load
In Canada, snow load often governs the design of roof members. In southern climates one can expect the
design of roofs to be governed by rain (flat roofs) or wind (sloped and flat roofs)—particularly in areas
susceptible to hurricanes.
The basic snow load on a roof is taken as a percentage of the ground snow load—an amount based on a 50-
year return period—plus an additional rain component. The ground snow loads are given in the code as
uniformly distributed loads in kilopascals (kPa). For buildings designed in accordance with Part 4, the roof
snow load is generally taken as 80% of the ground snow load plus the associated rain component. The
formulation for the snow load also includes provisions for exposure to wind, angle of slope of the roof,
accumulation and drifting, and an associated rain load additional to the snow. Drifting occurs at steps in roofs,
on the leeward side of a peak roof, in roof valleys, around rooftop mechanical units, etc. The extent of drifting
is determined in terms of a maximum depth of snow, and a length of drift. Snow varies considerably in terms
of density. Anyone who has shovelled a driveway knows snow is much easier to shovel if it fell when the
temperature is –5C than when the temperature is +1C. The unit weight of snow varies depending upon
location, and generally ranges from 2.5 to 4kN/m3. Roof snow loads also vary greatly across the country with
relatively small loads around 1 kPa in areas of Southern Ontario or in Calgary, to huge depths equalling more
than two metres in parts of B.C. Further reductions in roof snow loads are allowed in latitudes north of the tree
line due to the effects of wind scour on snow accumulation.
The reduction of the ground snow load to 80% for roofs is applicable to most buildings, however it does not
apply to roofs of very large area such as large shopping malls or large manufacturing or warehousing facilities
where wind has almost no effect in reducing the effective load. Erroneous application of the basic reduction
in such situations has led to failures in the past.
For small buildings designed in accordance with Part 9 (i.e. houses and other small buildings), the roof load
is taken as 45% of the ground snow load (for roofs less than 4.3m in width) or 55% of the ground snow load
for other conditions, plus the associated rain load.
Pattern loading involving snow on a continuous system places full snow on one portion of the area with half
the snow load placed on the remaining area so as to produce the greatest effect in the members.

Rain Load
One need not consider rain loads for sloped roofs, however for flat roofs rain loads can be significant. Flat
roofs are not truly flat but have small slopes in the order of 2% and are generally designed for one of three
possible scenarios:
1. sufficient drains provided so that no water is retained,
2. control flow drains and scuppers provided so that water will accumulate to a maximum of 150mm
and drain down within 24 hours, or
3. drains provided so that water may pond for longer than 24 hours and to depths dependent upon the
slope geometry of the roof.
A particularly dangerous result of accumulation of water on a flat roof is ponding instability. Water will of course
collect at the lowest point. As water pools, roof members deflect thus attracting additional water—and thus
load—which results in further deflections and the cycle repeats. If this cycle is not accounted for and limited,
overstressing of members can result in catastrophic failure.

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Wind Load
Wind acts on all surfaces of a building in either positive pressure or negative suction. Design forces do not
only depend upon the wind outside, but also the pressure inside the building—or rather the difference in
pressure between outside and inside.
Depending on the type of construction and the shape and size of the building, the lateral load resisting system
may be controlled by wind or earthquake loads. Frequently the design of individual members is controlled by
a load combination involving wind – particularly roof members under uplift.
Climatic data in the Code provides reference velocity pressures for locations across Canada. The reference
pressure for design of buildings is based on a probability of being exceeded in any one year of 1 in 50 (an
annual probability of exceedance of 2%).

Seismic
Earthquake forces are not outside forces imposed on a structure, but rather forces imposed by the structure
on itself due to an applied displacement of the ground. They are the inertial forces of a building as the earth
moves beneath it. Such displacements can occur in any direction: sideways, up, down, twisting. The
magnitude of earthquake design forces is affected by the structural system used, as well as the weight of the
structure. Ductile lateral systems have a greater ability to absorb earthquake energy and the resulting design
force is usually lower.
Information of the formulation of snow, wind and earthquake loads can be found in Part 4 of the OBC and
NBCC.

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Load Path and Tributary Area

Since most loads are regarded as uniformly distributed loads acting on an area, the analysis of a structure
can be greatly simplified through the employment of the concept of tributary area (or tributary width) in
combination with the determined load path. (Images: J. Schneider)

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Load combination example

Determine the factored design loads for a roof subject to the following service loads:
Service loads: wsnow = 2.4kPa
wwind = -1.0kPa (negative sign denotes uplift)
wdead = 1.0kPa
Load combinations 1, 3 and 4 are relevant given the loads indicated.
Load combination 1:

Load combination 3:

Given that wind is acting in the opposite direction to snow, combining wind will result in an unconservative
result, thus it will be ignored. The dead load needs to be factored using 1.25 to produce the worst case result.

Therefore,

Load Combination 4:

Again given that snow counteracts the effects of the wind uplift, it will be ignored. Since dead load counteracts
wind, but it cannot be ignored as it is a permanent load, it will be factored using 0.9 to minimize its effects and
produce the worst-case load result for this combination.

Therefore,

The factored design loads for the roof are 4.85kPa in the downward direction and 0.5kPa acting upward.
Depending upon the construction of the roof, the larger magnitude load may not control.

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Forestry in Canada
Canada’s forests represent about 9-10% of the world’s total forest area. As an important moderator for the
climate as well as an important contributor to the nation’s economy, proper management of Canada’s forests
is essential for the long-term health and economic security of the country and its people.
Total forest area in Canada is about 347 million hectares; 68% is softwood, 16% is mixed wood, and 11% is
hardwood forest. Products from these resources include softwood lumber, paper and paperboard, newsprint,
wood pulp, waferboard, hardwood lumber, maple syrup, furniture, and many more. About 748,000 hectares
of forests were harvested in 2018—approximately 0.2% of Canada’s total forest area. To compare, over 16
million hectares (4.7%) of forest were damaged by insects (2018) and an average of 2.1 million hectares
(~0.6%) is damaged by fire every year (over 16 million in 2023 [Sept. 2023], these areas are usually left to
regenerate naturally). All public lands harvested are required to be regenerated; in 2016 over 600 million
seedlings were planted. Overall, Canada’s forests are relatively stable: total forest area has decreased by
less than a half of 1% in the last 25 years. (Reference: The State of Canada’s Forests 2018, Natural
Resources Canada)

Figure 2: Forests of Canada

The forest sector contributed $24.6B to Canada’s GDP (2017; about 1.6%).

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The key to long-term economic prosperity as well as environmental health is through proper and more efficient
management of the forest resources. Though past harvesting practices were short-sighted, sustainable
harvesting practices are increasingly being followed. Ownership plays a decisive role in directing the
management of any resource. Canada is fortunate and somewhat unique in this respect. Approximately ~94%
of the total forest area in Canada is Crown land while only ~6% is privately owned. Control of nearly all of the
nation’s forests therefore rests with elected legislative bodies rather than private individuals or companies.
(To compare, in the United States private ownership accounts for about 56% of total forest lands.)

Figure 3: Ownership of Canada’s Forests

Provincial and Territorial governments grant companies the rights to

harvest timber on their land through agreements known as tenures

Approximately 48% of Canadian forests are certified under sustainable management programs (CSA Z809).
The forestry companies, themselves, also see the potential for greater profits through proper management
and efficient use of timberland. In recent years provinces have negotiated agreements with forestry companies
exchanging long-term harvesting rights for guarantees on forest regeneration. Using improved management
programs, the potential output of timber per hectare could double. This is of great interest to all parties
involved—the public interest is best served while accommodating industry growth.

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Wood as a Building Material

Wood is one of the most-utilized building materials in the world. It is a tremendously strong material given its
weight, and is easily cut, joined, and shaped to suit specific forms and purposes. Wood is a plentiful resource
in many parts of the world, is an environmentally sustainable building material (it grows on trees!), is
aesthetically pleasing to building occupants when exposed (biophilia), and if protected properly, can last for
centuries. As an engineering material wood presents design challenges unlike other common building
materials, though, if acknowledged and understood, these challenges can be effectively overcome.

Environmental Benefits and Life-Cycle Analysis (LCA)

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) we
need to limit global warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial in order to avoid
the worst effects of climate change, and prevent long-lasting or
irreversible changes to our environment. The buildings and construction
industry currently accounts for 39% of global energy-related CO2
emissions. Of this 28% is produced by operations of the building
(heating, cooling, etc.) and 11% is embodied carbon in the building
Building Materials and
(upfront carbon) from the construction processes and producing the Construction 11%
building materials.
Wood can contribute to this by reducing carbon emissions and store
carbon through carbon sequestration. As trees grow they absorb CO2
from the atmosphere which is stored in the wood until it is burned or degrades at end of life. By building with
wood we are able to store the carbon and prolong decay reducing CO2 emissions. One cubic metre of wood
represents almost one tonne of CO2 removed from the atmosphere (Forest Products Association of Canada)

Figure 4: Carbon Storage of Wood

When harvested from sustainably managed forests, wood is a renewable construction material with a smaller
carbon footprint than steel or concrete, while also removing and storing carbon from the atmosphere over its
lifetime.

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Figure 5: Environmental Impact of Building Material Production

Macro and Micro Structure of Wood

The various species of trees can be divided into two general categories: hardwoods (deciduous) and
softwoods (conifers). Deciduous trees have broad leaves which are shed every year, have true flowers, and
have seeds covered in a fruit (like a chestnut or maple key). Conifers have needle-like leaves, are generally
evergreen (the Larch is an exception to this), and tend to have tall, straight stems ideal for producing structural
members. Hardwoods are generally harder and stronger than softwood, but there are exceptions; Douglas
Fir, a softwood, is much stronger and harder than Aspen, a hardwood.

Figure 6: Anisotropic Nature of Wood and Principle Directions

Wood is anisotropic—it has different properties in different directions. In fact, wood can be regarded as an
orthotropic material in that distinct properties exist in three mutually perpendicular principal directions. These
directions are:
L = longitudinal, along the grain
R = radial, perpendicular to the grain and to the annual growth rings
T = tangential, perpendicular to the grain and tangential to the growth rings

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The tangential direction changes within a block of wood, especially if the piece is cut from near the centre of
the log. For engineering purposes, the radial and tangential directions are grouped together; though their
properties are distinct, the properties in these directions are relatively close, especially when compared to the
longitudinal direction. For structural purposes, the longitudinal direction is usually of most interest. Therefore,
resulting from this simplification are two principal directions: perpendicular-to-grain (R and T), and parallel-to-
grain (L).
The wood of a tree trunk is covered by a layer of inner bark which allows sap movement down the tree, and
then a protective layer of outer bark. Between the wood and bark lies a layer called the cambium; this layer
produces new wood on its inside and new bark on the outside as the tree grows. The wood of the tree is
divided into sapwood (live wood) and heartwood (dead wood) which have different inherent properties.
Sapwood is located on the outer radius growth rings and transports sap up the tree, is lighter in colour, has
living cells, and is not durable, while heartwood is located near the middle of the trunk, is darker in colour, is
not a living part of the tree (contains dead cells), and is resistant to decay. Trees in climate zones which have
distinct growing seasons, such as Canada, produce new wood cells which differ depending on the time of the
season. Early wood has large, thin-walled cells while latewood cells are smaller and have thicker walls. Trees
in tropical climate zones produce largely uniform wood cells all year.

Figure 7: Macrostructure of the Trees

Wood cells are long, slender, hollow structures, closed at

each end, with perforations called pits in the wall to allow
transfer of water and nutrients within the wood. The wall of a
wood cell can be divided into 4 layers. The outer ‘P’ or primary
layer is a loose, irregular and flexible arrangement of cellulose
fibrils. The next layer, S1, is composed of microfibrils wound
somewhat helically around the cell perimeter, nearly
perpendicular to the long axis of the cell. The third layer, S2,
is a layer of parallel fibres spiraling around the cell
circumference nearly parallel to the long axis of the cell. The
innermost layer, S3, is similar to the S1 layer. S2 is the
thickest layer, comprising 70-90% of the cell wall thickness.
The centre of the cell is a void called the lumen. The middle
lamella (ML) is the amorphous region between cells that binds
adjacent cells together.
Figure 8: Wood Cell Composition [from
Fall 2023 USDA 2010 Wood Handbook]
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Compare the strength of wood and its component parts:

Cellulose molecules: 7000 MPa
Microfibrils: 480 MPa
Wood cells: 140 MPa
Ultimate stress of wood: 70 MPa
Design stress of wood: 15 MPa (due to natural variability, knots, twists, cracks, grain deviation, etc.)

Hardwood and softwood structure are significantly different. Softwoods are composed of majority longitudinal
tracheids (cells), rectangular in section and averaging about 3 to 4 mm in length. These elements are
responsible for mechanical support and transport of water/sap. A small percentage of the wood is horizontal
ray cells, used for storage and transport of water/sap, running radially from the centre of the tree. The tracheids
also have openings, called pits, in the sidewall to allow water/sap transfer between adjacent tracheids.
Hardwoods are comprised of four main types of cells. Wood fibre tracheids average less than 1 mm in length
and are rounded in section. Hardwood fibres are used for mechanical strength not fluid transport. Vessel
elements are larger specialized pipe like conducting cells, unique to hardwoods, that transfer fluid up the tree.
Hardwoods can be identified based on the size and arrangement of the vessels. Longitudinal and ray
parenchyma are the other two main types of hardwood cells. Parenchyma cells are thin-walled storage cells.
Refer to the following graphic for sketches of softwood and hardwood.

Tracheids

Pits

Softwood Hardwood

Figure 9: Softwood and Hardwood Micro-Structure

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Moisture Content and Mass-Water-Volume Relationships

Wood shrinks and swells based on the amount of moisture present within its cells’ walls. This characteristic
can present significant challenges when wood is used in an engineering application. Changes in moisture
content results in dimensional changes, which can result in induced stresses that may be unwanted or
unaccounted for in the design. As well, high moisture content lowers the strength and stiffness of the wood.
The moisture content of wood is expressed as a percentage of its oven-dry weight:

𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

𝑀𝐶% = × 100
𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

Wood is dimensionally stable above a moisture content of 28 – 30% (average). This moisture level is called
the fibre saturation point (FSP). Up to the FSP, water is bound between the cellulose chains in the wood cell
walls. At the FSP no more water can be bound within the cell walls, and so any water past this point fills the
lumen and voids between cells. The wood will increase in weight but no dimensional change can be expected.

Figure 10: Wood-Moisture Content Relationship [woodSMART]

As water is driven out, and the MC drops below the FSP, the chains are able to move closer together, thus
shrinkage occurs; as water is added, the chains move apart to accept it and swelling occurs. Since the S2
layer is by far the thickest layer in the cell wall, the orientation of the cellulose chains in this layer largely
dictate how the wood shrinks or swells. The majority of the molecule chains in the S2 layer are oriented along
the cell axis, and so the radial and tangential directions experience significant dimensional change, while the
longitudinal direction experiences little. Though not exact, the rate of shrinkage from FSP to oven-dry is more
or less linearly proportional to the moisture content.

Shrinkage values can be determined in a given direction using:

L
Shrinkage =  100%
Linitial

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The radial and tangential directions experience different amounts of shrinkage or swelling due to the physical
properties of the wood in each direction. Tangential change is usually 1.5 to 3 times greater than radial
change. Shrinkage values vary widely among the different species. Hardwoods tend to experience more
shrinkage than softwoods. Typical values of shrinkage from green to oven-dry are:

Radial 3-6%
Tangential 5-12%
Longitudinal 0.1-0.3%
Volumetric 8-18%

FSP

Depending upon the location within a log cross-section from which a piece of green wood is cut, shrinkage
will change the initial shape as it dries, as illustrated in Figure 11.

Figure 11: Characteristic Shrinkage Relative to Original Position in Timber [USDA Wood Handbook]
Lumber is seasoned (dried) so that any significant shrinkage occurs before it is used. Lumber readily available
for building is usually seasoned to S-Dry. This indicates that the moisture content is less than, or equal to,
19% at the time of surfacing (final shaping/sizing of the piece). The seasoning level is always indicated on the
grade stamp. Above 19% moisture content is indicated by S-Grn.
Once in service, wood gives off or takes on moisture until it reaches its equilibrium moisture content (EMC).
Wood in a new building usually has a MC of 15-19%, and after being in service for a time, the EMC is attained
– usually this is around 10-12%. The EMC depends, of course, on the service temperature, relative humidity,
and ventilation. An enclosure for a swimming pool would have a higher EMC than the framing in a house.
Drying lumber to an MC content it will experience in service minimizes change in dimensions.

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The specific gravity (SG) of a sample of wood is based on the oven-dry weight and volume at the original
conditions:
Dry Weight
Mass Density =
Volume at given conditions
therefore:
( Mass Density) specimen
SG = Mass Density of Water = 1000 kg/m3
( Mass Density) water
Published data are most often based on volume at MC=12% or on the volume when green (FSP). SG values
range from 0.17 for Balsa Fir to 0.70 for some domestic hardwoods like Maple, and even higher for some
exotic (i.e. not Canadian) hardwoods such as African Blackwood (Dalbergia melanoxylon) at 1.27 (in other
words, it sinks in water).

Mass-Water Relationships:
Material Mass (kg) Volume (m3) Mass Density (kg/m3) Specific Gravity
Air ma Va 0 0
Water mw Vw 1000 1
Cellulose (wood) mc Vc 1540 1.54
Totals mt Vt

mw mt mt g
MC = = =
mc Vt Vt
mc mc
(Vt ) MC= FSP (Vt ) MC =0%
SG = or SG =
 water  water

where: MC = Moisture Content (%)

 = Mass Density (kg/m3)
 = Volumetric weight = g (kN/m3)

Dimensional Change: can be estimate using the following equation

𝐷𝐶 = 𝑂𝐷 × 𝑆𝑉 × (∆𝑀𝐶 /𝐹𝑆𝑃)
where: DC = dimensional change (mm or in)
OD = original dimension (mm or in)
∆𝑀𝐶 = percent change in moisture content (%)
FSP = fibre saturation point (average = 28%)

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Physical Properties of Selected Woods1:

Shrinkage Specific Gravity
Species
R T Vol Green Dry
White Ash 4.9 7.8 13.3 0.55 0.60
Chesnut 3.4 6.7 11.6 0.40 0.43
White Oak 5.6 10.5 16.3 0.60 0.68
Walnut 5.5 7.8 12.8 0.51 0.55
Western Red Cedar 2.4 5.0 6.8 0.31 0.32
Douglas Fir 3.8 6.9 10.7 0.45 0.48
Eastern White Pine 2.1 6.1 8.2 0.34 0.35
Red Pine 3.8 7.2 11.3 0.41 0.46
Black Spruce 4.1 6.8 11.3 0.38 0.42
Black Ironwood 6.2 8.0 11.6 1.07 1.35

Moisture Content of Wood (%) in Equilibrium with

Surroundings1:
Temperature Relative Humidity (%)
(C) 20 40 60 80
10 4.6 7.9 11.2 16.4
21 4.5 7.7 11.0 16.0
32 4.3 7.4 10.5 15.4
43 4.0 7.0 10.0 14.7

Equilibrium Moisture Content of Wood, Exposed to Outdoor

Atmosphere2
EMC (%) Swelling of a wooden block
December July in 3-D
Toronto 17.2 12.3
Vancouver 19.2 13.8

1 taken from Wood Handbook: Wood as an Engineering Material, General Technical Report FPL-GTR-190, USDA Forest Service 2010
2 Simpson, William T. Equilibrium Moisture Content of Wood in Outdoor Locations in the United States and Worldwide. USDA Forest
Service, 1998.

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Moisture Content Example

A house is built with Douglas Fir framing seasoned to meet S-Dry requirements. After 1 year the EMC of the
wood is 12%. How much does the house shrink after 1 year?

On low rise buildings, shrinkage is only relevant perpendicular to

grain, therefore the shrinkage calculation would usually ignore the
actual wall stud and just consider shrinkage in the wall plates and
joists.

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 24

Mechanical Properties of Wood

As mentioned, wood is anisotropic; that is, it has unique and independent mechanical properties in the three
mutually perpendicular axes: longitudinal, radial, and tangential (Fig. 6). In an engineering context the
longitudinal axis is called parallel-to-grain, while radial and tangential are grouped together as perpendicular-
to-grain because of their generally close properties and the fact where the board is cut from the tree is typically
unknown. Wood is much stronger in the parallel-to-grain direction as loads are oriented in the same direction
as the grain of the wood. In the perpendicular-to-grain direction, the loading pulls apart or crushes the wood
fibres resulting in a lower strength and stiffness. In tension, wood tends to behave linear-elastically up to a
sudden ultimate failure. While in compression, woods tends to observe a drop off and softening after ultimate
load when loaded parallel to grain, and a slight increase in load (with large deformations) as crushing occurs
perpendicular-to-grain.

Figure 12: Tension and Compression Behaviour of Wood [woodSMART]

ASTM D143 provides methods for testing the behaviour of wood in tension, compression and bending. These
tests are often completed on smaller wood specimens with minimal defects giving the true strength of wood
as a material. In reality, our construction material contains defects such as knots or grain twists which
decrease the inherent strength. This decrease is account for in the design strengths reported by Wood Design
Code (CSA O86).
Examples of wood strengths seen in testing:
Compression parallel-to-grain: each cell acts as a hollow column, braced against buckling by neighbouring
cells. Strengths of 30-70 MPa for common structural species (similar to concrete)

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Compression perpendicular-to-grain: Strengths of 3 to 7 MPa for common structural species.

Tension parallel-to-grain: Stress concentration effects of holes, notches and cut can affect strength.
Strengths of 70 to 150 MPa for common structural species (common steel can be about 400MPa)

Tension perpendicular-to-grain: wood is relatively weak in tension perpendicular to grain (pulling grains
apart). Strengths of 2 to 9 MPa for common structural species.

Bending: very strong in bending along the grain. Strengths of 40 to 100MPa for common structural species.

Shear: very strong in shear perpendicular to grain (vertical shear), but relatively weak in shear parallel to
grain (longitudinal often governs). Longitudinal shear strengths of 5 to 15 MPa for common structural species.

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 26

Wood Products and Design Values

Sawn Lumber
Simply defined, lumber is wood with natural growth characteristics. Though wood, itself, possesses many
desirable engineering properties, a piece of lumber usually possesses many less-than-desirable properties
such as knots, splits, checks, etc. As a result, lumber can never be as strong as the wood of which it is
comprised. And so, to use lumber as a structural material, the engineering properties must be reliably defined.
In North America, lumber used for construction purposes is largely softwood; hardwood is mostly used in the
furniture industry. The majority of softwood is visually graded while a small portion is evaluated by various
testing processes.

Visually Graded Lumber

Characteristic strength values are specified by the wood design code for lumber visually graded based on
grading rules set out by the National Lumber Grades Authority (NLGA). The grading rules consider various
aspects of wood that impact the strength of the member, such as straightness of grain, size and location of
knots, wane, pitch, and other natural growth characteristics.

Machine Stress Rated Lumber (MSR) and Machine Evaluated Lumber (MEL)
MSR and MEL lumber is assigned a grade based on non-destructive stiffness testing. The pieces are fed
through a testing machine that exerts a force and measures the corresponding deflection. Strength grades
are assigned based on the measured deflections. The difference between MSR and MEL lumber lies in the
5th percentile modulus of elasticity; MSR lumber limits the E05 value to 82% of the mean value, while the limit
for MEL is 75% of the mean E. Resulting compressive capacities are therefore affected.
MSR lumber is designated by an f-E stamp indicating the member’s bending stress and modulus of elasticity.
For example, 1800f-1.6E has been tested for a minimum allowable stress of 12.4 MPa (1800 psi) and a
minimum modulus of elasticity of 11000 MPa (1.6 million psi).

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Panel Products
Plywood
Plywood is a panel of veneers glued together with a waterproof, phenol-formaldehyde resin glue. The veneers
are pealed from logs and the grains of the veneers are placed normal to one another, symmetric about the
centre ply (odd number of plies) or centre of the panel (even number of plies). In addition to providing strength
and stiffness in orthogonal directions, this composition provides good dimensional stability. Two types of
structural plywood are available in Canada: Douglas Fir Plywood (DFP) and Canadian Softwood Plywood
(CSP). Structural plywood is un-sanded and is produced in a standard imperial size of 1220 mm  2440 mm
or hard metric size of 1200 mm  2400 mm, with thickness varying from 7.5 mm to 31.5 mm. It is available in
the following grades:
▪ Good 2 Sides (G2S) – DFP only
▪ Good 1 Side (G1S) – DFP only
▪ Select Tight Face (SEL TF)
▪ Select (Select)
▪ Sheathing (SHG)
The face plies are usually of higher quality than the inner plies. Besides being exposed to view in some cases,
the face plies provide the majority of the strength in bending parallel-to-face grain.
Sheets are available with a regular square edge profile as well as tongue and groove for roof and floor
sheathing to ensure continuity of support, mitigating damage to roofing/finishes. Images of COFI T&G roof
sheathing (left) and floor sheathing (right) are shown below.

Figure 13: Roof and Floor T&G Plywood [COFI]

Sanded plywood is available and usually used for such applications as millwork and finished wall panels.
Structurally, plywood is used in many applications: wall, roof, and floor sheathing, webs of I-joists, stressed
skin panels, plywood beams, etc.

Oriented Strand Board (OSB)

Oriented Strand Board and waferboard are panels of wafers and a waterproof binder bond together under
heat and pressure. The wafers are from fast-growing, small diameter aspen and poplar and present an
efficient use of forest resources. Significant defects in the wood can be removed during the manufacturing
process resulting in consistent, reliable strength. There are three grades of waferboard:
▪ OSB O-2 – grain of wafers in the face layers is aligned in the long direction of the panel with the
wafers of the core layers aligned perpendicular to the face layers

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▪ OSB O-1 – grain of wafers in the face layers is aligned in the long direction of the panel and the grain
of the wafers in the core layers is randomly oriented
▪ Waferboard R-1 – grain of wafers is randomly oriented throughout
The panels are available in similar sizes as plywood.

Engineered Wood Products

Glulam
Glulam, or glued-laminated timber, is a manufactured wood composed of pieces of standard dimension
lumber glued together in horizontal laminations under controlled conditions. Laminations are made from
shorter pieces of lumber finger-jointed together at the ends; serious defects can be removed during this
process or placed to effectively eliminate the defect’s impact on the overall strength of the member. High-
strength pieces of large dimension timber are efficiently formed from small dimension lumber. Glulam can be
custom-made to specific lengths and shapes.
There are two grading systems used to identify glulam members – strength and appearance – and these
grades are standard across the industry. There are different strength grades of glulam available and they are
specific to the intended use. The grade indicates a stress; 24f-E and 20f-E denote allowable bending stress
in Imperial units (2400 psi and 2000 psi, respectively), 18t-E and 16c-E denote allowable axial stress (1800
psi in compression and 1600 psi in tension, respectively). Grade 24f-E would not normally be used for a
compression member and likewise 16c-E would not normally be used as a bending member. An additional
strength grade classification is 24f-EX (or 20f-EX). This grade is specifically designed for instances of stress
reversal in bending, such as a roof beam subjected to uplift as well as gravity loads. A member of grade 24f-
E has different bending capacities in positive and negative bending; 24f-EX has equal capacities in positive
and negative bending.
Glulam can be divided into three appearance grades: industrial, commercial and quality. These grades are
independent of the strength grade – unlike visually graded lumber – and reflect the level of finish work done
after laminating.

Photo: CWC

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Parallel Strand Lumber (PSL)

Parallel Stand Lumber is proprietary product manufactured by gluing strands of wood together under pressure.
It is an efficient way of producing large dimension wood members of consistent and reliable quality. Growth
characteristics such as knots and splits are eliminated, and pieces of wood not even good enough or large
enough for a No. 3 24 can be used to its greatest potential in an efficient manner. Additional benefits beyond
its strength and efficiency include its workability – it can of course be cut to suit on site – and its dimensional
stability. PSL is manufactured at 11% moisture content which is average for in-service conditions, and given
the absence of growth characteristics, warping, splitting, etc. are unlikely.

Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL)

Laminated Veneer Lumber, like PSL, is a proprietary product. It is similar in composition to plywood – wood
veneers are layered with adhesive. While plywood has grain oriented in orthogonal direction in alternating
layers, the veneer layers of LVL are all oriented along the length of the member. Like PSL, LVL members are
of consistent and reliable quality. Knots and splits can be removed through the selection of veneers, or at
least the adverse effects of such characteristics on strength can be minimized. The resulting member also
has good dimensional stability.

Laminated Strand Lumber (LSL)

Another proprietary product, Laminated Strand Lumber is similar to OSB – strands of fast-growing, small
dimension aspen or poplar bonded together with an adhesive resin under pressure and heat. The strands in
this case are oriented along the length of the member. LSL members are often used as rim boards for I-joist
floor systems due to their dimensional stability; LSL members are also effective as tall wall studs.

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Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT)

A relatively recent addition to industry in North America, CLT is essentially a jumbo version of plywood in
which glue-laminated layers of dimension lumber are laid up to make large dimension timber panels. CLT
product requirements for Canada and the US are specified in ANSI APA PRG-320.

Proprietary Products
Trusses
Trusses can be manufactured to suit most any desired form and are very
efficient for spanning relatively large spaces efficiently – especially for
roofs. Trusses are not standardized across the industry and are designed
by each supplier to suit the specific geometric requirements and loadings
of specific buildings. Light frame trusses are very common in construction
of tract housing and agricultural buildings such as pig and poultry barns.
Such trusses are prefabricated under factory conditions and are comprised
of dimensional lumber chords and webs joined by pressed metal nail
plates. While excellent for housing, the use of trusses in some agricultural
applications is increasingly questioned as the nail plates, though
galvanized, tend to corrode in pig and poultry barn environments. In recent
years, with the increase in factory farms, many failures have resulted from
corroded nail plates while other cases have seen costly remedial
measures required to prevent such failures. Heavy timber trusses are
frequently used to span large distances where the depth of the truss can Image: CWC
be accommodated by the building design and are usually left exposed as
an architectural feature. These trusses are composed of large dimension
timbers or engineered wood such as Parallam or PSL members joined with
bolts or timber connectors. Sometimes steel ties or struts are added into
truss design for specific functional or aesthetic purposes.

I-Joists
I joists are a manufactured product comprised of chords made of MSR
lumber or LVL members glued to the top and bottom of an OSB or plywood
web. They present an efficient use of material and are readily available in
lengths and depths not normally available in sawn lumber. Special attention
must be paid to concentrated loads and bearing points with I-joists due to Image: Weyerhauser
the slender web.

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Open-web joists
Many forms of wood open-web joists exist. All have wood chords but some utilize steel web members, while
others use wood webs. They are primarily beneficial to running services perpendicular to the joist span. Most
joist systems require holes to be bored to accommodate water pipes and wires, while heating and cooling
ducts must either run along the span, or underneath the joists perpendicular to the span. In general, I-joists
tend to be more widely used than open-web wood joists in general construction applications.

Visually Graded Lumber Design Parameters

The strength values for commercially available, visually graded lumber are based on four parameters:
▪ Species ▪ Size
▪ Grade ▪ Use
Species
All the species of lumber used for structural applications in Canada can be grouped into one of four major
species classifications:
▪ Douglas Fir-Larch ([Link]-L) ▪ Spruce-Pine-Fir (SPF)
▪ Hemlock-Fir (Hem-Fir) ▪ Northern Species (Nor)
While it is possible to specify and build with any species anywhere in Canada, it is usually more economical
to choose a species of more local origin to reduce costs. While [Link]-L and Hem-Fir are more widely available
in B.C., SPF is readily available across Canada for general structural applications. Other factors may
necessitate using one species over another such as colour, exposure, or resistance to biological attack. Cedar
(Nor species group), for instance, is widely used for decks due to its resistance to rot (Table 11.1 WDM)
Grade and Size
Grade and size are closely related in terms of determining the strength properties of wood members. To
choose the appropriate characteristic value in the appropriate table, one requires the size and grade. Lumber
grade is based on many factors that account for the growth characteristics of the piece of lumber. These
factors include straightness of grain, the number, size and location of knots, splits and checks, general
appearance, etc. The possible grades are split into grade categories based on size and the intended use
(certain combinations of width and depth are assigned to certain grade categories due to the probable
intended use). Size of the member plays a very important part in determining the member’s capacity. Most
calculations involve an adjustment factor for member size.
The grade categories (based on member size) are:
▪ Light Framing ▪ Beams and Stringers
▪ Stud ▪ Post and Timber
▪ Structural Light Framing ▪ Plank Decking
▪ Structural Joists and Planks
The possible visual grades are:
▪ Select Structural (SS) ▪ Construction (Const.)
▪ Number 1 (No. 1) ▪ Standard (Stand.)
▪ Number 2 (No. 2) ▪ Select (Sel)
▪ Number 3 (No. 3) ▪ Commercial (Com)
▪ Stud (Stud)

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A table of these categories, limiting dimensions and corresponding grades is presented in O86 in Table 6.3.
Each piece of lumber graded is stamped with a grade stamp similar to:

Standard sizes of solid sawn timber are typically presented as the nominal imperial sizes, such as 2x4 and
8x8. The actual sizes are significantly less than the nominal sizes; a 2x4 is actually 38mm x 89mm (1½”x3½”).
The range of available standard member sizes are presented in Section 11 (Reference Information) of the
Wood Design Manual starting on page 904.

Use
Lastly, the way the member is to be used determines the appropriate strength value. Once the species, grade
and grade category are determined, the value corresponding to the appropriate use can be chosen from Table
6.3.1 A, B, C, or D. The use parameter is divided into the following:
fb – bending at extreme fibre
fv – longitudinal shear
fc – compression parallel-to-grain
fcp – compression perpendicular-to-grain
ft – tension parallel to grain
E – average (50th percentile) modulus of elasticity for deflection calculations
E05 – 5th percentile modulus of elasticity for stability calculations
Table 6.4 is shown below.

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Glulam Design Parameters

The strength values for commercially available, glulam are based on three parameters:
▪ Species
▪ Grade
▪ Indented Use
Species
Glulam is manufactured using three major species classifications (same as lumber):
▪ Douglas Fir-Larch ([Link]-L)
▪ Hemlock-Fir (Hem-Fir)
▪ Spruce-Pine-Fir (SPF)
Grade
There are two classifications of grade categories for glulam, stress grade which defines the strength of the
glulam, and appearance grade which defines the quality of finish on the exposed surfaces (unrelated to stress
grade). The lumber laminations are not graded to the same rules as regular lumber, but rather conform to the
grading rules contained in CSA Standard O122, Structural Glued-Laminated Timber. Each lamination is
visually graded based on the examination of both faces of the piece, and then assigned one of four grades:
B, B-F, D, or C. Specified laminations are tested non-destructively by machine to establish required minimum
E (modulus of elasticity) values. Laminations of higher grades, such as B and B-F, are used in the top and
bottom portions of glulam beams and arches where bending stress is greatest.

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Intended Use
Glulam is also given letters in its grade to represent the intended use. The first letter represents the loading
type to member is expected to see:
▪ f = flexure (beam type members)
▪ c = compression (column type members)
▪ t = tension (axial tension type members)
The “X” at the end represents whether a symmetric layup was used in the flexure type member. This can be
useful in beams that are loading in positive and negative bending, and ensuring the beam is always installed
in the correct orientation (i.e. not upside down).

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Modification Factors
Due to the complex composition and behaviour of timber, several modification factors are required when
computing a member’s resistance to a given loading condition. Many of phenomena necessitating the
adjustments are common to other engineering materials, such as steel or concrete, however under normal
conditions the effects on the behaviour of steel and concrete are negligible while the effects on the behaviour
of wood are quite pronounced. There are five general factors that impact most member resistance
calculations:
KD – Load Duration Factor (Clause 5.3.2). The strength of wood, like that of steel or concrete is affected by
the rate of loading. A material loaded quickly will display a higher ultimate strength than will a material loaded
slowly. For instance, a wind gust may not fail a particular member, however that same member subjected to
a long-term load of equal magnitude could be expected to fail.
• Long term = 0.65

• Standard term = 1.0

• Short term = 1.15

• When the long term load is greater than the short term load, KD can be calculated:

𝐾𝐷 = 1.0 − 0.5 log(𝑃𝐿 /𝑃𝑠 ) ≥ 0.65

where: PL = specified long term load
Ps = specified standard term load based on Snow (S) and Live (L) loads acting alone or in
combination = S, L, S + 0.5L, or 0.5S + L

KS – Service Condition Factor (Clause 5.3.3). The capacity and stiffness of a wood member are generally
lower for wet service conditions than for dry service conditions, and this factor accounts for this difference.
Normal house framing would be a dry service condition; a wooden footbridge would be a wet service condition.
• Framing that is covered by roofing would normally be considered dry
o Consider a picnic shelter: roof framing can be considered dry, the columns may be
considered wet
• Can vary based on type of loading, and size of member

KT – Treatment Factor (Clause 5.3.4). Wood is frequently treated with chemicals to protect against rot, fire,
insects, etc., and sometimes these treatments affect the strength of the wood. Some preservative treatments,
by themselves, do not affect the strength of the wood, however members are frequently incised (small cuts
made on the surface) to allow better penetration of the chemical and thus the strength will be affected. Fire-
retardant chemicals do reduce the strength of wood, though the amount may vary from product to product
and so specific reduction values must be obtained from the proprietor.

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KH – System Factor (Clause 5.3.5). Wood structural systems (stud walls, joist floors) employing multiple
members to provide mutual support tend to have a higher strength than simply the sum of the individual
members. This is due to both redundancy of the system and variability in the strength of the individual
members. The code allows for an increase in load-carrying capacity when such a system is employed.

KZ – Size Factor (Clause 5.3.6). The size effect phenomenon exists to some extent in all materials. Research
has shown the size of the specimen influences its unit strength; larger members will have a lower apparent
strength than smaller members. In addition to microscopic defects, the impact of macroscopic characteristics
in wood, such as knots, result in a pronounced variation in strength due to size and thus a modification factor
is used to compensate.

Many additional factors are applicable to specific member resistance properties.

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Tension Members
Wood is frequently used in tension parallel to grain for such applications as truss chords and webs, diaphragm
chords, and flanges of I-joists. Wood is quite efficient in tension parallel to grain; the most significant challenge
encountered is providing adequate connections.
Unlike steel design, no slenderness limit is prescribed by the standard for timber tension members.
Engineering judgement is required for such limits.
Note that wood is usually assumed to possess no tensile capacity perpendicular to grain.

Tensile resistance of wood, parallel to grain:

Sawn Lumber
𝑇𝑟 = 𝜙𝐹𝑡 𝐴𝑛 𝐾𝑍𝑡 CL.6.5.8
where: =0.9
Ft=ft(KDKHKStKT)
ft = Specified strength from Table 6.4 to 6.9
KD = Load Duration Factor from CL. 5.3.2
KH = System Factor from CL. 6.4.4
KSt = Service Condition Factor from CL. 6.4.2
KT = Treatment Factor from CL. 6.4.3
An = Net area of cross-section = Gross area – area of holes, notches, etc.
= bd – bdh  0.75Ag (CL 5.3.8)
KZt = Size Factor from CL. 6.4.5

Glulam
𝑇𝑟 = 𝜙𝐹𝑡𝑛 𝐴𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑟 = 𝜙𝐹𝑡𝑔 𝐴𝑔 whichever is less CL.7.5.11
where: =0.9
Ftn=ftn(KDKHKStKT)
ftn = Specified strength of the net section from Table 7.2
KD = Load Duration Factor from CL. 5.3.2
KH = System Factor from CL. 7.4.4
KSt = Service Condition Factor from CL. 7.4.2
KT = Treatment Factor from CL. 7.4.3
Ftg=ftg(KDKHKStKT)
ftg = Specified strength of the gross section from Table 7.2
An = Net area of cross-section; not less than 75% of the gross area (CL. 7.5.4)
Ag = Gross area of cross-section
Also refer to design tables in Section 4 of the Wood Design Manual.

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 6

Net Area (CL. 5.3.8)

See also CL. [Link].3 – rows of bolts
CL. [Link] – bolt hole size
CL. 12.4.3 – placement of bolts and dowels in connections
For both sawn lumber and glulam, the net area must be greater than 75% of the gross area. Area reduction
must account for all holes, notches, etc. Fasteners causing area reductions include bolts, lag screws, split
rings, shear plates, and drift pins. Reductions need not be considered for nails and glulam rivets.
In the case of bolted joints, the area reduction may depend upon the bolt group configuration. Below displays
the difference between one row of six bolts and two rows of three bolts:

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 7

Tension Analysis Example

Determine the capacity of the bottom chord of a truss. The chord member is a 4x8 SPF#1/#2. It has been
drilled for 2 rows of (2) ¾” bolts where the web members connect. The chord is exposed to the elements and
has been preservative treated.

From Table 6.4 ft = 5.5MPa

From Table 6.4.5 KZt = 1.2
From Table 5.1 KD=1.0 – normal load duration
From Table 6.10 Kst=0.84 – wet conditions
From Table 6.11 KT=0.85 – assume incised (“4x” - 89mm thick)
From Table 6.12 KH=1.0 – single member

Tr = ᶲFtAnKZt

For bolts, the holes shall not less than 1mm and not more than 2mm larger than the bolt diameter
as per Clause [Link], therefore assume the hole is 2mm larger than the bolt diameter.

An = 89x184-2(19+2)(89)
=12638mm2
=0.77Ag>0.75Ag

Tr = 0.9(5.5)(0.84)(0.85)(1.0)(1)(1.2)(12638)
=53.6kN

Refer to the Wood Design Manual for further examples.

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 8

Compression Members
The capacity of a wood compression member can be governed by both the compressive capacity of the wood
and by stability of the member. Regarding the compressive capacity, wood can support loads both parallel-
to-grain and perpendicular-to-grain. Generally, the strength of a typical compression member, itself, is
governed by its compressive capacity parallel-to-grain; stability (buckling) is included in this calculation.
However, the overall capacity of the member as part of a system may be governed by the compressive
capacity perpendicular-to-grain at the supports. That is, though the compression member can withstand a
certain load, the member supporting it, if wood itself, may not have sufficient bearing capacity for that load.
This is a common occurrence in wood framed buildings.
Compression perpendicular-to-grain is, in some respects, as much of a serviceability limit as it is a strength
limit. Exceeding the compressive capacity perpendicular-to-grain will result in crushing of the wood fibres,
producing excessive deflections, but not necessarily catastrophic failure.
Typical compression members are columns, posts, studs, truss chords and webs, and flanges of I-joists.

Compressive resistance of wood, parallel-to-grain:

Sawn Lumber
Pr = Fc AK Zc K C CL. [Link].4

where: =0.8
Fc=fc(KDKHKScKT)
fc = Specified strength from Table 6.4 to 6.9
KD = Load Duration Factor from CL. 5.3.2
KH = System Factor from CL. 6.4.4
KSc = Service Condition Factor from CL. 6.4.2
KT = Treatment Factor from CL. 6.4.3
A = Area of cross-section
KZc = Size Factor from CL. 6.5.5
6.3
=  1.3
(dL) 0.13
d = dimension in direction of buckling (width or depth)
L = length associated with member dimension
KC = Slenderness Factor from CL. [Link].5
−1
𝐹𝑐 𝐾𝑍𝑐 𝐶𝑐 3
= [1.0 + ]
35𝐸05 𝐾𝑆𝐸 𝐾𝑇
Cc = Slenderness Ratio, CL. [Link].2
E05 = 5th percentile modulus of elasticity from Table 6.4-6.9 for visually graded lumber
= 0.82E for MSR lumber
= 0.75E for MEL lumber
KSE = Service Condition Factor from CL. 6.4.2

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 9

Glulam
Pr = Fc AKZcg KC CL. [Link]

where: =0.8
Fc=fc(KDKHKStKT)
fc = Specified strength from Table 7.2
KD = Load Duration Factor from CL. 7.4.1
KH = System Factor from CL. 7.4.4
KSc = Service Condition Factor from CL. 7.4.2
KT = Treatment Factor from CL. 7.4.3
A = Area of cross-section
KZcg = Size Factor
= 0.68 ( Z ) −0.13  1.0
Z = member volume, m3
KC = Slenderness Factor from CL. [Link]
−1
𝐹𝑐 𝐾𝑍𝑐𝑔 𝐶𝑐 3
= [1.0 + ]
35𝐸05 𝐾𝑆𝐸 𝐾𝑇
Cc = Slenderness Ratio, CL. [Link]
E05 = 0.87E
KSE = Service Condition Factor from CL. 7.4.2
Tapered glulam columns may be analysed using an effective width, be, or depth, de, calculated in accordance
with CL. [Link]. The effective width or depth is equal to the minimum width or depth plus 0.45 times the
difference between the maximum and minimum width or depth. The resulting capacity must be checked
against the capacity based on the minimum dimensions and using K c=1.0.

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Designing a compression member

1. Determine the loading to be applied on the member.
2. Establish the boundary conditions at each end and for each axis. Determine the effective length factors,
Kex and Key, about both axes. Refer to A6.5.5.1 for minimum design values of the effective length factor.
3. Calculate the effective length about each axis: L ex=KexLx, Ley=KeyLy. The text below Table A.4 notes the
length, Lx or Ly, is the distance between centres of lateral supports of the compression member. This is
not always equal to the physical length of the member. At a base or cap detail, the distance is to be
measured to the outer surface of the base or cap. This is of particular importance when stud walls are
considered. Standard practice uses a single bottom plate and a double top plate. The length for out-of-
plane buckling, Lx, is therefore the overall distance from the bottom of the bottom plate to the top of the
double top plate – not just the actual length of the stud, itself. Refer to the sketch.
4. Assume cross-section dimensions, b and d, and choose species and grade.
5. Calculate the slenderness ratio about each axis: Ccx=Lex/d, Ccy=Ley/b.
6. Calculate Fc, KZc and Kc. Calculate Pr and check against Pf. If Pf>Pr, change species, grade, or size.

Round Poles
In addition to sawn rectangular members, round poles are frequently used as columns in heavy timber
construction. Special provisions are given in Clause 14 for pole type construction for the determination of
specified strength, effective width or depth, etc.

Stud Walls
Wood stud walls are a typical structural system commonly used as both exterior load-bearing walls and interior
load-bearing partitions. A stud wall assembly combines material efficiency with significant potential for
effective sound attenuation and thermal insulation.
Typical stud wall framing places vertical stud members, spaced at usually 300, 400 or 600 mm, between
horizontal pieces of similar size lumber with sheathing on one or both sides of the wall. Common practice
uses a single bottom plate member and double top plate. The sheathing is fastened to the studs with nails or
screws and effectively restrains the stud against buckling about its weak axis.

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 11

The sketches to the right depict a stud

system both with and without
sheathing. Without sheathing, the
effective length about the weak axis (Ly)
is almost the same as the effective
length about the strong axis (Lx). In this
case, weak axis buckling would control
the design of the stud. When sheathing
is properly applied on one or both sides
Ly is zero, thus the capacity of the stud
in compression parallel-to-grain is
governed by buckling about the strong
axis. This is a more efficient use of the
wood studs.
Note that during construction,
sheathing may not be installed right
away, and the studs may have to
support some amount of construction
load. As a result, buckling about the
weak axis may control the design of the
stud if temporary bracing is not used.
The compressive capacity of a stud wall may be controlled by compression perpendicular-to-grain rather than
compression parallel-to-grain if short, stocky studs are used. For example, a wall comprised of 24 studs,
3000 mm long will be controlled by compression parallel-to-grain, whereas a wall comprised of 26 studs,
3000 mm long will be controlled by compression perpendicular-to-grain – that is, bearing of the end of the
stud on the top or bottom plate will control.

Compressive resistance of wood, perpendicular-to-grain:

Sawn Lumber or Glulam
Qr = Fcp Ab K B K Zcp CL. 6.5.6 (lumber)/CL. [Link] (glulam)

where: =0.8
Fcp=fcp(KDKScpKT)
fcp = Specified strength from Table 6.4 to 6.9 (lumber) or Table 7.2 (glulam)
KD = Load Duration Factor from CL. 5.3.2
KScp = Service Condition Factor, CL. 6.4.2 (lumber) or CL. 7.4.2 (glulam)
KT = Treatment Factor from CL. 6.4.3 (lumber) or CL. 7.4.3 (glulam)
Ab = Bearing Area
KB = Length of bearing factor from CL. [Link]
KZcp = Size Factor from CL. [Link]; for glulam the depth is the thickness of a lamination

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 12

For a stud wall assembly, if Pr<Qr, compression parallel-to-grain controls, if Qr<Pr, compression perpendicular-
to-grain controls.
Regarding the bearing factor KB, for typical stud wall framing 38 mm studs are placed on 38 mm thick plates
and therefore, by CL. [Link], the bearing capacity may be multiplied by 1.25. All but the studs placed at each
end of the wall plate can be increased by 25%. Note that for studs less than 75 mm from the end of the plate,
KB=1.0.

Built-up Compression Members

In frame construction, where the structural wood members will not be left exposed, built-up columns are
frequently used where a member is needed to support substantial loads. Built-up columns are cheaper than
a solid member of similar size. Such columns are comprised of two to five individual plies of a minimum 38
mm thick and joined together with nails, bolts, or timber connectors. The factored resistance is given by either:
1. Buckling about the weak axis of the independent plies:

Pr = Maximum of {kPr1 or Pr 2 } CL. [Link].1

where:Pr1 = Factored resistance of an equivalent solid member buckling about an
axis parallel to the weak axis of the independent plies
k = factor for buckling about the weak axis of the plies
0.60 for nails – refer to CL [Link].2
0.75 for bolts – refer to CL. [Link].3
0.80 for connectors – refer to CL. [Link].4
Note: KH has already been incorporated into these factors
Pr2 = the sum of the factored resistances of the individual pieces considered as independent
members (buckling about the weak axis of the independent plies).
2. Buckling about the strong axis of the independent plies:
Pr = the sum of the factored resistances of the individual pieces buckling about their individual strong
axes. (CL [Link].6)
The resulting factored resistance is therefore the lesser of the above 2 results.

Spaced Compression Members

A similar concept to built-up compression members is spaced compression members where two or more
individual members are arranged with spacer and end blocks and joined together with timber connectors.
CL.[Link] refers to appendix CL. A6.5.5.3 for the design requirements of a spaced compression member.

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 13

Stud Wall Design Example

Determine the capacity of a 2x4 @400o/c stud wall, 3m tall. The studs are SPF #1/#2. The service condition
is dry and no treatment has been applied.
For a 2x4, SPF #1/#2, from Table 6.4:
fc = 11.5MPa
fcp = 5.3MPa
E05 = 6500MPa
For compression parallel to grain:

Pr = Fc AK Zc K c
where =0.8
Fc=fc(KDKHKScKT)
fc=11.5MPa
KD= 1.0
KH= 1.1 from Table 6.4.4
KSc= 1.0
KT= 1.0
2
A=38x89=3382mm
-0.13
KZc=6.3(dL)-0.13 = 6.3(89(3000)) <1.3
=1.24≤1.3
−1
 Fc K Zc Cc 
3
Kc = 1.0 + 
 35E05 K SE KT 

Cc=L/d = 3000/89 = 33.7 <50

therefore Kc=0.275
Pr=0.8(11.5)(1.1)(3382)(1.24)(0.275)
=11.7kN/stud
=29.1kN/m with studs spaced at 400mm o/c

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 14

For compression perpendicular to grain:

Qr = Fcp Ab K B K Zcp
where ᶲ=0.8
F =f (K K K )
cp cp D Sc T

f =5.3MPa
cp

K = 1.0
D

K = 1.0
Sc

K = 1.0
T
2
A=38x89=3382mm
K =1.25 from Table 6.16
b

K =1.15 from Table 6.15

Zcp

Q =0.8(5.3)(3382)(1.25)(1.15)
r

=20.6kN/stud>Pr

Therefore slenderness of the wall controls the design: Pr<Qr.

Compare to Stud Wall Selection Table, p.165 of 2020 WDM.

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 15

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 16

Built-up Post Design Example

Determine the axial capacity of a 4-2x6 nailed built-up post, 3.2m tall. The plies of the post are Hem-Fir #1/#2.
The service condition is dry, no treatment, the post supports a storage area.
For a 2x6, Hem-Fir #1/#2, from Table 6.4:
fc = 14.8MPa
E05 = 7500MPa
For support of a storage area, KD = 0.65
Capacity is controlled by either:
1. Buckling of the partially composite built-up section (i.e. about the weak axis of the independent
plies), or
2. Buckling about the strong axis of the independent plies

For option 1: Buckling about the weak axis of the independent plies
Pr = maximum of kPr1 or Pr2

For Pr1:

Pr = Fc AK Zc K c
where =0.8
Fc=fc(KDKHKScKT)
fc=14.8MPa
KD= 0.65
KH= 1.0 (the system factor for this case is integrated into the k factor of 0.6
KSc= 1.0
KT= 1.0
2
A = 4 x 38 x 140 = 21280mm
-0.13
KZc=6.3(dL)-0.13 = 6.3(4(38)(3200)) <1.3
=1.15 ≤ 1.3

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 17

−1
 Fc K Zc Cc 
3
Kc = 1.0 + 
 35E05 K SE KT 
Cc=L/d = 3200/(4 x 38) = 21 < 50
therefore Kc=0.72
Pr=0.8(0.65(14.8))(21280)(1.15)(0.72) = 136kN
Therefore: kPr1 = 0.6(136) = 82kN

For Pr2:
Cc = 3200/38 = 84 > 50, therefore this failure mechanism is invalid.

For Option 2: Buckling about the strong axis of the independent plies

Pr = Fc AK Zc K c
where =0.8
Fc=fc(KDKHKScKT)
fc=14.8MPa
KD= 0.65
KH= 1.1 (Case 1)
KSc= 1.0
KT= 1.0
2
A = 4 x 38 x 140 = 21280mm
-0.13
KZc= 6.3(dL)-0.13 = 6.3((140)(3200)) [<1.3]
=1.16 ≤ 1.3
−1
 Fc K Zc Cc 
3
Kc = 1.0 + 
 35E05 K SE KT 

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 18

Cc=L/d = 3200/(140) = 22.9 <50

therefore Kc=0.64
Pr=0.8(0.65(1.1)(14.8))(21280)(1.16)(0.64) = 134kN
Therefore, since 134kN> 82kN, buckling of the partially composite section about an axis parallel to the minor
access of the individual plies controls the design of the post. The axial resistance is 82kN.

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 19

Glulam Column Design Example

The second floor of a 2-storey office building is being converted from office space to assembly space for large
gatherings. Confirm if the existing columns have sufficient capacity to accept the increased loading.
The existing glulam columns are 215x304 Spruce-Pine 12c-E. The floor to floor height is 5m. Each column
supports the second floor and roof and is spaced on a 6m x 6m grid.
Loading: Roof: 2.0kPa (snow)
1.5kPa (dead)
2nd 4.8kPa (assembly)
2.4kPa (dead)
Maximum load on the column:
Pf = 1.25(2.4 + 1.5)(36) + 1.5(4.8)(36) + 1.0(2.0)(36) = 507kN
For Spruce-Pine 12c-E, from Table 7.2:
fc = 25.2MPa
E05 = 0.87(9700) = 8439MPa

Pr = Fc AK Zc K c
where =0.8
Fc=fc(KDKHKScKT)
fc=25.2MPa
KD= 1.0
KH= 1.0
KSc= 1.0
KT= 1.0
2
A = 215 x 304 = 65360mm
-0.13
KZc= 0.68(Z)-0.13 = 0.68((0.215)(0.304)(5000)) [<1.0]
=0.79 ≤ 1.0

−1
 Fc K Zc Cc 
3
Kc = 1.0 + 
 35E05 K SE KT 

Cc = L/d = 5000/(215) = 23.3 <50

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 20

therefore Kc= 0.54

Pr = 0.8(25.2)(65360)(0.79)(0.54) = 562kN > Pf, therefore the column is adequate.

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 21

Bending Members
Solid lumber beams, joists and planks
Four conditions must be checked in the design of a bending member:
1. Bending strength
2. Shear strength
3. Deflections
4. Bearing capacity at the supports
1. Bending Strength
M r = Fb SK Zb K L CL. 6.5.3

where: =0.9
Fb=fb(KDKHKSbKT)
fb = Specified strength from Table 6.4 to 6.9
KD = Load Duration Factor from CL. 5.3.2
KH = System Factor from CL. 6.4.4
KSb = Service Condition Factor from CL. 6.4.2
KT = Treatment Factor from CL. 6.4.3
S = Section Modulus
= bd2/6 for a rectangular section
KZb = Size Factor from CL. 6.4.5
KL = Lateral Stability Factor from CL. [Link]
KL is taken as unity when full lateral support is provided at bearing points and
provided that the maximum depth-to-width ratio of the member does not exceed:
4:1 if no additional intermediate support is provided
5:1 if the member is held in line by purlins or tie rods
6.5:1 if the compressive edge is held in line by direct connection of decking or
joists spaced not more than 610 mm apart
7.5:1 if the compressive edge is held in line by direct connection of decking or
joists spaced not more than 610 mm apart and adequate bridging or blocking
is installed at intervals not exceeding eight times the depth of the member
9:1 if both edges are held in line
If the criteria for these ratios are not meet is calculated using Cl. [Link] (See glulam bending)

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2. Shear Strength
2 An
Vr = Fv K Zv CL. [Link]
3
where: =0.9
Fv=fv(KDKHKSvKT)
fv = Specified strength from Table 6.4 to 6.9
KD = Load Duration Factor from CL. 5.3.2
KH = System Factor from CL. 6.4.4
KSv = Service Condition Factor from CL. 6.4.2
KT = Treatment Factor from CL. 6.4.3
An = Net Area of the Cross Section – refer to CL. 5.3.8
KZv = Size Factor from CL. 6.4.5
For a beam supporting a uniformly distributed load, wf, the maximum shear force is Vf=wfL/2. For simplicity
the adequacy of the beam in shear may be determined by comparing this maximum shear to the shear
resistance, Vr. However, as given by CL. [Link], the effects of all loads acting within a distance from the
support equal to the depth, d, of the member may be ignored – thus:
w f L  2d 
Vf = 1 − 
2  L 
Note that when checking bearing at the supports—refer to 4.—this reduction does not apply (i.e. Rf=wfL/2).
A notch on the tension side of a member at its supports is accounted for in CL. [Link]. Though this clause
covers this potential situation, notches should be avoided if possible. Besides the presence of stress
concentrations due to the notch, which are essentially covered by this clause, from a construction point of
view, notches present a great potential for being done incorrectly – the primary concern being over-cutting of
corners in creating the notch.

3. Deflections
Note that deflection limits are based on deflections due to specified loads – not factored loads. Deflection
limits vary for different types of loadings or occupancies. General structural deflection limits may be
summarized as follows:
max=span/360 for live load only on floor members
max=span/240 for live load only on roof members
max=span/180 for total specified load on a member
These limits are by no means applicable to all situations and though they may apply to any given situation,
additional requirements beyond these limits may actually control. Specific minimum requirements for
deflections of wood member are given in CL. 5.4 of CSA O86. Particularly note clauses on ponding (CL. 5.4.4)
and vibrations (CL. 5.4.5).

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Ponding refers to the ponding of rainwater on flat roofs. As water collects, the structural members deflect
resulting in more water collecting towards the centre of the span, resulting in further deflections and more
water towards the centre of the span, resulting in further deflections and more water towards the centre of the
span – a cycle develops referred to as ponding instability. The deflections must be controlled so that such
instability does not occur. The National Building Code of Canada has additional information on ponding.
Vibrations are a generally a nuisance, and in extreme cases may lead to structural instability. Guidelines on
controlling vibration are provided in the National Building Code of Canada. Some of these criteria are
presented in Section 11 of the Wood Design Manual. In addition, much research has been conducted into
vibrations of floor systems – including several studies at the National Research Council of Canada – with
several published engineering journal papers available.
As a first check, a simple criterion for preventing vibration in a simply supported member is limiting the mid-
span deflection under a 1 kN mid-span point load to 1 mm.
Deflection of a simply supported beam under a uniformly distributed live load:

5wL L4
=
384E S I
where: ES = E(KSEKT)
E = specified modulus of elasticity from Table 6.4 to 6.9
KSE = Service Condition Factor from CL. 6.4.2
KT = Treatment Factor from CL. 6.4.3
Compare  against the appropriate allowable deflection.

4. Bearing Capacity at the Supports

The beam supports impose concentrated compressive forces perpendicular-to-grain which must be checked
against the resistance of the member. This is more of a design check and not a critical parameter that would
govern the design of the member. Simply put, if the bearing resistance of the member is exceeded the length
of bearing must only be increased.
Resistance perpendicular-to-grain to all applied loads:

Qr = Fcp Ab K B Kcp CL. [Link]

where: =0.8
Fcp=fcp(KDKScpKT)
fcp = Specified strength from Table 6.4 to 6.9
KD = Load Duration Factor from CL. 5.3.2
KScp = Service Condition Factor from CL. 6.4.2
KT = Treatment Factor from CL. 6.4.3
Ab = Bearing Area
= LB b (Length of bearing  width of beam)
KB = Length of bearing factor from CL. [Link]

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KZcp = Size Factor from CL. [Link]

Note that in the case of a wood member supported on another wood member, both members may have to be
checked for bearing capacity if the species or grade is different and depending on the factor K Zcp for each
member.
Resistance to loads applied within a distance from the centre of the support equal to the depth of the member:

Qr ' = 2 3 Fcp Ab ' K B Kcp CL. [Link]

 L + Lb 2 
where: Ab ' = b b1 , but  1.5b(Lb1 ) from CL. [Link], b = average bearing width
 2 

Resistance to loads bearing at an angle to the grain are addressed through the use of the following provision
(Hankinson’s Formula):
Pr Qr
Nr = CL. 6.5.7
Pr sin 2  + Qr cos2 
where:Pr = factored compressive resistance parallel-to-grain (assuming Kc=1.00)
Qr = factored compressive resistance perpendicular-to-grain
 = angle between direction of grain and direction of load

Vibration
Depending upon the member, structural system, or occupancy supported, vibration performance must
sometimes be confirmed to ensure good performance.

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 25

Joist Design Example

Design a joist floor system spanning 4.8m, supporting office occupancy. SPF #1/#2 is assumed (readily
available across the country).
Loading:
wL= 2.4kPa
wD= 1.0kPa – partitions
0.1kPa – finishes
1.2kPa – concrete topping
0.1kPa – sheathing
0.2kPa – joists
0.3kPa – ceiling/suspended allowance
2.9kPa Total

Analysis Results
Mf=20.8kNm/metre width of floor
Vf=17.3kN/metre width of floor
Deflection – since permanent loads are greater than live loads, limit dead load deflection to less
than L/360 to control creep effects as per CL 5.4.3
5𝑤𝐷 𝐿4 𝐿
𝛥= =
384𝐸𝑆 𝐼 360

5(360)(2.9)(48003 )
𝐸𝑠 𝐼 (𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑) =
384
= 1.503𝑥1012 𝑁𝑚𝑚2 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟

Since wD>wL, KD will be less than 1

KD= 1.0 – 0.5log(PL/PS) CL [Link]
1.0 – 0.5log(2.9/2.4) = 0.96

Assumption: 2x12 joists are going to be used.

Based on 38x286mm dimensions, a 2x12 falls under “Structural Joists & Planks” – Table 6.3

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 26

1. Check bending
𝑀𝑟 = 𝐹𝑏 𝑆𝐾𝐿 𝐾𝑍𝑏
Where: ᶲ=0.9
Fb=fbKDKHKSbKT
fb = 11.8MPa – Table 6.4
KD = 0.96
KH = 1.4 (system Case 2; CL. 6.4.4)
KSb = 1.0 (dry)
KT = 1.0 (no treatment)
S=38(286)2/6 = 518041mm3
KL = 1.0 (sheathing & bridging assumed; 286/38=7.5; CL. [Link])
KZb = 1.0 (Table 6.10)

Mr = 0.9(11.8)(0.96)(1.4)(518041) = 7.39kNm per joist

Try 300mm o/c spacing:
Mf=20.8(0.3) = 6.24kNm/joist < Mr
Therefore 2x12 @300 is okay for ULS bending.

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2. Check Shear
2𝐴𝑛
𝑉𝑟 = 𝐹𝑣 𝐾
3 𝑍𝑣
Where: =0.9
Fv=fv(KDKHKSvKT)

where: fv=1.5 MPa (Table 6.4)

KD= 0.96

K = 1.4 (System Case 2, CL 6.4.4)

H

K = 1.0 (dry)
Sv

KT= 1.0 (no treatment)

2
An=38x286=10868mm

K =1.0
Zv

V =0.9(1.5)(0.96)(1.4)(2/3)(10868)
r

Vr=13.1kN/joist

Spacing: At 300mm o/c spacing (to match requirement for bending):

Vf=5.2kN/joist<Vr

Therefore, 2x12@300o/c is okay for ULS shear.

3. Check Deflections

E=9500MPa (Table 6.4 for SPF#1/#2)

KSE = 1
KT = 1
I = 38(286)3/12
Therefore, EsI = 7.04 x1011Nmm2/joist
Joist Spacing = 300mm
EsI (provided) = 7.04x1011/0.3
= 2.35x1012Nmm2/metre width of floor >EsI (required)
Therefore 2x12@300o/c meets the requirements.

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4. Check Bearing

𝑄𝑟 = 𝐹𝑐𝑝 𝐴𝑏 𝐾𝐵 𝐾𝑍𝑐𝑝 CL.[Link]

where:  =0.8
Fcp=fcp(KDKScpKT)

where: fcp=5.3MPa (Table 6.4)

KD= 0.96

K = 1.0
Scp

K = 1.0
T

Ab=38mm x ???

KB=1.0 (CL. [Link])

KZcp=1.0 (Table [Link])

Qf=5.2kN/joist < Qr=0.8(5.3)(0.96)Ab

2
Ab(required)=1278mm

Width=38mm, therefore the minimum require length of bearing at the

end of the joist is: 34mm
Typically, a minimum of 38mm bearing is provided as standard.

Therefore, SPF#1/#2 2x12 @300o/c, bearing a minimum of 38mm at each end will adequately
Holes in wood elements:
Consider a simply supported 2x10 joist with a 50mm diameter hole at mid-depth.

7180
A = 38x235 A == 38x235 – 38x50 = 0.79
8930

= 8930mm2 = 7180mm2 333,925

= 0.95
S = 38(235)2/6 S = 38(235)2/6 – 38(50)2/6 349,758

= 349,758mm3 = 333,925mm3
The area, and therefore shear capacity, is reduced by 21%; the section modulus, and therefore moment
capacity, is reduced by slightly less than 5%.

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 29

Bending Members
Straight, Prismatic Glulam Beams
As with sawn lumber, five conditions must be checked in the design of a glulam bending member:
1. Bending strength
2. Shear strength
3. Deflections
4. Bearing capacity at the supports

1. Bending Strength
M r1 = Fb SK X K Zbg or M r 2 = Fb SK X K L whichever is less CL. [Link]

where: =0.9
Fb=fb(KDKHKSbKT)
fb = Specified strength from Table 7.2
KD = Load Duration Factor from CL. [Link]
KH = System Factor from CL. 7.4.4
KSb = Service Condition Factor from CL. 7.4.2
KT = Treatment Factor from CL. 7.4.3
S = Section Modulus
= bd2/6 for a rectangular section
KZbg = (130/b)1/10(610/d)1/10(9100/L)1/10 ≤ 1.3
b = either the beam width (single piece laminations) or the width of the widest piece
(for multiple piece laminations)
d = beam depth
L = length of beam segment from point of zero moment to point of zero moment
KL = Lateral Stability Factor from CL. [Link] and CL. [Link]. The lateral stability factor, KL,
of laterally unsupported glulam members with a maximum depth-to-width ratio of
2.5:1 can be taken as unity.
Slenderness Ratio from CL. [Link].3:
Led
CB =
b2
where: Le= effective length determined from Table 7.4
b = the member width
d = the member depth
When no additional intermediate support is provided, Le is determined using lu – the
unsupported length – the distance between points of bearing or the length of the
cantilever. When intermediate support is provided by adequately connected purlins,
Le is determined using a – the maximum purlin spacing.

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Therefore,
KL=1.0 when CB  10
4
1 C 
K L = 1 −  B  when 10<CBCK
3  CK 
where: C K = 0.97EK SE K T
Fb

KL =
0.65EK SE K T when CK<CB50
2
C B Fb K X

KX = Curvature factor from CL. [Link].2

2
t
= 1 − 2000 
R
where: t = lamination thickness
R = radius of curvature of the innermost lamination
Note that KX=1.0 for straight members

2. Shear Strength
The shear resistance is dealt with somewhat differently for glulam beams in that the total factored load is
considered. Research of glulam behaviour determined that shear resistance depends upon both the volume
of the beam and the loading pattern. Therefore:

Wr = Fv 0.48Ag CV Z −0.18  Wf CL. [Link](a)

where: =0.9
Fv=fv(KDKHKSvKT)
fv = Specified strength from Table 7.2
KD = Load Duration Factor from CL. [Link]
KH = System Factor from CL. 7.4.3
KSv = Service Condition Factor from CL. 7.4.2
KT = Treatment Factor from CL. 7.4.4
Ag = cross-sectional area of the member
Z = Beam Volume
CV = Shear Load Coefficient from CL. [Link]

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Note that the equation indicates Wr  Wf. That is, the total factored load resistance of the glulam beam shall
not be less than the sum of all factored loads acting on the beam (Wf). In this case, it is not a direct comparison
of shear that is required.
The shear load coefficient, CV, from CL. [Link] may be determined from Tables 7.7 to 7.12. In cases where
the table do not cover the loading situation, one must employ the procedure given in CL. [Link]:
1. Construct the absolute shear force envelope diagram (i.e. all shear plotted positive).
2. Divide the beam length, L, into n segments of variable length, la, such that no abrupt changes
occur within each segment.
3. Calculate Gi = la(VA5 + VB5 + 4VC5) for each segment.
0.2
 L 
4. Calculate CV = 1.825W f  
  Gi


where:Wf = the total of all factored loads applied to the beam, or , the total of all factored
moving loads and all factored distributed loads applied to the beam.

The shear resistance for glulam beams less than 2 m3 in volume, and for members other than beams, can be
taken as:
2 Ag
Vr = Fv CL. [Link](b)
3
where: =0.9
Fv=fv(KDKHKSvKT)
fv = Specified strength from Table 7.3
KD = Load Duration Factor from CL. [Link]
KH = System Factor from CL. 7.4.3
KSv = Service Condition Factor from CL. 7.4.2
KT = Treatment Factor from CL. 7.4.4
Ag = cross-sectional area of the member
The equation given above is an approximate method for determining the shear resistance and may
underestimate the true shear resistance of the member. As with sawn lumber, the effects of all loads acting

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 32

within a distance from the support equal to the depth, d, of the member may be ignored for this second
treatment of shear, but not the first (CL. [Link]).
Notches at the supports, either on the tension side or compression side, are considered in CL. [Link] and
CL. [Link]. As noted with sawn lumber, notches are generally best avoided if possible, however this is less
of a concern than with sawn lumber, as the fabrication process for glulam is much more controlled and site
modifications are discouraged.

3. Deflections
Deflections of glulam beams are determined in the same manner as with sawn lumber except that shear
deflection should in some cases be considered. In most structural engineering situations, shear deflection is
neglected due to its very small contribution to the overall deflection; for a steel beam with a typical span-to-
depth ratio of 20:1 shear deflection is usually in the order of <5% and so, neglected. Shear deflection in glulam
members tends to be significant, especially when large, deep members are used as girders supporting other
beams over long spans.
The deflection due to shear can be determined using basic structural analysis principles or available tables in
solid mechanics references. An approximate value of shear deflection for a simply supported beam supporting
a uniformly distributed load is given by:

1.2 M o
 shear 
GA
where:Mo = Moment at mid-span due to service loads being considered
G = Shear Modulus  E/16
A = Cross-sectional area
Glulam members are frequently used to support heavy loads over long spans. In such instances, the beam is
usually cambered to reduce the potential visual impact of the service deflections. The amount of camber is
somewhat subjective, however the camber is usually equal to the deflection due to full dead load plus some
percentage of the live load (50% for roofs, 25% for floors).

4. Bearing Capacity at the Supports

Resistance perpendicular-to-grain to all applied loads:

Qr = Fcp Ab K B K Zcp CL. [Link]

where: =0.8
Fcp=fcp(KDKScpKT)
fcp = Specified strength from Table 7.2
KD = Load Duration Factor from CL. 5.3.2
KScp = Service Condition Factor from CL. 7.4.2
KT = Treatment Factor from CL. 7.4.3
Ab = Bearing Area
KB = Length of bearing factor from CL. [Link]

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KZcp = Size Factor from CL. [Link], where the depth is the thickness of a lamination
Resistance to loads applied within a distance from the centre of the support equal to the depth of the member:

Qr ' = 2 3 Fcp Ab ' K B K Zcp CL. [Link]

where:=0.8
Fcp=fcp(KDKScpKT)
fcp = f-E grade value from Table 7.3 for compression face bearing strength
KD = Load Duration Factor from CL. 5.3.2
KScp = Service Condition Factor from CL. 7.4.2
KT = Treatment Factor from CL. 7.4.3
 L + Lb 2 
Ab ' = b b1 , but  1.5b(Lb1 ) , where b is the average bearing width (perpendicular-
 2 
to-grain).

Resistance to loads bearing at an angle to the grain (Hankinson’s Formula):

Pr Qr
Nr = CL. 6.5.7
Pr sin 2  + Qr cos2 
where:Pr = factored compressive resistance parallel-to-grain (assuming Kc=1.00)
Qr = factored compressive resistance perpendicular-to-grain
 = angle between direction of grain and direction of load

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 34

Glulam Beam Design Check Example

Confirm the adequacy of the glulam beam shown below subject to the following:
Size:130mm x 608mm
Species/Grade: [Link]-L 24f-E
Live/snow load deflection limit: L/360
Loading: Snow = 2.0kPa
Dead loads
Roof area: 0.7 kPa (roofing and insulation)
0.1 kPa (sheathing)
0.6 kPa (2x6 NLT decking)
0.05 kPa (beam allowance)
0.25 kPa (suspended allowance)
1.7 kPa (total)
Skylight: 0.75kPa

Mf = 184kNm
Rf/Vf = 112kN
1. Check Bending Strength:

𝑀𝑟1 = 𝐹𝑏 𝑆𝐾𝑋 𝐾𝑍𝑏𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑟2 = 𝐹𝑏 𝑆𝐾𝑋 𝐾𝐿 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠

where: =0.9
Fb=fb(KDKHKSbKT)
fb = 30.6MPa (Table 7.2)
KD = KH = KSb = KT = 1.0
S = 130(608)2/6 = 8009387mm3
130 0.1 610 0.1 9100 0.1
𝐾𝑍𝑏𝑔 = ( ) ( ) ( ) ≤ 1.3
𝑏 𝑑 𝐿

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 35

130 0.1 610 0.1 9100 0.1

𝐾𝑍𝑏𝑔 = (130) (608) (8000) = 1.01 ≤ 1.3
KX = 1.0 (no curvature)
KL = ?
The beam compression side of the beam (in this case the top) is laterally unsupported through the middle of
the span between the purlins. Therefore KL may not be equal to 1.
0.9(30.6)(8009387)(1.0)(0.912) = 201kNm > Mf, therefore bending capacity is adequate.

2. Check Shear

Determine beam volume, Z.

Z = 0.13(0.608)(8) = 0.63m3 < 2m3

Therefore the simplified shear method can be used:

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 36

2𝐴𝑔
𝑉𝑟 = 𝜙𝐹𝑣
3
where:
 =0.9
Fv=fv(KDKHKSvKT)
where: fv=2.0 MPa
KD = KH = KSb = KT = 1.0
Ag = 130x608 = 79040mm2
Vr = 0.9(2.0(2/3)(79040) = 94.8kN < Vf
The shear capacity is inadequate compared to the factored reaction at each end. The factored shear demand
on the beam could be reduced by omitting the load within d of the support.
Alternatively, check Wr.
𝑊𝑟 = 𝜙𝐹𝑣 0.48𝐴𝑔 𝐶𝑉 𝑍 −0.18 ≥ 𝑊𝑓
where:
 =0.9
Fv=fv(KDKHKSvKT)
where: Fv=2.0 MPa
Ag = 79040mm2
Z = 0.63m3
To determine the shear coefficient, Cv:

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For the segment 0 to 2.5m:

𝐺 = 𝑙𝑎 [𝑉𝐴5 + 𝑉𝐵5 + 4𝑉𝐶5 ]
𝐺 = 2500[(112000)5 + (35500)5 + 4(73750)5 ]
G0-2.5 = 6.6017 x 1028 (= G5.5-8)
Therefore:
0.2

𝐿
𝐶𝑉 = 1.825𝑊𝑓

( 𝐺)
0.2
8000
𝐶𝑉 = 1.825(2(112000)) ( ) = 3.7
2(6.6017 × 1028 )
Therefore the load capacity of the beam is:
Wr = 0.9(2.0)(0.48)(79040)(3.7)(0.63)-0.18 = 275kN > Wf = 224kN

3. Deflection

The bending stiffness of the proposed beam is:

EsI = E(KSEKT)I

=3.12 x 1013Nmm2

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 38

Based on the unfactored service loading and bending stiffness:

Consider shear deformations.

1.2𝑀𝑜
∆𝑠 = =
𝐺𝐴

So total live load deflection is 18.5mm—less than the limit—and therefore the beam is adequate. Note that
shear deformations in this case were not significant and would usually be ignored.

4. Bearing check:

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Tapered, Straight Glulam Beams

Tapered straight glulam beams are designed similarly to the steps outlined above, however some
modifications to the procedure are necessary to account for the complication introduced by the taper.

Instead of beginning with the check for bending strength, when designing a tapered beams it is typically best
to initially check the shear strength. For a simply supported, uniformly loaded beam the maximum shear will
occur at the support—also the location of the minimum shear capacity. If the designer is free to decide the
slope of the top of the beam then the shear capacity at the minimum section will control the design. If the
slope of the beam top is provided by the architectural plan, the minimum section can be established by the
shear capacity and the bending capacity can then be checked along the length of the beam. If the beam
volume is greater than 2m3, the total shear resistance based on the volume and loading pattern must be
checked, and so iteration will be necessary, including determination of the shear load coefficient, Cv.
The bending capacity varies with the depth of the section. As a result, the critical point at which the applied
moment equals the moment resistance will not occur at the mid-span of a simply supported, uniformly loaded
beam. As a result, the governing moment capacity occurs to one side of the mid-span. The following figures
illustrate this concept:

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For double-tapered members, the bending stresses resolve to include tension perpendicular to grain at the
apex. An additional bending check (CL. [Link].2) is required in this case to account for these perpendicular
to grain stresses.
Since the section depth – and thus the stiffness – varies along the length of the beam, determining the
deflection of the beam under service loads becomes more difficult. Any valid procedure can be used
(integration, Newmark’s method, software, etc.). For standard cases involving a uniformly distributed load or
a point load in the middle of the span, a deflection table giving bending deflections follows.

Figure 14: Tapered beam deflections (Forest Products Laboratory, 2010)

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Curved Prismatic Glulam Beam

A curved beam should not be confused with an arch. An arch resists loads through axial compression with
each end restrained against lateral translations. A curved beam, though similar in appearance, supports loads
through bending, and relative deflections of the supports is allowed. As the member bends, the internal,
normal bending stresses resolve to include a component perpendicular to grain—referred to as radial
stresses. The greater the curvature, the higher the resulting tension perpendicular to grain.

The minimum radius of curvature of a member is governed by the thickness of the laminations. Limits are set
in CSA O122 and are given in O86 Table A.7 for standard and non-standard lamination thicknesses. A small
radius of curvature results in an uneconomical and relatively large section as the radial stress limit will require
a large depth.
The design of a curved beam is similar to the procedure outlined for straight, prismatic beams:
1. Bending strength
a. Radial Stresses
b. Normal Stresses
2. Shear strength
3. Deflections
4. Bearing capacity at the supports

1. Bending Strength
a. Radial Stresses
2𝐴
𝑀𝑟 = 𝐹𝑡𝑝 𝑅𝐾𝑍𝑡𝑝 CL. [Link].1
3
where: =0.9

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Ftp=ftp(KDKHKStpKT)
ftp = Specified strength from Table 7.2
KD = Load Duration Factor from CL. [Link]
KH = System Factor from CL. 7.4.4
KStp = Service Condition Factor from CL. 7.4.2
KT = Treatment Factor from CL. 7.4.3
A = Cross-sectional area of the member
R = radius of curvature at the centreline of the member – Note that the ‘R’ used in the above
calculation for the curvature factor, KX, is the radius of curvature to the underside of the
beam.
KZtp = size factor in tension perpendicular to grain from Table 7.5
Radial Stress frequently governs the beam design therefore when using Douglas Fir, 20f-E would be
the more economical stress grade to use since the tension perpendicular to grain value is the same
as for the higher stress grade.

b. Normal Stresses
𝑀𝑟1 = 𝐹𝑏 𝑆𝐾𝑋 𝐾𝑍𝑏𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑟2 = 𝐹𝑏 𝑆𝐾𝑋 𝐾𝐿 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 CL. [Link]
where: =0.9
Fb=fb(KDKHKSbKT)
fb = Specified strength from Table 7.2
KD = Load Duration Factor from CL. [Link]
KH = System Factor from CL. 7.4.4
KSb = Service Condition Factor from CL. 7.4.2
KT = Treatment Factor from CL. 7.4.3
S = Section Modulus
= bd2/6 for a rectangular section
KZbg = (130/b)1/10(610/d)1/10(9100/L)1/10 ≤ 1.3
b = either the beam width (single piece laminations) or the width of the widest
piece(for multiple piece laminations)
d = beam depth
L = length of beam segment from point of zero moment to point of zero moment
KL = Lateral Stability Factor from CL. [Link] and CL. [Link]. Note that a curved beam without
in-span lateral support is fundamentally unstable
KX = Curvature factor from CL. [Link].2
2
t
= 1 − 2000 
R
where:t = lamination thickness
R = radius of curvature of the innermost lamination

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2. Shear Strength
The shear strength is determined using the same general procedure used for a straight prismatic beam.

3. Deflections
Two deflections are notable for this type of member: vertical deflection in span, and horizontal deflection at
the supports. The horizontal deflection is of interest when detailing the support condition – particularly at the
top of a wall. While various analysis methods, such as the principle of virtual work or Castigliano’s method,
can be used to find the exact deflections, the vertical deflection can be determined accurately enough based
on a straight beam assumption—the true deflection is underestimated by only about 10%.

The relative horizontal deflection of the supports is more challenging to assess as it is partially dependent
upon the ratio of the span, L, to the radius of curvature of the beam centreline, R. For a beam subject to a
uniformly distributed load, this relative horizontal deflection, H, can be approximated as a fraction of the
midspan vertical deflection, V, using the following:
For L/R ratios between 0.1 and 1:
2𝐿
∆𝐻 = ∆
3𝑅 𝑉
For L/R ratios over 1 and up to 1.75:
3⁄
2 𝐿 2
∆𝐻 = ( ) ∆𝑉
3 𝑅

4. Bearing Capacity at the Supports

In all likelihood, the support will be bearing at some angle neither parallel, nor perpendicular, to the grain and
so Hankinson’s formula applies.
Resistance to loads bearing at an angle to the grain (Hankinson’s Formula):

Pr Qr
Nr = CL. 6.5.7
Pr sin 2  + Qr cos2 
where: Pr = factored compressive resistance parallel-to-grain (assuming Kc=1.00)
Qr = factored compressive resistance perpendicular-to-grain
 = angle between direction of grain and direction of load

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Pitched Tapered Glulam Beam

A pitched tapered beam includes all the elements discussed in the previous sections. Each end of the member
is either a straight prismatic section or a straight tapered section, while the middle portion is both curved and
tapered. As the section is non-prismatic bending stress may have to be checked at several points to ensure
its capacity is sufficient.

The design of this type of beam follows the general procedure, with modifications as noted below:
1. Bending strength
a. Radial Stresses
i. Curved portion (CL. [Link].1)
ii. At the apex (CL. [Link].1 and CL. [Link].2)
b. Normal Stresses (including a special check at the apex incorporating CL. [Link].3)
2. Shear strength
3. Deflections
4. Bearing capacity at the supports

Since a closed form solution is not possible due to the radial tension stresses, a simplified procedure with
supporting design tables incorporating composite factors and appropriate design assumptions is provided in
the WDM (p.711).

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Curved Glulam Beam Design Example

Design a curved prismatic glulam beam for the following:

• 6m span; rise of 1m at mid-span; 5m radius of curvature to underside of beam

• Beams spaced at 2m on centre
• Top surface laterally supported by T&G roof deck and sheathing
• Ss = 2.0; Sr = 0.4
• Dead loads: 0.9kPa
• Service condition is dry; untreated wood
• Deflection limit due to transient loads: L/360
• Glulam: Spruce-Pine 20f-E

Two snow load cases need to be considered:

• Case I: uniform snow load

• Case II: unbalanced snow load applied to one side to account for wind effects on snow
accumulation due to the curved roof profile

The resulting moments and shears are:

Case I: Mf = 37kNm; Vf = 25kN
Case II: Mf = 16kNm; Vf = 16kN

Determine the lamination thickness: Based on Table A.7 and considering a minimum radius of 5000mm, the
required lamination thickness is: 19mm

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 46

Initial guess for depth:

Using WDM selection tables for Mf = 37kNm and neglecting curvature factor and only considering normal
stresses in 20f-E SP glulam:
Required section: 80mm x 380mm
Radius of cuvature is relatively small, and SP is being used (low ftp), so assume a deeper section of
513mm (35% deeper, 27 laminations of 19mm lamstock)

1a. Check radial stresses:

Bending due to radial stresses is given by CL. [Link].1:
2𝐴
𝑀𝑟 = 𝜙𝐹𝑡𝑝 𝑅𝐾𝑍𝑡𝑝
3
where:
=0.9
Ftp=ftp(KDKHKStpKT)
ftp=0.51MPa (O86, Table 7.2)
KD=KH=KStp=KT=1
Ftp = 0.51MPa
A = 80 x 513 = 41040mm2
The radius, R, is taken as the radius to the centreline of the beam depth in this case rather than
the radius to the innermost lamination previously determined. Therefore:
R = 5000 + 513/2 = 5256.5mm
For a beam subject to a uniformly distributed load, the size factor is:
24
𝐾𝑍𝑡𝑝 =
(𝐴𝑅𝛽)0.2

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 47

For a curved uniform member, the angle β is measured between points where the moment is equal to 85%
of the maximum moment and is taken in radians.
𝑤𝐿2 𝐿−𝑥
0.85 = 𝑤𝑥
8 2
𝑥
Solving yields: 𝐿 = 0.306

Therefore:
24
𝐾𝑍𝑡𝑝 = = 0.61
(41040(5256.5)(0.43))0.2
The bending resistance due to radial stresses is:
2(41040)
𝑀𝑟 = 0.9(0.51) (5256.5)(0.61) = 40.3𝑘𝑁𝑚 > 𝑀𝑓
3

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 48

1b. Check normal bending stresses

From the Beam Selection Tables, obtain Mr’ for a section 80mm x 494mm—i.e. one 19mm lamination
shallower than that being considered:
Mr’ = 75.0kNm
𝑀𝑟 = 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑟 ′𝐾𝐿 𝐾𝑋 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑟 ′𝐾𝑍𝑏𝑔 𝐾𝑋
KL = 1; lateral stability is provided by the supported decking
130 0.1 610 0.1 9100 0.1 130 0.1 610 0.1 9100 0.1
𝐾𝑍𝑏𝑔 = ( ) ( ) ( ) = ( 80 ) (513) (6000) = 1.11 ≤ 1.3
𝑏 𝑑 𝐿

While the length, L, in the size factor is taken here as the span rather than the actual length of the curved
arc, the resulting difference is ~1%, and not significant enough to warrant the additional detailed calculation
to determine the actual arc length.
𝑡 2
𝐾𝑋 = 1 − 2000 (𝑅) CL. [Link].2
t is the lamination thickness: 19mm in this example
R is the radius to the innermost lamination: 5000mm
19 2
𝐾𝑋 = 1 − 2000 ( ) = 0.97
5000
Since KL<KZbg:
𝑀𝑟 = 75.0(1.0)(0.97) = 72.8𝑘𝑁𝑚 > 𝑀𝑓

2. Check shear resistance

The beam volume can be approximated, again, based on the span rather than the actual centreline chord
length.
Z=0.08(0.513)(6) = 0.25m3 < 2m3

Therefore, the simplified method can be used. Using the design tables from the Wood Design Manual for
a glulam beam of dimensions 80x494 – i.e. one 19mm lamination less than the current section being
considered:
Vr = 41.5kN > 25kN

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3. Check deflections
The vertical deflection will be approximated based on the standard bending deflection of a simply
supported beam. The deflection due to snow load is:
5𝑤𝐿4 5(0.9)(4)(6000)4 6000
𝛥𝑣 = = = 6.5𝑚𝑚 < = 16.7𝑚𝑚
384𝐸𝑆 𝐼 384(10300)(9.0 × 108 ) 360
A more precise analysis accounting for the curvature of the beam would yield a deflection of 6.7mm—
only a 3% difference.
The relative horizontal displacement of the supports, based on the L/R ratio of 1.2, can be approximated
by:
3⁄ 3⁄
2 𝐿 2 2 6000 2
𝛥ℎ = ( ) 𝛥𝑣 = ( ) (6.5) = 5.7𝑚𝑚
3 𝑅 3 5000
Therefore, the design must allow for a possible horizontal movement of 6mm.
A rigorous analysis yields a relative horizontal displacement of the supports of H=5.8mm—
approximately 2% greater than the approximation.

4. Check bearing
The bearing will likely depend upon the connection condition and would have to be considered for the
specific assembly.
Likely have to use Hankinson’s formula since the end will be at an angle.

5. Final selection:
Use 80mm wide x 513mm deep, 20f-E SP glulam beam with 19mm laminations

Not considered in this example, but wind uplift may control the design as the bottom of the section will
be laterally unsupported

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Members in bending with combined axial load

Members subjected to both transverse loads causing bending and to axial loads (tension or compression)
must be designed to satisfy the appropriate interaction equation from CL. 6.5.9 (lumber), or CL. 7.5.12
(Glulam).
 
M  1 
2
 Pf 
For compression:   + f    1.0
 Pr  Mr  Pf 
1 − P 
 E 
Tf Mf
For tension: +  1.0
Tr Mr
Pf = the factored axial compressive load
Tf = the factored axial tensile load
Mf = the factored bending moment
PE = Euler buckling load in the direction of the applied moment
 2 E05 K SE KT I
PE =
( K e L) 2
Where: E05 = 0.82 for MSR lumber or 0.75 for MEL lumber
= 0.87 for glulam
Pr = factored compressive resistance parallel-to-grain
Tr = factored tensile resistance parallel-to-grain
Mr = factored bending moment resistance
Note that duration effects must be considered in determining member resistances.
Wall Stud Design Example: Determine the adequacy of a 2x4@400mm o/c stud wall
using SPF #1/#2 studs 3m tall, to resist the following loads:
Axial: psnow = 9 kN/m
pdead = 2 kN/m
Transverse: wwind = 1kPa

Load Combination Axial Load Bending

1.25D+1.5S 6.4 kN/stud 0
1.25D+1.5S+0.4W 6.4 kN/stud 0.18 kNm/stud
1.25D+0.5S+1.4W 2.8 kN/stud 0.63 kNm/stud

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For 2x4 studs, 3000mm long, the Euler buckling load (about the strong axis of the stud as
sheathing restrains it from buckling about the weak axis) is:
𝜋 2 𝐸05 𝐾𝑆𝐸 𝐾𝑇 𝐼 𝜋 2 (6500)(1)(1)(38)(89)3 /12
𝑃𝐸 = = = 15.9𝑘𝑁
(𝐾𝑒 𝐿)2 (3000)2

The member resistances are:

KD=1.0 KD=1.15
Pr 11.7kN/stud 12.1 kN/stud
Mr n/a 1.46 kNm/stud

Therefore:

𝑃𝑓 6.4
= = 0.55 ∴ 𝑂𝐾
𝑃𝑟 11.7
6.4 2 0.18 1
( ) + ( ) = 0.49 ≤ 1 ∴ 𝑂𝐾
12.1 1.46 1 − 6.4
15.9
2.8 2 0.63 1
( ) + ( ) = 0.58 ≤ 1 ∴ 𝑂𝐾
12.1 1.46 1 − 2.8
15.9

Check Shear
Vf = 1.4(0.4)3/2 = 0.84kN /stud
Vr = 1.15(7.24) = 8.3kN – taking Vr from the WDM member selection tables.

For deflections, the axial load will magnify the lateral deflection due to P- effects.

5𝑤𝐿4 1 5(0.75)(0.4)(3000)4 1
∆= ( ) = ( )
384𝐸𝑠 𝐼 1 − 𝑃 384(21.2𝑥109 0.8 + 0.5(0.9)(3.6)
𝑃𝐸 1−( )
15.9

=14.9(1.18) = 17.6mm
L/360 = 3000/360 = 8.3mm – deflection controls – stud size needs to increase
Increase to 2x6 studs – =4.6mm – OK

Alternatively, using WDM Stud Selection Tables:

L.C. 2: Pr’ = 7.26 > 6.4 kN/stud– OK
wr’ = 0.451 > 0.16 kN/m = 0.4(0.4)(1) – OK
L.C. 3: Pr’ = 3.63 > 2.8 kN/stud– OK
wr’ = 0.911 > 0.56 kN/m = 1.4(0.4)(1) - OK

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University of Waterloo CIVE 495/700: Structural Design in Timber 52

Connections
Connections are frequently a governing factor in the design of a wood structure. Wood, itself, is an excellent
engineering material however making connections can be quite challenging. For instance, the capacity of a
member in tension is frequently controlled by the capacity of the connections. Connections increase costs
while weakening the structure and may reduce its fire resistance.
Connections are not only critical for the strength of the structure but also for the ductility of the structure; wood
tends not to be ductile and so, in an earthquake, the connections absorb and dissipate the energy input to the
structure by ground motion.
Connections can be made with nails, screws, bolts, split rings and shear plates, glulam rivets, truss plates,
timber joinery, and adhesives, either directly between two members or employing wood or steel plates, or
brackets to facilitate the transfer of the load.
Truss plates are pieces of light-gauge galvanized sheet steel that have been punched so that teeth protrude
from one face. Used extensively in the fabrication of wood trusses, these plates are placed across a joint and
the teeth are pressed into the wood. They are a proprietary product and vary across the industry.
Consequently, the wood design code provides no specific design requirements for truss plates; truss plates
must only be tested and accredited to established design values. Though they are galvanized, truss plates
should not be used in corrosive environments. Corrosion has been the cause of failure of roof trusses used
in factory farm pig barns. In other cases, where the corrosion was noticed in time, refitting the roof trusses
has been costly endeavour.
Timber joinery used in post and beam construction does not make use of metal fasteners. Members are cut
and shaped to provide a tight, interlocking mortise and tenon joint, and then held from pulling apart by
hardwood dowels inserted into holes bored through the joint. Wood design codes do not provide information
on the design of structures using timber joinery since the strength of such a joint is mostly dependent upon
the quality of workmanship. Guidance for designing traditional wood joints is available through various
research papers and from experienced practitioners.
Besides simple bearing in compression, the ideal method of connecting wood is gluing, however as one can
imagine this is not very practical in many situations—particularly during assembly of members on a
construction site. Adhesives can only be used under strictly controlled conditions, and so one must rely on
mechanical fasteners in most situations. Adhesives are used frequently in combination with nails or screws
for house construction to fasten floor sheathing to joists, stiffening the system and reducing the potential for
vibrations and floor squeaks.

Nails and Spikes

Nails are the simplest and most common connector used for wood construction. There are many different
types of nails available, however for structural purposes only common wire nails and common spiral nails are
supported in CSA O86; other types of nails may be used provided the appropriate information is available to
the designer. Common spikes have a larger diameter than nails and are generally used for fastening large
timbers.

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Lateral Resistance
𝑁𝑟 = 𝜙𝑁𝑢 𝑛𝐹 𝑛𝑆 𝐽𝐹 CL. 12.9.3
where: = 0.8
Nu = nu(KDKSFKT)
nu = unit lateral strength resistance from CL. [Link]
KD = load duration factor from CL. 5.3.2
KSF = service condition factor from Table 12.1
KT = treatment factor accounting for strength reducing chemicals (CL. [Link].3)
nF = number of nails
nS = number of shear planes per nail or spike
JF = JEJAJBJD
JE = end grain factor
= 0.67 for nailing into end grain
= 1.0 in all other cases
JA = toe-nailing factor
= 0.83 for toe-nailing
= 1.0 for cases other than toe-nailing
JB = nail clinching factor
= 1.6 for nail clinching on the far side in a two-member connection
= 1.0 if not clinched, or for three or more member connections
JD = factor for diaphragm construction
= 1.3 for nails and spikes used in diaphragm construction
= 1.0 in all other cases
Note: Nails must be arranged in accordance with the spacing requirements of CL. 12.9.2.
Lateral deformation of the joint, if required in the design, can be estimated using CL. A12.9.3.3.
nu is based on a variety of possible failure mechanism; the failure mode depends upon the relative
size and density of the main or side members in wood-to-wood connections.

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As a result of the various possible combinations of materials and nail sizes, the Wood Design Manual
provides design aids that have lateral strength values for various common nailed joint configurations
already tabulated, subject to certain assumptions:

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Withdrawal
𝑃𝑟𝑤 = 𝜙𝑌𝑤 𝐿𝑝 𝑛𝐹 𝐽𝐴 𝐽𝐵 CL. 12.9.4
where: = 0.6
Yw = yw(KSFKT)
yw = withdrawal resistance per mm of penetration
= 16.4(dF)0.82(G)2.2, where dF is the nail diameter and G is the mean relative
density based on oven-dry weight and volume.
KSF = service condition factor from Table 12.1
KT = treatment factor from [Link].3
Note: There is no KD term. Nails may only be loaded in withdrawal for wind or earthquake
loading conditions, and so any duration effects are account for in the yw term.
Lp = length of penetration into the main member, mm
nF = number of nails
JA = 0.67 for toe-nailing
= 1.0 for cases other than toe-nailing
JB = 1.6 for nail-clinching on the far side of a two-member connection
= 1.0 if not clinched or in three or more member connections
While the above provisions provide capacity for nails in withdrawal, it is best to avoid using nails in withdrawal.
Screws are a better option if a fastener is needed in withdrawal.
Note: Nails into end grain have no withdrawal resistance.

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Example: Lateral resistance of a nail

What is the capacity of a 2½” long nail (3.25mm dia.) fastening 12.5mm DFP to SPF framing?

Nr = NunFnsJF CL. 12.9.3

Where:  = 0.8
Nu = nuKDKSFKT
nu = unit lateral resistance nu
Two member connection, therefore only a, b, d, e, f, g apply; d controls a 1397.419
b 3367.626
c not relevant
Nu = 680 (1) (1) (1) = 680N
d 680.1147
e 1540.925
JF = JEJAJBJD = 1 for all standard conditions f 953.0089
g 801.2619

Nr = 0.8(680)(1)(1)(1)
= 544N = 0.5kN

Check with WDM, p. 364

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Nail Sizes and Head Types

A current—though not well known and often overlooked—issue in the light wood construction field is the
availability of a variety of nail diameters for any given length, and a variety of head types. With the proliferation
of nail guns, a variety of nail diameters have been introduced. For instance, a 3” common nail is available in
no less than 4 diameters: 0.12", 0.128", 0.131" and 0.148". The last, and largest, is the diameter that conforms
to the requirements of Part 9 of the NBCC. Since larger diameter nails use more steel, they are more
expensive—thus framers are more likely to choose the smaller diameter nails as they will be cheaper. This
becomes a significant issue as smaller diameter nails will have a reduced capacity.
Part 9 (Table [Link]) of the NBC specifies the following diameters:
Minimum Length of Diameter of
Nails, mm Nails, mm
57 2.87
63 3.25
76 3.66
82 3.66
101 or greater 4.88

When alternate diameters are proposed, NBCC A-[Link].(2) provides the following corrections for spacing
or number of nails:
Sadj = Stable(Dred/Dtable)2
Sadj = adjusted nail spacing ≥ 20 x nail diameter,
Stable = nail spacing required by Table [Link].,
Dred = smaller nail diameter than that required by Table [Link]., and
Dtable = nail diameter required by Table [Link].
Nadj = Ntable(Dred/Dtable)2
Nadj = adjusted number of nails,
Ntable = number of nails required by Table [Link].,
Dtable = nail diameter required by Table [Link]., and
Dred = smaller nail diameter than required by Table [Link].
In effect, if a 0.12” diameter nail is substituted for a 0.148” diameter nail, 50% more nails are required, or the
spacing must be reduced to 2/3 of what might have been calculated to begin with originally.

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Many contractors appear to be unaware of this issue, so best

practice is to specify both the nail length and diameter. One
could even perhaps provide multiple nail sizes and the
corresponding number or spacing required so that the correct
configuration can be provided based on whatever nail the
contractor decides to use.
Another complicating issue is the type of head available. Nail
guns greatly increase productivity, and to maximize the number
of nails in a magazine to limit reloading different nail heads have
resulted, including full round heads, clipped heads and offset full
round heads. Clipped heads have slightly less holding power
than full round heads under cyclic loads, notably in post-peak
behaviour. The larger area also helps in preventing overdriving
of nails into sheathing which has significant impact on shearwall
performance.

(Leichti & Kurtz, Wood Shear Wall Performance: Influence of Sheathing Nail Head Geometry, ASCE, November 2009)

Some jurisdictions, such as California, have essentially outlawed clipped head nails in shearwall and
diaphragm construction, and so full round head nail guns have become more commonplace. Full round head
nails should be specified for shearwall and diaphragm construction.

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Wood Screws
Conventional wood screws for structural purposes are similar in many respects to nails in terms of use and
capacity, except that they perform much better in withdrawal applications. Standard framing screw lengths
vary from 25mm (1”) to 102mm (4”), with longer lengths available though not as common. Diameters are given
in terms of gauge, with O86 provisions limited to 6 (3.5mm𝜙), 8 (4.16mm𝜙), 10 (4.82mm𝜙) and 12
(5.48mm𝜙) gauge screws. Pilot holes are required when using wood screws when the relative density of the
wood is 0.5 or higher; lead holes are not required in SPF which has a relative density of 0.42. Diameters larger
than 12 gauge must be assessed as a lag screw.

The design formulation for shear (CL. 12.11.3) is very similar to that of nails, except that there is no clinching
factor or diaphragm factor for screws.
Withdrawal resistance (CL. 12.11.4) is also similar in formulation to that of nails, but with significantly higher
results, and in addition to the pullout of the threaded portion from the main member, head pull-through must
also be checked.

Bolts, Dowels and Lag Screws

Bolts and lag screws are traditional connectors used with heavy timber. They are readily available in Imperial
sizes and most design data is based on these sizes. Bolts for structural application are available in metric,
however they have not been commonly used for construction in Canada and so availability may be limited.
Dowels are smooth round pins, typically with a rounded or reduced diameter at the ends. They are designed
like bolts however they are installed as tight-fit and do not have the hole tolerance used with bolts. Proprietary
self-drilling dowels are also available.
The typical grade of bolt and lag screw used for timber connections is ASTM A307.
Bolted connection design values are derived considering several possible modes of failure, both ductile and
brittle in both the joint configuration and in the bolts and connected materials. These are illustrated below from
O86.

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As with nails, design tables for bolts are presented in the WDM to expedite the design process.
Depending upon the joint configuration, a connection may exert a shear force on a member and so the shear
capacity of that member must be checked based on a reduced depth, d e.
Due to the possibility of shrinkage and swelling of the wood during its service life, connections should account
for possible dimensional changes. Bolted connections using steel side plates require special attention in this
regard as failure to do so may result in splitting of the member. Multiple steel side plates are required if the
distance between the outer rows exceeds 125 mm.

Bolts in Tension
A connection using bolts in tension must be evaluated based on the tensile resistance of the bolt given by
CSA S16. The washers or plates used in the connection must be sufficient to withstand the tensile load while
providing sufficient bearing area so that the bearing resistance of the wood is not exceeded. A table of tensile
resistance values of A307 bolts is presented in the WDM.

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Lag Screws
Lag screws are very useful in situations where bolts are impractical such as fastening into very large timbers
or where accessibility is limited for installing the nut. They can be used with both wood and steel side plates
and with split rings and shear plates.
The spacings, end and edge distances, and net section for lag screws are the same as for bolts of a diameter
equal to the shank diameter for the lag screw.

(Image: CWC Wood Design Manual)

Split Rings and Shear Plates

Split rings and shear plates are largely one in the same. They differ in that split rings are used in wood-to-
wood connections while shear plates are used in wood-to-steel connections. Apart form this, they perform the
same general function; that is, they provide a bearing area larger than that provided by bolts or lag screws,
alone, over which to distribute the force being transferred. Higher resistance values result.

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Split ring and shear plate connections are very common in large timber or glulam construction. They are
installed in grooves that are pre-cut into the wood member and the members are then held together by a bolt
or lag screw. Two sizes of each are available: split rings are available in 2-½” and 4” diameters while shear
plates are available in 2-⅝” and 4” diameters.

Split Ring Joint Shear Plate Joint

(images: CWC Wood Design Manual)
When using split rings and shear plates, the net area of the wood member is reduced due to the groove and
this must be considered when checking the capacity of the member. Groove dimensions are given in Table
12.6. The WDM has tables of removed area values for split rings and shear plates.
As with bolts, shear effects due to the joint configuration must be considered using the effective depth, d e.
Design tables for shear plates and split rings are presented in the WDM.

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Timber Rivets (Glulam Rivets)

Timber rivets are essentially heavy gauge, high-strength, galvanized nails with a flattened-oval cross section.
They are used closely spaced in groups for glulam and heavy timber connections using steel side plates. The
rivets are installed in holes pre-drilled in the steel side plates, with the flattened sides of the rivet also oriented
parallel to the grain of the wood member, regardless of the direction of the force. Like rectangular box nails
once used by furniture makers, the flat sides of a rivet installed parallel to the grain help to prevent the wood
from splitting along the grain.

(Image: CWC Wood Design Manual)

Timber rivets are available in lengths of 40, 65, and 90 mm.

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Proprietary Connectors
Many proprietary connections have been introduced to the market in recent years, including self-drilling
dowels and screws, specialty hangers and glued-in systems. Many provide significant increases in capacity
over traditional bolts and lag screws, and are more easily installed, resulting in more accurate and robust
connections. In addition modern connectors better facilitate concealed connections, resulting in simpler fire-
rated assemblies.

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Panel Product Applications

The provisions for the design of structural components using structural panels are given in Section 9 of CSA
O86. Panel products, though manufactured, have been standardized across the industry and therefore design
values can be found in Table 9.3 of O86 for Douglas Fir plywood (DFP), Canadian Softwood Plywood (CSP),
and Oriented Strand Board (OSB). Panel products are normally available in both metric (1200 mm x 2400
mm) and imperial (4’ x 8’; 1220 mm x 2440 mm) standard size sheets, though imperial sized sheets are more
common.
In some cases, the modification factors (KD, KS, etc.) vary from those values used for sawn lumber or glulam
members:
KD = load duration factor from CL. 9.4.1
KS = service condition factor from CL. 9.4.2
KT = treatment factor from CL. 9.4.3
Two new factors not yet encountered apply to panel products: KF is a factor relevant to plywood used in
preserved wood foundations, and XJ is a joint factor necessary in calculations for the transfer of forces from
one panel to another through a butt joint or scarf joint.
KF = factor for preserved wood foundations from CL. 9.4.5
XJ = stress joint factor from CL. 9.4.4
Note that face grain orientation of a structural panel is most significant in determining the strength of a panel.
Normally for a 1200 x 2400 mm panel, the face grain parallels the long direction.
Roof and floor sheathing must be designed for the loads to be resisted. In most cases the use of the design
tables in the Wood Design Manual will suffice for determining minimum thicknesses for sheathing. In situations
in which the loading exceeds, or the conditions differ from, those covered by the tables, the provisions of
Clause 9 of CSA O86 must be followed.
Standard practice typically uses 12.5mm sheathing as a minimum for roofs and 18.5mm sheathing for floors
even if loading would permit thinner. For walls, standard construction practice is to use a minimum sheathing
thickness of 11mm (7/16”) regardless if a thinner sheathing would work. Depending upon the finish material
used (siding, brick, stone, etc.) thicker sheathing may be required for its anchorage.

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Structural Panels
Plywood and OSB can be used for myriad structural applications. Both alone and in combination with other
materials, panel products can function in many different modes. Due to the make-up of panels, they have
different properties in different directions, and thus different design values in those directions. Like a block of
solid wood, a panel can be viewed with respect to three orthogonal axes: parallel-to-face grain, perpendicular-
to-face grain, and perpendicular to the panel. Every specified strength value, except for shear through the
thickness of the panel, depends upon the orientation of the face grain.
The following figures illustrate the various possibilities of loading on structural panels.

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Example: Determine floor sheathing for a light-framed structure supporting office floor loads. Use CSP.
Loading: wL = 2.4 kPa
wD = 1.0 kPa – partitions
= 0.2 kPa – finishes
= 0.1 kPa – sheathing self-weight
1.3 kPa
wf = 5.2 kPa - total
BUT – OBC/NBC also has provisions for specified concentrated live loads. In the case of an office space, one must
consider a concentrated load of 9kN distributed over an area of 750mm square as per OBC CL [Link].
So, live load is effectively now:
wL = 9/0.752 = 16kPa

Span is between joists – assume 400mm o/c – maximum spacing typically used for floor joists. Neglect continuity of
span – assume a partial sheet is required at the edge of a floor – not a full sheet over multiple spans.
Mf = wL2/8 = [(1.5)(16) + 1.25(1.3)](0.4)2/8 = 0.51kNm/m
Vf = 25.6(0.4)/2 = 5.1 kN/m

Try 18.5mm plywood:

Mr = Mpbp CL.9.5.2
Where:  = 0.95
Mp = mpKDKSKTKF
mp = 770 Nmm/mm - from Table 9.2 for 18.5mm, 5 ply, 0̊ orientation
KDKSKTKF = 1 – all normal conditions
bp = 1000mm – unit width of floor
Mr = 0.95(770)(1000) = 0.73kNm/m of floor > Mf

Vr = Vpsbbp CL.[Link]
Where:  = 0.95
Vpsb = vpsbKDKSKTKF
vpsb = 8.7 N/mm - from Table 9.2 for 18.5mm, 5 ply, 0̊ orientation
KDKSKTKF = 1 – all normal conditions
bp = 1000mm – unit width of floor
Vr = 0.95(8.7)(1000) = 8.3 kN/m of floor > Vf

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Deflections

Deflections: Bb = EI Bb = 3 600 000 Nmm2/mm – from Table 9.2

For deflections, consider a double-span condition rather than a simple span, but with live load on only one span:
𝑤𝐿4 (16)(4004 )
∆= = = 1.04𝑚𝑚
109𝐸𝑠 𝐼 109(3600000 × 1000)
𝐿
< 1.1 =
360
The above design is somewhat conservative. One would not normally consider only the simple span
condition for strength but would consider a continuous spanning condition instead. As in all design
situations, engineering judgement must be used.
Simple sheathing selection tables are provided in the WDM to simplify sheathing design.

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Shearwalls, Floor and Roof Diaphragms

Shearwalls and diaphragms are lateral load-resisting elements to support a building against the forces caused
by wind and earthquake and transfer these forces to the foundations. Shearwalls and diaphragms are
essentially the same thing, the difference being shearwalls are typically vertical elements while diaphragms
are horizontal elements such as a floor. Diaphragms may also be sloped or curved such as in the case of a
roof.
Shearwalls and diaphragms are governed by the requirements presented in Clause 11 of CSA O86.

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In light framing applications, diaphragms and shearwalls generally consist of structural sheathing on wood
framing. The sheathing can be plywood, OSB, wood planks or drywall. In heavy timber applications, such
elements generally consist of timber decking, glulam or CLT panels.
Shearwalls generally consist of sheathing on wood studs. Structural wood panel-based shearwalls provide
for a tremendously redundant and ductile lateral force-resisting structure. The redundancy and ductility both
come from the use of nails to adhere the sheathing to the studs that frame the walls. Relatively closely spaced
nails work to transfer a small amount of force each so that if one fails, there are many more still effective. As
well, a slender steel nail acting in bending creates a plastic hinge, absorbing energy and providing ductility to
the structure.
In the following design procedures, some simplifications have been made with regards to the dimensions of
the panels, load locations, etc. Note that in many cases the calculations need to account for the actual location
of the force or centroid of a force-carrying member.

Design of Plywood Diaphragms

The diaphragm behaves like an I-beam in that the sheathing acts as the web, transferring the transverse
forces to the supports, while the wood framing at either side resists the bending in tension and compression.
The design process is as follows:
1. Determine the forces and load effects due to the lateral loads. In this case for wind loads:
a. Vf = wf a/2
b. Mf = wf a2/8
2. Determine the plywood layout and whether the diaphragm will be blocked or unblocked. (Figure
11.2/Figure 11.5)
3. The factored shear resistance of a nailed diaphragm is the lesser of:
𝑉𝑟𝑠 = 𝜙𝑣𝑑 𝐽𝐷 𝐽𝑠 𝐽𝑓 𝐽𝑢𝑑 𝐿𝐷 CL. [Link] (a)
which is the sheathing-to-framing connection, where:
 = 0.8
vd = Nu/s, specified shear strength for diaphragms, kN/m

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JD = factor for diaphragm and shearwall construction, CL. [Link]

Js = fastener spacing factor, CL.11.5.1
Jf = fastener row factor for blocked diaphragm, CL. 11.5.2
Jud = strength adjustment factor for unblocked diaphragms, CL. 11.5.3
LD = dimension of diaphragm parallel to direction of factored load, m
or,
𝑉𝑟𝑠 = 𝜙𝑣𝑝𝑏 𝐾𝐷 𝐾𝑆 𝐾𝑇 𝐿𝐷 CL. [Link] (b)
which is the sheathing panel buckling limit for the most “critical” panel,
where:
 = 0.8
vpb = panel buckling strength, kN/m; CL. [Link] (b)
KD = load duration factor
Ks = service condition factor, Table 9.4
KT = treatment factor, usually 1 for preservative treatment; refer to CL. 9.4.3
LD = dimension of diaphragm parallel to direction of factored load, m
4. Design the chords for tension and/or compression (remember that wind can blow both ways):
Pf = Tf = M/h, where h is the distance between the centroid of the chords. (h  b)
Note that the chords will likely be comprised of several pieces of lumber spliced together and not a
single piece along the whole length of the building. The connections required to splice these pieces
should be checked.
5. Check deflections based on CL 11.7.2 for blocked diaphragms. For an unblocked diaphragm, no
guidance is provided in O86, however research has shown that the deflection of unblocked
diaphragms is dependent upon the diaphragm aspect ratio. For a relatively square building (1:1
aspect ratio) unblocked and blocked diaphragm deflections will be similar. At a more rectangular
aspect ratio of 3:1, unblocked deflections will be approximately 2.5 times larger than that of a blocked
diaphragm.3
Note that the lateral sway of a typical building under wind loads is limited in the NBCC to h/500.

Design of Shearwalls

3 APA Technical Topics TT-064B, June 2013

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The design process is as follows:

1. Determine the loads and load effects.
2. Determine the extent of shearwalls.
CL. [Link] limits the height-to-length aspect ratio of a blocked shearwall segment to 3.5:1. Beyond
this limit (i.e. segments that are taller than 3.5x their lengths), the segment cannot be relied upon to
resist lateral load and is ignored. For unblocked shearwalls, CL. 11.4.4 limits the aspect ratio to 2:1
with a height limit of 4.88m. Currently CSA O86 does not consider openings in shearwalls (CL.
[Link]); only full height segments on each side of openings are considered.
3. The factored shear resistance of a nailed shearwall is:

Vr = Vrs CL. [Link]

Vr is the factored shear resistance for each shearwall segment. For wood panel-based
shearwalls, this is calculated as the lesser of the resistance governed by sheathing to framing
connection or the resistance governed by panel buckling.
For sheathing to framing connection:
𝑉𝑟𝑠 = 𝜙𝑣𝑑 𝐽𝐷 𝑛𝑠 𝐽𝑢𝑠 𝐽𝑠 𝐽ℎ𝑑 𝐿𝑠 CL. [Link](a)
where:  = 0.8
vd = Nu/s, shear strength for shearwall segment, kN/m
JD = Factor for diaphragm and shearwall construction from CL. [Link]
ns = number of shear planes in the connection
Js = fastener spacing adjustment factor, CL.11.5.1
Jub = strength adjustment factor for unblocked shearwalls from CL. 11.5.4
Jhd = hold-down effect factor for shearwall segment from CL 11.5.5
Ls = length (m) of shearwall segment parallel to direction of factored load
For panel buckling:
𝑉𝑟𝑠 = 𝜙𝑣𝑝𝑏 𝐾𝐷 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝑇 𝐿𝑠 CL [Link](b)
where:  = 0.8
vpb = panel buckling strength of the most critical structural panel, kN/m
KD = load duration factor
Ks = service condition factor, Table 9.4
KT = treatment factor, usually 1 for preservative treatment; refer to CL.9.4.3
Ls = length (m) of shearwall segment parallel to direction of factored load

Gypsum board-sheathed shearwalls are allowed by O86, subject to the limitations of

CL.11.5.4 and CL.11.8.8.

For gypsum board-based panels: Vrs = vd J hd Ls CL. [Link]

where:  = 0.7
vd = specified shear strength for shearwall segment from Table 11.4
Jhd = hold-down effect factor for shearwall segment from CL 11.5.5

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Ls = length (m) of shearwall segment parallel to direction of factored load

Note: gypsum board sheathed walls can only be used for short-term loading
conditions.
4. Design chords and hold-down connections for the required
forces.
The chord members must be continuous to the top of the
shear wall and must be designed for tension and/or
compression. Many additional loads may have to be
considered in the design of the chord members. For instance,
a built-up stud adjacent to an opening may be loaded axially
by a lintel and may have to resist wind perpendicular to the
wall plane.
Hold-downs are mechanical connectors which are frequently
required to anchor the chords to the foundations.
5. Design shear connection to foundation. The shear wall may sit
on a foundation wall itself, and it may sit on floor framing which
is supported on a sill plate on the foundation wall. In the latter
situation, the sheathing needs to be connected to the sill plate, either directly or connected to the floor
framing which is then connected to the sill plate with fastening equivalent to the shearwall nailing.
The connection of the bottom wall plate or sill plate to the foundation is typically accomplished by
bolting the plate down with steel anchor rods which have been cast into a concrete foundation wall
spaced at up to 1200mm o/c.
6. Check deflections using CL 11.7.1. CSA O86 provides guidance on both blocked and unblocked
shearwalls. Again note that the maximum lateral drift due to wind is H/500.
The top of an infill panel over an opening in a shearwall needs to be continuous with the wall sections on
either side to ensure proper transfer of the lateral forces. (This is usually accounted for by the diaphragm
chord member to resist lateral loads in the orthogonal direction.)

Diaphragms and Shearwalls: Blocked versus Unblocked

In unblocked diaphragms and shearwalls, two edges of the sheathing are unsupported by framing members.
Blocked diaphragms and shearwalls include framing members at the perimeter of all panels—secondary
“blocking” members are included between the main joists or studs so that all panel edges have framing
supporting them. The transfer of shear from panel to panel can be effected at all four panel edges rather than
just two edges, resulting is a stronger and stiffer diaphragm or shearwall.
Shearwalls can easily be blocked, however blocking can present challenges for diaphragms. Depending upon
the roofing and insulation system, frequently a vented space above the insulation is required. Blocking can
restrict the venting leading to condensation and other problems.

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Figure 15: Shearwall with and without blocking at sheathing edges

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Diaphragm/Shearwall Design Example

Design the diaphragm and shearwalls of the simple industrial building shown.
The reference wind pressure is 0.48kPa and the exposure is “Open”. The building is of normal importance.

Determining Wind Loads

q = 0.48
Ce = 0.9 (Open exposure)
Iw = 1.0 (ULS)/0.75 (SLS)
The wind pressures are determined using Figures 4.1.7.6A and B in the Code. Composite CpCg factors are
determined based on the windward or leeward side and accounting for end zone effects.
The design will be governed by the wind blowing perpendicular to the long dimension of the building as it will
be resisted by the shallowest diaphragm and shortest shearwalls.
The worst-case scenario is presented with the higher end zone pressure applied to the end of the building
with the large opening.

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Wind loads are determined using the combined gust-pressure coefficients. The wind is applied to the
windward and leeward walls, with the vertical wall studs distributing the wind pressure to the ground
(foundations) and the roof (roof diaphragm). Line loads applied to the roof diaphragm can be
determined, and so too can the shear and bending moment forces in the roof diaphragm.

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Diaphragm Design
To start, an unblocked diaphragm will be pursued. Blocking all panel edges adds cost and labour to the
construction process and can complicate venting of roof insulation.
Minimum sheathing thickness on the roof would be initially based on gravity loads (roofing weight and snow).
Assuming edges of panels are supported, a minimum thickness would be 9.5mm sheathing, however 12.5mm
is the minimum practical thickness for roof sheathing.
The sheathing configuration is assumed to be Case 1 from Figure 11.5

Shear resistance of a nailed diaphragm

Sheathing to framing connection:
𝑉𝑟𝑠 = 𝜙𝑣𝑑 𝐽𝐷 𝐽𝑠 𝐽𝑓 𝐽𝑢𝑑 𝐿𝐷 CL. [Link] (a)
where:
 = 0.8
vd = Nu/s
Nu = nuKDKSFKT
Begin by assuming 12.5mm DFP (4-ply) on SPF framing with 2½” (3.25 dia.) nails. It’s best to keep the
nails this size or smaller as larger nails have limits on framing size with smaller nail spacings.

KD = 1.15 (short term – wind)

KSF = KT = 1
From previous nail connection example:
Nu = 680N x 1.15 = 780N
s = 150mm

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JD = 1.3 (diaphragm connection factor, CL. [Link])

Js = 1.0 (nail spacing factor – 150mm spacing assumed to begin, CL.11.5.1)
Jf = 0.89 (fastener row factor for blocked diaphragm, CL. 11.5.2)
Jud = 0.89 (strength adjustment factor for unblocked diaphragms, CL. 11.5.3)
LD = 7m
Therefore:
Vr = 0.8(0.78/0.15)(1.3)(1.0)(0.89)(0.89)(7)
= 30kN >Vf

Panel Buckling check

𝑉𝑟𝑠 = 𝜙𝑣𝑝𝑏 𝐾𝐷 𝐾𝑆 𝐾𝑇 𝐿𝐷 CL. [Link] (b)

where:
 = 0.8
KD = 1.15
Ks = 1.0
KT = 1.0
LD = 7m
vpb = panel buckling strength, kN/m; CL. [Link] (b)
𝜋 2𝑡 2 3 4
1
𝑣𝑝𝑏 = 𝐾𝑝𝑏 (𝐵 𝐵 )
3000𝑏 𝑎,0 𝑎,90
t = 12.5mm
b = 1200mm
Ba,0 = 70000N/mm (T9.1 for 12.5mm, 4-ply DFP)
Ba,90 = 57000N/mm
Kpb = panel buckling factor

−∝
𝐾𝑝𝑏 = 1.7( + 1) exp ( ) + (0.5 + 0.8)
0.05 + 0.75
where:
1 1
𝑎 𝐵𝑎,90 4 2400 57000 4
∝= ( ) = ( ) = 1.9
𝑏 𝐵𝑎,0 1200 70000

2𝐵𝑣 2(6900)
= = = 0.22
√𝐵𝑎,0 𝐵𝑎,90 √57000(70000)

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−∝
𝐾𝑝𝑏 = 1.7( + 1) exp ( ) + (0.5 + 0.8)
0.05 + 0.75
−1.9
𝐾𝑝𝑏 = 1.7(0.22 + 1) exp ( ) + (0.5(0.22) + 0.8)
0.05(0.22) + 0.75
𝐾𝑝𝑏 = 0.17 + 0.91 = 1.08

𝜋 2 (12.5)2 1
𝑣𝑝𝑏 = 1.08 (70000(57000)3 )4 = 27.8
3000(1200)
Vrs = 0.8(27.8)(1.15)(1)(1)(7) = 179kN >>Vf

Therefore, the sheathing to framing connection, controlled by the nailing capacity, controls the
design.

Chord Forces
The chords are designed to resist the compression and tension chord forces in the diaphragm.

Recall that fc > ft, and note that the chord member will be fully laterally supported by both the roof and wall,
therefore buckling is essentially prevented. Tension therefore governs the chord design.

Mf = 57.8 kNm
Therefore:
Pf/Tf = 57.8kNm / (7-0.2)m = 8.5kN

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The double top plate of a typical stud walls typically performs the role of the chords of light wood-frame
diaphragm. The chord has to be continuous, and so the individual plies of the double top plate can be lapped
and spliced to result in a continuous member from one end of the diaphragm to the other.
Assuming a 2x6 stud wall is being used, and taking the tensile capacity of a 2x6 from the design tables of the
WDM:
Tr = 1.15(34.2) = 39kN >Tf/Pf
Therefore a conventional double top plate would be adequate for ULS.
The individual plies must be spliced together with nails to ensure continuity. The minimum nailing requirement
for the lap splice would be:
Tf = 8.5kN

Assuming 2½” (3.25mm dia.) nails, from WDM page 333:

Nr’ns = 0.553 kN
Nr = 1.15(0.553)nF
nF = 13.4 nails required, therefore use 14 nails minimum
lap of 2.4m with 14 nails – results in nails spaced at ~150mm

Deflections
Deflection of the diaphragm is given by CL. 11.7.2 for a blocked diaphragm:
5𝑣𝐿3 𝑣𝐿 ∑(∆𝑐 𝑥)
∆𝑑 = + + 0.00061𝐿𝑒𝑛 +
96𝐸𝐴𝐿𝐷 4𝐵𝑣 2𝐿𝐷

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where:
v is the max shear due to specified loads
Vf max = 16.5kN
therefore
16.5𝑘𝑁
𝑣= × 0.75 ÷ 7𝑚 = 1.3𝑘𝑁/𝑚 = 1.3𝑁/𝑚
1.4
L = 16000mm
LD = 7000mm
EA = 9500(38)(140) = 50540000N (single SPF 2x6 chord member)
Bv = 6900 N/mm2 (Table 9.1)
2
0.013𝑣𝑠 0.013(1.3)(150) 2
𝑒𝑛 = ( ) =( ) = 0.058
𝑑𝐹 2 (3.25)2
The last term of the deflection equation requires more detailed knowledge of the construction of the roof. The
locations of the splices are required to determine the numerator. In this case, standard stock lengths of 16’
(4.8m) will be assumed in order to determine the splice locations.

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Specified diaphragm moment (kNm)

Specified force (kN) = M/(6.8m)
Nails each side of splice
Force/nail (N)
2
0.013(𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒/𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑙)
∆𝑐 = ( )
𝑑𝐹 2
x (distance to closest shearwall)
cx
Therefore, considering the chord on each side of the building:
∑cx =
Finally, calculating the lateral deflection of the diaphragm:
∆𝑑 =

However this deflection represents a blocked diaphragm. Based on research, the deflection of an unblocked
diaphragm with an aspect ratio of 1:1 will be approximately equal to that of a blocked diaphragm. For an
unblocked diaphragm with an aspect ratio of up to 3:1 (span to depth), the deflection can be expected to be
2.5 times that of a blocked diaphragm.
Therefore:
d =

This may be a more realistic estimate of the anticipated deflection but maybe somewhat conservative.
Lateral deflection due to wind is limited by Code to a sway ratio of h/500. So a 4m tall building should sway
laterally no more than 4000/500 = 8mm. The calculated deflection has not yet accounted for the additional
sway due to the contribution of the shearwalls.

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Shearwall Design
The shearwalls on the front of the building will be designed as they represent the critical condition—the largest
force being taken by the shortest sections of wall.

The sections on each side of the door are the same width, therefore are the same stiffness and resist the load
equally. Any contribution of the portion of wall over the door in terms of creating frame action with the wall
sections is ignored.
The aspect ratio of a shearwall segment is limited to 3.5:1 (CL. [Link]). In this case each segment is 4m:2m
(2:1) therefore both can be considered a shearwall segment.

Sheathing Thickness
Typically, 11mm (7/16”) sheathing is the minimum thickness used for exterior walls on wood framed
structures. As this is a larger building, assume 12.5mm DFP to begin, fastened with 2½” (3.25mm dia.) nails.
An initial nail spacing of 150mm around the panel edges will be checked to begin.

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Sheathing to Framing Connection

𝑉𝑟𝑠 = 𝜙𝑣𝑑 𝐽𝐷 𝑛𝑠 𝐽𝑢𝑠 𝐽𝑠 𝐽ℎ𝑑 𝐿𝑠 CL. [Link]

where:
 = 0.8
vd = Nu/s = 0.78/0.15 = 5.2kN/m (from previous diaphragm calc.)
JD = 1.3 (diaphragm connection factor, CL. [Link])
ns = 1 (# of shear planes - sheathing on one side of framing)
Jus = 1.0 (blocked shearwalls, CL.11.5.4)
Js = 1 (fastener spacing factor, CL. 11.5.1)
Jhd = 1 (hold-downs to be used, CL. 11.5.5)
LD = 2(2) = 4m
Vrs = 0.8(5.2)(1.3)(1)(1)(1)(1)(4) = 21.6kN > Vf
Therefore, 2½” nails spaced at 150mm around the panel perimeters in 12.5mm DPF on SPF framing is
adequate.

Panel Buckling
As before, panel buckling is not anticipated to control, so it will not be checked.
In general, panel buckling will only control for heavily loaded (i.e. close nail spacing) panels with
relatively thin sheathing.

Design Chords and Hold-downs

Assume a minimum of a 2-ply built-up member at each end complete with a hold-down bracket. The lever
arm to resist the overturning moment can then be determined based on the assumed chords (and an assumed
hold-down bracket):

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Lever arm:

The required hold-down bracket can be selected from supplier literature such as from Simpson Strong-tie
(image below). In this case, an appropriate hold-down bracket would be HDU4-SDS2.5. The bracket capacity
is 20.08kN when combined with SPF lumber, and the bracket deflection at the factored limit is 3.3mm.

The chord member itself must be sized to resist the factored tension or compression loads.
Assuming a double 2x6 stud, the tensile capacity of the double stud based on the WDM design tables is:
Tr =

The compressive capacity of the double stud is:

Pr =

Note that the chord at the door jamb may have to be revised once it is designed in detail to account for wind
loads on the face of the wall and door, loads from the lintel/roof, etc.
Therefore, a double stud plus a HDU4-SDS2.5 hold-down at each end of each shearwall segment is adequate
for the lateral loads acting on the wall.

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Design shear connection to foundation

The bottom plate of the shearwall must be connected to the foundation wall to resist the horizontal shear. This
is typically done with anchor rods cast into a concrete foundation.
Assuming a 2x6 bottom plate fastened with 1/2” dia. anchor rods cast into the foundation, the capacity can be
determined based on the design tables in the WDM. Joint configurations are provided beginning on p.422.
Type 13 (single shear, wood to concrete) applies in this instance.
Using the design table on p471:

For 2 fasteners in a row, Pr’ = 9.49kN. Pr = 1.15(9.49) = 10.9kN > 8.25kN

Therefore (2) ½” dia. anchor rods are needed per segment

For your project you will notice that these values have a little R subscript this means your connections is
governed by row shear failure mode. We also notice if we look at this equation that the number of connectors
is simply multiplied in. Therefore we can simply factor this up for large amount of fasteners. However be aware
of the maximum in net tension of Tr = 34.2*1.15*(38*140-(12.7+2)*38)/(140*38) = 35.2 kN

Need to consider wind uplift, wind perpendicular to face of wall, etc. etc. for anchor requirements.

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Deflections
Deflection of the shearwalls is given by CL. [Link] for blocked shearwalls:
2𝑣𝐻𝑠 3 𝑣𝐻𝑠 𝐻𝑠
∆𝑠 = + + 0.0025𝐻𝑠 𝑒𝑛 + 𝑑𝑎
3𝐸𝐴𝐿𝑠 𝐵𝑣 𝐿𝑠
where:
v is the max shear due to specified loads

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In addition, the elongation of the anchor rod required to anchor the hold-down bracket to the foundation must
be accounted for. The required anchor size for the specified bracket is 5/8” dia. (15.9mm). Assuming a 600mm
long anchor rod with an embedded plate on the end:

Therefore:

Recall the drift limit is H/500 = 8mm. Assuming a full length wall on the back of the building, its deflection
would be significantly less than that of the front, however the combined diaphragm deflection and shearwall
deflection would still result in an overall drift greater than the limit. Therefore, the shearwalls and/or diaphragm
must be stiffened to ensure the limit is respected. This could be accomplished by:
• Shearwalls
o Increase the number or size of the built-up chord plies
o Reduce the nail spacing (affects en)
o Increase nail diameter
o Sheath both sides of the wall
o Thicker sheathing
o Add shearwalls
• Diaphragm
o Block the diaphragm
o Increase the number and/or size of the chord members
o Increase nail diameter
o Reduce nail spacing
o Thicker sheathing

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Timber and the Building Code

The use of timber in building construction is governed by either Part 3 (large buildings) or Part 9 (small
buildings).
Use of timber in large buildings (Part 3) depends upon several code factors: height of building, area of building,
major occupancy, etc. As an “acceptable solution”, timber use (combustible construction) is limited; if pursuing
an alternative solution, these limits can potentially be overcome. Combustible construction includes light wood
framing and heavy timber. Light wood framing achieves fire rating through concealment of the framing
members with non-combustible materials such as gypsum wall board (drywall), etc. Heavy timber achieves
fire rating through member size.
Starting with the release of the first National Building Code in 1941, combustible construction was limited to 4
storeys in height. Prior to that time, there were no restrictions and many taller buildings were constructed,
including timber-framed buildings up to 8 storeys in Toronto and 9 in Vancouver that still stand today.
Code changes in BC in 2009 led to a renewal in interest in taller wood-framed buildings with provisions to
cover up to six storeys in height as an acceptable solution. Modern timber and timber composite buildings
exceeding 10 storeys have been built in several countries in recent years.
Larger buildings up to six storeys fall under the provisions of Part 3 and include specific restrictions on building
size, access for firetrucks, height of highest floor and require structural engineering in conformance with Part
4 of the code.
The 2015 NBC includes provisions for 6-storey combustible construction, and the 2020 NBC will contain
provisions for up to 12 storeys using combustible construction, though the provisions will be based on a
significant degree of timber encapsulation. The use of exposed timber for buildings not covered by code-
recognized acceptable solutions requires approval through the alternative solution process.

Figure 16: Area vs. height for combustible construction [2015 Mid-Rise Reference Guide, Ontario
WoodWorks!]

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Light Wood Framing

Traditional light wood framing is used extensively for single family house construction but can also be used
for much larger buildings. Small buildings are governed by Part 9 of the building code and are required to
meet prescriptive requirements detailing member sizing and configuration, and framing connections such as
those detailed in the following figures and tables. If a member or portion of a structure does not conform to
the prescriptive requirements, it must then be engineered.
Due to the relatively low self-weight, wood floor framing is particularly susceptible to vibrations. As a result,
much research has been conducted in Canada to assess and control floor vibrations. The Part 9 span tables
shown below include, in addition to strength and deflection considerations, limitations on span based on
vibration performance.
The calculation procedure for floor vibrations applicable to modest spans for sawn lumber joists are presented
on p.959-962 of the WDM.

Figure 17: Light Wood Frame Construction [APA]

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Table [Link].
Nailing for Framing
Forming Part of Sentence [Link].(1)
Construction Detail Minimum Length of Minimum Number or Maximum Spacing of
Nails, mm Nails
1. Floor joist to plate – toe nail 82 2
2. Wood or metal strapping to underside of floor joists 57 2
3. Cross bridging to joists 57 2 at each end
4. Double header or trimmer joists 76 300 mm (o.c.)
5. Floor joist to stud (balloon construction) 76 2
6. Ledger strip to wood beam 82 2 per joist
7. Joist to joist splice (See also Table [Link].) 76 2 at each end
8. Header joist end nailed to joists along perimeter 101 3
9. Tail joist to adjacent header joist 82 5
(end nailed) around openings 101 3
10. Each header joist to adjacent trimmer joist 82 5
(end nailed) around openings 101 3
11. Stud to wall plate (each end) toe nail 62 4
or end nail 82 2
12. Doubled studs at openings, or studs at walls or wall intersections and 76 750 mm (o.c.)
corners
13. Doubled top wall plates 76 600 mm (o.c.)
14. Bottom wall plate or sole plate to joists or blocking (exterior walls)(1) 82 400 mm (o.c.)
15. Interior walls to framing or subflooring 82 600 mm (o.c.)
16. Horizontal member over openings in non-loadbearing walls – each end 82 2
17. Lintels to studs 82 2 at each end
18. Ceiling joist to plate – toe nail each end 82 2
19. Roof rafter, roof truss or roof joist to plate – toe nail 82 3
20. Rafter plate to each ceiling joist 101 2
21. Rafter to joist (with ridge supported) 76 3
22. Rafter to joist (with ridge unsupported) 76 See Table [Link].
23. Gusset plate to each rafter at peak 57 4
24. Rafter to ridge board – toe nail – end nail 82 3
25. Collar tie to rafter – each end 76 3
26. Collar tie lateral support to each collar tie 57 2
27. Jack rafter to hip or valley rafter 82 2
28. Roof strut to rafter 76 3
29. Roof strut to loadbearing wall – toe nail 82 2
30. 38 mm × 140 mm or less plank decking to support 82 2
31. Plank decking wider than 38 mm × 140 mm to support 82 3
32. 38 mm edge laid plank decking to support (toe nail) 76 1
33. 38 mm edge laid plank to each other 76 450 mm (o.c.)

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Conventional light-wood framing has developed extensively over the last century and carpentry has become
somewhat standardized, much of which is reflected in Part 9 of the Code. Some standard assemblies are
shown below.

Figure 18: Standard framing at wall corners/intersections

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Figure 19: Standard framing on foundation wall

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Figure 20: Standard wall framing at foundation

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Figure 21: Standard framing at roof overhang

Figure 22: Standard opening framing

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Heavy Timber Construction

Though wood burns, it burns relatively slowly (0.66mm/minute for most species). As well, when wood burns
the char created on the surface actually insulates and protects the sound wood beneath. And unlike steel,
which has little strength at increased temperatures, the un-burnt wood in the core of a large member retains
much of its strength. Large timbers must therefore burn for a significant period of time before the structural
adequacy or integrity of a building is undermined. Structural systems comprised of large timbers have an
inherent degree of fire safety.
Heavy timber construction defines more than just the use of relatively large timbers for the structural system.
Clause [Link] outlines the full requirements for heavy timber construction.
CLT and other so-called mass timber products are typically viewed comparable to heavy timber, however as
research advances, they may receive separate classification based on specific unique merits.
[Link]. Heavy Timber Construction
(1) Wood elements in heavy timber construction shall be arranged in heavy solid masses and with essentially smooth
flat surfaces to avoid thin sections and sharp projections.
(2) Except as permitted by Sentences (3) to (6) and (12), the minimum dimensions of wood elements in heavy timber
construction shall conform to Table [Link].
Table [Link].
Heavy Timber Dimensions
Forming Part of Sentence [Link].(3)
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4 Column 5
Supported Structural Element Solid Sawn Glued-Laminated Round
Assembly (width × depth), (width × depth), (diam),
mm × mm mm × mm mm
Roofs only Columns 140 × 191 130 × 190 180
Arches supported on the tops of walls or 89 × 140 80 × 152 ---
abutments
Beams, girders and trusses 89 × 140 80 × 152 ---
Arches supported at or near the floor 140 × 140 130 × 152 ---
line
Floors, floors Columns 191 × 191 175 × 190 200
plus roofs
Beams, girders, trusses and arches 140 × 241 or 191 × 191 130 × 228 or175 × 190 ---
(3) Where splice plates are used at splices of roof arches supported on the tops of walls or abutments, roof trusses,
roof beams and roof girders in heavy timber construction shall be not less than 64 mm thick.
(4) Floors in heavy timber construction shall be of glued-laminated or solid sawn plank not less than,
(a) 64 mm thick, splined or tongued and grooved, or
(b) 38 mm wide and 89 mm deep set on edge and well-spiked together.
(5) Floors in heavy timber construction shall be laid,
(a) so that no continuous line of end joints will occur except at points of support, and covered with,
(i) tongued and grooved flooring not less than 19 mm thick laid cross-wise or diagonally, or
(ii) tongued and grooved phenolic-bonded plywood, strandboard or waferboard not less than 12.5 mm thick,
and
(b) not closer than 15 mm to the walls to provide for expansion, with the gap covered at the top or bottom.
(6) Roofs in heavy timber construction shall be of tongued and grooved phenolic-bonded plywood not less than 28
mm thick, or glued-laminated or solid sawn plank that is,
(a) not less than 38 mm thick, splined or tongued and grooved, or

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(b) not less than 38 mm wide and 64 mm deep set on edge and laid so that no continuous line of end joints will
occur except at the points of support.
(7) Wood columns in heavy timber construction shall be continuous or superimposed throughout all storeys.
(8) Superimposed wood columns in heavy timber construction shall be connected by,
(a) reinforced concrete or metal caps with brackets,
(b) steel or iron caps with pintles and base plates, or
(c) timber splice plates fastened to the columns by metal connectors housed within the contact faces.
(9) Where beams and girders in heavy timber construction enter masonry, wall plates, boxes of the self-releasing
type or hangers shall be used.
(10) Wood girders and beams in heavy timber construction shall be closely fitted to columns, and adjoining ends
shall be connected by ties or caps to transfer horizontal loads across the joints.
(11) In heavy timber construction, intermediate wood beams used to support a floor shall be supported on top of the
girders or on metal hangers into which the ends of the beams are closely fitted.
(12) Roof arches supported on the tops of walls or abutments, roof trusses, roof beams and roof girders in heavy
timber construction are permitted to be not less than 64 mm wide provided,
(a) where two or more spaced members are used, the intervening spaces are,
(i) blocked solidly throughout, or
(ii) tightly closed by a continuous wood cover plate not less than 38 mm thick secured to the underside of the
members, or
(b) the space below the roof deck or sheathing is sprinklered.

Wood Use in Non-combustible Buildings

Though a building occupancy may not include combustible construction as an “acceptable solution”, this does
not automatically preclude the use of combustible materials such as wood – it only limits the use. Non-
combustible construction generally requires the use of non-combustible materials for the structure. However,
wood is frequently used for structural members in non-combustible buildings; sprinklered non-combustible
buildings not more than two storeys in height may have roof assemblies and supports comprised of heavy
timber. Experience has shown heavy timber construction is superior to non-fire-rated, non-combustible
assemblies such as steel.
[Link]. Heavy Timber Roof Permitted
(1) Unless otherwise permitted by Articles [Link]. to [Link]., a roof assembly in a building up to 2
storeys in building height is permitted to be of heavy timber construction regardless of building area or type of
construction required, provided the building is sprinklered.
(2) If Sentence (1) permits a roof assembly to be of heavy timber construction, structural members in the
storey immediately below the roof assembly are permitted to be of heavy timber construction.

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Heavy and Mass Timber Structures

While conventional light framing—or stick framing—is the standard for houses and many small buildings,
larger buildings are the realm of heavy timber and mass timber. While some new products and technologies
are more recent developments, the concepts behind heavy and mass timber construction is a traditional
construction form that has been used in North America for more than a century.
Wood products and technologies used for modern mass timber construction include:
• Glulam
• Nail-laminated Timber (NLT)
• Dowel-laminated Timber (DLT)
• Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL) (in large dimension pieces)
• Laminated Strand Lumber (LSL) (in large dimension pieces)
• Cross-laminated Timber (CLT)

Nail-laminated timber (NLT)

Nail-lam is a traditional method of constructing mass timber floors for industrial buildings in North America
during the first half of the 20th century. Also known as “mill” deck, NLT is composed of sawn lumber—usually
2x6’s or 2x8’s—oriented on edge and well-nailed to the adjacent lamination. While traditionally constructed
on site and in place, modern applications use pre-fabricated panels manufactured in a factory setting and
delivered to site.

Dowel-laminated Timber (DLT)

Dowel laminated timber is similar to NLT, except that the plies are fastened together using wooden dowels
instead of nails. The benefit of DLT over NLT is a potential for lower cost. It has limited availability.

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LVL and LSL used in mass timber

While normally used in small pieces as a substitute for conventional dimension lumber, LVL and LSL are
manufactured as large dimension billets which are subsequently cut into smaller pieces. They can however
be used as large dimension panels.

Figure 23: LVL roof panels (left, photo by Brisco) and LSL floor panels (right, photo by Equilibrium)

Cross-laminated Timber (CLT)

Cross-laminated timber (CLT) is a mass timber panel element consisting of at least three layers of dimension
lumber-sized boards glue-laminated with the grain direction of each layer alternating orthogonally to adjacent
layers. The panel behaves as an orthotropic plate element and is analogous to plywood and has been
described as “jumbo plywood”.
CLT was originally developed in Europe and has been produced there since the 1990’s. Standard
development began in North America in 2010 with production coming on stream shortly after in BC and
Quebec. The product standard ANSI PRG-320 is a joint Canada-US standard that covers manufacturing of
CLT. Panels sizes vary between manufacturers, but generally are at least 2.4m wide by 12m long and consist
of between 3 and 7 layers of 35mm lumber.
CLT is an appropriate substitute for conventional heavy construction such as concrete and steel structural
systems. It is not a cost-effective substitute for conventional light wood framing. Advantages of CLT over
conventional steel and concrete structural systems include:
• Pre-fabricated, manufactured product – high precision fabrication and minimizes construction time
• Relative ease of connections/modifications (drills and screws, not welding)
• Cross-lamination minimize dimensional changes in the plane of a panel
• Two-way plate element allows two-way bending action
• Good fire resistance; massive timber
• Carbon sink
• Reduced demand on foundation—lighter than a comparable concrete building

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Used as floor and roof slabs, CLT achieves span to depth ratios comparable or less than those of concrete
slabs. Typically spans are governed by deflection and vibration considerations; strength does not typically
govern. Below is a comparison table published by Structurlam.

Effective section properties have been analytically developed and verified by testing, and the current CSA
O86 has provided coverage for simple analysis, though design standard development is ongoing.
Construction of CLT building structures is analogous to precast concrete construction, with walls supporting
slabs, except that connections are greatly simplified, using screws and bolts rather than welding and grouting.

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CLT Design Parameters

CLT is grouped into five stress grades based on the species and grade of lumber used in the longitudinal and
transverse layers, Clause 8.2.3:
Stress Grade Longitudinal Layers Transverse Layers
E1, E2, E3 MSR Visually graded
V1, V2 Visually graded Visually graded

The specified strength of laminations, Table 8.2:

Flexural Design of CLT

1. Flatwise Bending Strength
For major strength direction: CL. [Link] (a)
where: =0.9
Fb=fb(KDKHKSbKT)
fb = Specified strength of longitudinal
layers from Table 8.2
KD = Load Duration Factor from CL. [Link]
KH = System Factor from CL. 8.3.4
KSb = Service Condition Factor from CL. 8.3.2
KT = Treatment Factor from CL. 8.3.3
Image: Dr. Lacroix
Seff,f,0 = Effective flatwise section modulus
(𝐸𝐼)𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑓,0 2
= 𝐸 ℎ

(EI)eff,f,0 = Effective flatwise bending stiffness in major strength direction

E = Modulus of Elasticity of longitudinal layers from Table 8.2

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h = thickness of the panel

Krb,0 = 0.85
Effective Stiffness in flatwise bending, (EI)eff,f,0: CL. [Link] (a)

Bending Stiffness:

Shear Rigidity:

Where: n = number of layers in the panel

Ei = modulus of elasticity of laminations in the ith layer
= E, for laminations in the longitudinal layers
= E⊥, for laminations in the transverse layers
b0 = width of the panel measured perpendicular to the major strength direction
ti = thickness of laminations in the ith layer
zi = distance between the centre line of the ith layer and the panel’s neutral axis
h = thickness of the panel
Gi = shear modulus of laminations in the ith layer
= G, for laminations in the longitudinal layers
= G⊥, for laminations in the transverse layers

For minor strength direction: CL. [Link] (b)

where: =0.9
Fb=fb(KDKHKSbKT)
fb = Specified strength of transverse
layers from Table 8.2
KD = Load Duration Factor from CL. [Link]
KH = System Factor from CL. 8.3.4
KSb = Service Condition Factor from CL. 8.3.2
KT = Treatment Factor from CL. 8.3.3 Image: Dr. Lacroix
Seff,f,90 = Effective flatwise section modulus
(𝐸𝐼)𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑓,90 2
= 𝐸 ℎ90

(EI)eff,f,90 = Effective flatwise bending stiffness in minor strength direction

E = Modulus of Elasticity of transverse layers from Table 8.2
h90 = thickness of the panel without the outer longitudinal layers
Krb,90 = 1.0

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Effective Stiffness in flatwise bending, (EI)eff,f,90: CL. [Link] (b)

Bending Stiffness:

Shear Rigidity:

Where: n = number of layers in the panel

Ei = modulus of elasticity of laminations in the ith layer
= E, for laminations in the longitudinal layers
= E⊥, for laminations in the transverse layers
b90 = width of the panel measured perpendicular to the minor strength direction
ti = thickness of laminations in the ith layer
zi = distance between the centre line of the ith layer and the panel’s neutral axis
h = thickness of the panel
Gi = shear modulus of laminations in the ith layer
= G, for laminations in the longitudinal layers
= G⊥, for laminations in the transverse layers

2. Flatwise Shear Strength

In CLT, rolling shear governs the shear check. Rolling shear occurs when shear forces in the transverse layers
cause the wood fibres to “roll” over one another. Therefore, the code does not require designers to check the
regular horizontal shear resistance for CLT slabs. Other applications may require verification of the horizontal
shear resistance. In such cases, the minimum of the factored horizontal and rolling shear resistance should
be taken.

Image: CLT Handbook

For major strength direction: CL. [Link] (a)

where: =0.9
Fs=fs(KDKHKSvKT)
fs = Specified strength in transverse layers from Table 8.2

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KD = Load Duration Factor from CL. [Link]

KH = System Factor from CL. 8.3.4
KSb = Service Condition Factor from CL. 8.3.2
KT = Treatment Factor from CL. 8.3.3
Ag,0 = gross cross-sectional area of the panel measured perp to the major strength direction
= b0h

For minor strength direction: CL. [Link] (b)

where: =0.9
Fs=fs(KDKHKSvKT)
fs = Specified strength in longitudinal layers from Table 8.2
KD = Load Duration Factor from CL. [Link]
KH = System Factor from CL. 8.3.4
KSb = Service Condition Factor from CL. 8.3.2
KT = Treatment Factor from CL. 8.3.3
Ag,90 = gross cross-sectional area of the panel measured perp to the minor strength
direction, excluding the outermost longitudinal layers
= b90h90
Note: For a CLT panel with multiple longitudinal outermost layers, all these layers are excluded from
the gross cross-sectional area, Ag,90

3. Deflection and Vibration

Maximum deflection under a specified load acting ⊥ to the plane of the panel shall be calculated as a sum of
the deflections due to moment and shear using the effective bending stiffness, (EI) eff, and the effective in-
plane (planar) shear rigidity, (GA)eff, with consideration for creep effects.
• CL. A8.5.2 provides a method to calculate deflections

Where: ΔST = elastic deflection due to short-term and/or standard-term loads

ΔLT = instantaneous elastic deflection due to long-term loads
Kcreep = creep adjustment factor
= 2.0 for dry-service condition
• Deflection under a specified uniformly distributed load, ω, acting ⊥ to the plane of a single-span
panel may be calculated as follows:

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• For a concentrated line load, P, located in the middle of a single-span CLT panel acting ⊥ to the
panel may be calculated as follows:

Due to the high strength to weight ratio of wood vibration is often a governing criterion, especially at longer
spans (>~4-5m). Because of this an empirical equation was developed to estimate the maximum span
allowable for vibration concerns for a CLT panel. The allowable span for the control of floor motions caused
by walking on a CLT floor may be calculated using the following equation:

where: ℓv = vibration-controlled span limit, m

(EI)eff,f = effective flatwise bending stiffness for a 1 m wide panel, N•mm2 (see Clause [Link])
m = linear mass of CLT for a 1 m wide panel, kg/m
• Note: The above equation assumes the floor
a) has a single span with both ends simply supported; and
b) is bare with no topping material
• For multiple-span floors with a non-structural element that is considered to provide enhanced
vibration effect, ℓv may be increased by 20% provide it is not greater than 8m
• For floors with concrete topping, where the concrete is applied directly to the CLT panel, this
equation may be used assuming bare floor construction for calculation purposes, i.e., weight of
concrete is ignored in calculating the mass, m, provided the area density of the topping is not
greater than twice the bare CLT floor area density

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CLT Flexure Example

Determine if the following simply supported roof panels meets ULS and SLS design criteria using the CSA
O86 equations. Check your answer with the WDM tables:
• Dead load = 1.30 kPa
• Snow load = 2.32 kPa
• Span = 5 m
• CLT panel stress grade: V2
• 5-ply (t1 = t2 =...= t5 = 35 mm)

Determine the factored loads:

Determine properties from T8.2:

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Determine flatwise moment resistance:

Effective Bending Stiffness:

E1 = E3 = E5 =
E2 = E4 = E⊥ =
z1 = z5 =
z2 = z4 =
z3 =

(𝐸𝐼)𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑓,0 =

Effective Section Modulus:

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Moment Resistance:

Determine flatwise shear resistance:

𝑉𝑟,𝑓,0 =

Check deflection:

• From ℄8.5.2: ∆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ∆𝑆𝑇 + ∆𝐿𝑇𝐾𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑝

o ΔST = elastic deflection due to short term and/or standard term loads, without dead loads in
combination
o ΔLT = instantaneous elastic deflection due to long term loads
o Kcreep = creep adjustment factor
= 2.0 for dry service conditions
• For serviceability reasons, maximum roof deflection should not exceed L/180:

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For UDL:

Shear rigidity:
𝑡 𝑡 2
(ℎ − 21 − 2𝑛 )
𝐺𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑓,0 =
𝑡 𝑡𝑖 𝑡
[( 1 ) + (∑𝑛−1
2 ) + ( 𝑛 )]
2𝐺1 𝑏𝑦 𝐺𝑖 𝑏𝑦 2𝐺𝑛 𝑏𝑦

Deflection:

Vibration Check:

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Heavy/mass timber framing systems

A variety of structural systems—some old, some new—can be used depending upon the application. A
selection are illustrated below (images are courtesy of Blackwell).

Purlin & Beam (left) and Two-way Beams (right)

Long Deck/Short Beams (left) and Short Deck/Long Beams (right)

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Staggered Deck (left) and Point-supported Deck (right)

“Hollowcore” Deck (left) and Timber-concrete Composite Deck on Delta Beams (right)

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Detailing
The performance of heavy or mass timber structures is very dependent upon efficient and effective connection
detailing due to the size of the individual members and the resulting scale of structures built with them. In
particular moisture-volume effects and the resulting shrinking and swelling that occurs in wood members, as
well as durability concerns, must be carefully considered when designing the assembly of individual members
into a larger structure.

The following list outlines basic principles for good connection design4:
• Transfer loads in compression bearing whenever possible
• Allow for dimensional changes due to potential in-service moisture cycling
• Avoid the use of details that induce tension perpendicular to grain in a member
• Avoid moisture entrapment at connections
• Do not place wood in direct contact with masonry or concrete
• Avoid eccentricity in joint details
• Minimize exposure of end grain

Failure to adhere to these principles can lead to poor connection performance resulting in structural failure,
shortened service life, increased maintenance costs and other issues.

4 APA Technical Note: Glulam Connection Details, Form No. EWS T300H, 2007.

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Protection

Protection
Wood and Fire
Wood is a combustible material. For this very reason wood may be regarded as a material that does not
perform well, structurally, in a fire event, however this is somewhat flawed thinking. Timber undergoes three
stages when heated:
1. Drying Phase - where the material dehydrates at the source of local exposure. Note that in this
phase the relative size of the member and moisture content is very critical. This is where light-frame
vs. heavy/mass timber is very applicable.
2. Pyrolysis – where the structure of the wood begins to undergo a chemical change leaving it in the
form of a carbon residual in the last stage. At this stage there is a rapid degradation of mass.
Happens around 250-350°C.
3. Char – the char layer protects the inner portion of wood from additional heat for a period of time as
it decays. The deeper this layer the more resistance.

With temperature increase the effect of dehydration is quite minimal, but once pyrolysis occurs strength
reduces rapidly on the sides exposed to fire/heat. Once the wood begins to char there is minimal strength left
in this material. The interior wood remains unaffected by heat as it is insulated by the char layer. This effective
reduces the cross-section of wood resisting the applied load.

Wood and the Building Code

Approximately 85% of fire deaths in Canada occur in residential buildings. Most residential buildings are
single-family homes, approximately 90% of which are wood frame construction. The averages indicate,
however, that fire death rates in wood-frame construction are not much different than in buildings of other
construction types. When built to present building code requirements, wood construction provides the same
level of protection as other modes of construction. For instance, a typical wood joist floor system exposed to
fire will last up to 50% longer than an unprotected open web steel joist system exposed to that same fire. In
general, the contents of any given building pose a far greater fire hazard than do the building’s structural
components. In house fires, usually by the time the wood components can no longer support their required
load the interior environment is far past the point at which survival can be expected for anyone not already
out of the building. Sprinkler and alarm system play a far bigger role in reducing fire risk.

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The National Building Code of Canada (NBCC) defines fire safety as “an objective to reduce the probability
that a person in or adjacent to a building will be exposed to an unacceptable fire hazard as a result of the
design and construction of the building.”
Three objectives form the basis of fire protection:
▪ Provision of structural stability
▪ Containment of fire/control of fire spread
▪ Provision of a safe means of egress
Establishing the fire protection strategy is generally the responsibility of the architect on any given project,
however several potential strategies are of direct interest to the structural engineer. Various strategies include:
▪ Detection (alarms, sensors)
▪ Compartmentalization (fire separations)
▪ Frame suppression (sprinklers)
▪ Encapsulation (used in light framing)
▪ Heavy/mass timber
▪ Fire-retardant treatment (rare)

Part 3 of the Building Code specifies the type of construction (combustible or non-combustible) permitted
based on building area, height and occupancy.
Fire resistance rating (FRR) is the time in minutes or hours that a member or structure can withstand fire. It is
based on standard test conditions specified in CAN/ULC S101. FRRs for various assemblies can be
determined by full-scale fire tests or analytically. In addition, prescriptive requirements exist for some
traditional systems.

Fire Resistance of Structural Systems Employing Wood

Light Wood-frame Construction
Light wood-frame (also known as stick-frame) construction is the system of choice for the vast majority of
houses in Canada. It involves wall, floor, and roof assemblies comprised of “2-by-” nominal dimension sawn
lumber members spaced at a maximum of 600mm o.c. Such wood-frame construction is also used for low-
rise residential buildings, commercial buildings, etc. that fall under the requirements of Part 3 of the NBCC for
combustible buildings. Fire resistance for such construction is provided by protective finishes such as drywall
applied to the wood framing. Standard assemblies (such as a 26 stud wall with 15.9 mm thick drywall on
both sides) have been tested by various standards and regulatory agencies to establish fire ratings. The fire-
resistance of such an assembly is gauged in terms of the length of time the assembly will resist the effects of
a fire event. Fire resistance ratings are based on the ability of a test assembly to withstand the effects of a
standard test fire. The following requirements are the standard acceptance criteria for a fire test:
▪ No passage of hot gases or flames through the assembly
▪ Wall assembly remains in place under specified design loads
▪ Temperature on the surface not exposed to fire is limited to an average of 139C taken from nine
points, and a maximum of 181C at any point on the surface
▪ No passage of hose stream through the assembly
Fire resistance ratings of up to two hours are economically viable using the appropriate combination of
materials.

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[from: Fire Resistance and Sound Transmission in Wood-Frame Residential Buildings, International Building Series No. 3, Canada
Wood.]

Heavy/Mass Timber
Large dimension solid sawn timber, glulam and mass timber products maintain their integrity during a fire
event simply due to their volume. Individual members—beams, columns or floor, wall and roof panels—and
assemblies of these members can be assigned a fire rating either through the prescriptive requirements
contained within the building code, through fire testing based on the criteria noted above, or through an
analytical evaluation based on their ability to support load after the loss of cross-section.

Figure 24: Fire effects on Timber [[Link] & F Woeste, [Link]]

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Fire Rating Example

A glulam post and beam system supporting NLT deck is used for an office building requiring a 1-hour fire
rating. The typical glulam beam is SP 20f-E with dimensions of 215x532, spanning 6m and supporting a
tributary width of 6m of floor. The beam is at 87% of capacity under total factored loads.
The loading is:
wL = 2.4kPa
wD = 1.0kPa – partitions
0.5kPa – floor finishes
0.8kPa – NLT decking
0.2kPa – framing allowance
0.3kPa – suspended allowance
2.8kPa
The fire rating can be determined through two methods:

Using NBCC Division B, Appendix D (p.773 of WDM) – METHOD A

The provisions of Appendix D were developed based on fire tests and yield an acceptable solution within the
context of the building code. The provisions are limited to prescriptive requirements for traditional
heavy/mass timber elements, with a simple calculation procedure for column and beam elements.
For a beam, exposed on three sides, the fire resistance rating is given by:
𝐵
𝐹𝑅𝑅 = 0.1𝑓𝐵 [4 − ]
𝐷
Where B and D are the width and depth of the beam cross-section, respectively.
f is determined from the following graph based on the demand-capacity ratio:

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At 87% capacity:
f = 1.03

Therefore:

Therefore the beam has a fire-resistance rating of 80 minutes, sufficient for the required 1 hour rating.

Using CSA O86 Annex B – METHOD B

This method is a rational engineering approach which provides significantly more flexibility compared to the
NBCC Div. B Appendix D provisions and can be applied to a wide range of heavy/mass timber elements.
Currently this Annex is included in NBC 2020 but not all provinces have adopted this for their provisional
building codes. This means an alternative solution within the context of the building code; the authority having
jurisdiction needs to approve its use for a given project.
The member capacity is determined using a reduced cross-section that accounts for the char depth as well
as underlying layer of heat-affected wood.
The char depth is determined by:
xc,n = βnt CL. B.4.4
where:
βn = 0.7 (Table B.4.2)
t = 60 minutes
Therefore:
xc,n = 42mm
The zero-strength layer is determined from CL. B.5.1 to be xt = 7mm.
Therefore, the section is reduced on the sides and bottom by a total of 49mm.

The reduced cross-section has dimensions of 117mm x 483mm, and S = 4.55 x 106mm3.

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The bending moment capacity can now be determined using the dimensions of the reduced cross-section:
𝑀𝑟1 = 𝜑𝐹𝑏 𝑆𝐾𝑋 𝐾𝑍𝑏𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑟2 = 𝜑𝐹𝑏 𝑆𝐾𝑋 𝐾𝐿 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 CL. [Link]
Annex B provides revised factors for several components of the above equations:
The material reduction factor, , is taken as 1. (CL. B.3.2)
As fire is a short term, extreme condition, KD can be taken as 1.15. (CL. B.3.3)
The specified strength is adjusted by a factor for fire resistance, Kfi. For glulam Kfi = 1.35. (CL B.3.9)
KZbg is evaluated based on the original cross-sectional dimensions. (CL. B.3.5)
KZbg = (130/b)0.1(610/d)0.1(9100/L)0.1 ≤ 1.3
= (130/215)0.1 (610/532)0.1 (9100/6000)0.1 = 1.0

Since KZbg = KL = 1.0, the factored resistance of the glulam beam after a 1 hour fire is:
Mr = 1.0(1.35)(25.6)(1.15)(4.55x106) = 181kNm
This resistance must be compared to the demand under fire conditions which is determined based on the total
specified loads (i.e. load combination = 1.0D + 1.0L) to be:
M = 140kNm < Mr
Similarly, the shear capacity of the reduced section can be confirmed.

Therefore, the specified beam meets the requirements for a one-hour rating.
Chapter 10 of the WDM contains design tables tabulating member resistances for solid sawn and glulam
beams and columns.

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Special Provision for Glulam Beams

The quality of the laminations in glulam beams are not uniform. Higher quality tension laminations are used
at the extreme fibre to provide an efficient section. When exposed to fire, generally the bottom and sides of
the beam in most common scenarios will burn, impacting the higher quality laminations. Therefore, in order
to maintain the bending capacity of the burned section, the layup must be altered according to the fire rating
to remove core laminations and add additional quality laminations on the bottom or top as needed. This is
illustrated below.

Figure 25: Glulam layups adjusted for fire rating (from AITC Technical Note 7)

Fire-Retardant Treated Wood

Wood can be chemically treated to provide a certain level of protection against fire. Fire-retardant chemicals
are forced into the wood under pressure – similar to preservative-treated wood – resulting in wood that deters
the spread of fire and burns at a slower rate than untreated wood, and limits smoke production from burning
wood.
As well, there are various fire-retardant coatings available which can be applied to the surface of wood to
reduce flame-spread.
The use of fire-retardant chemicals adversely affects the strength of wood. The resulting treatment factor, K T,
must be determined based on test results corresponding to the type of retardant used. Refer to CL. [Link] in
CSA O86.

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Durability and Biological Attack

Deterioration of wood can occur due to many causes, however when proper precautions are taken, damage
can be greatly limited or even totally prevented.
Deterioration causes:
▪ Fungi:
o Moulds – do not affect strength; may have adverse health effects for occupants
o Yeasts – do not affect strength; can discolour wood
o Staining fungi – do not affect strength; Bluestain and Blackstain are common; discolour wood;
can cause failure of finishes applied to wood
o Decaying fungi – brown rot (dry rot): fungus that attacks cellulose, thus affects the strength;
white rot: fungus that attacks both the cellulose and lignin, producing a white residue; affects
strength
▪ Insects
o termites – eat wood, able to digest cellulose with bacterium in their system. Termites are
generally not a widespread concern in Canada due to the climate but do occur in various
geographic locations.
o carpenter ants, carpenter bees – do not eat the wood, just create holes in wood in which to
live
▪ Marine borers – live in saltwater and brackish water
▪ Weathering: exposure to the elements causes a breakdown of the wood on the surface. The amount
of erosion differs depending upon the wood and the harshness of the conditions, but usually amounts
to something in the order of a few millimetres per century. Painting or sealing the surface prevents
weathering. Weathering can be a desired effect.
▪ Chemical Attack: Various chemicals may affect the strength of wood, however wood is resistant to
various chemicals which would prove harmful to steel or concrete structures. As a result, wood is
frequently used for such structures as salt domes, potash storage buildings, marine piers, etc.
Protecting a structure can be accomplished through several methods. Properly designed, protected and
maintained, wood structures last for centuries.
Water, oxygen and heat are a harmful combination to the longevity of wood. Fungi require moisture, oxygen
and warm temperatures to grow and spread. Below the fibre saturation point, fungus growth is slow, and
below MC=22%, fungus will not grow. Without oxygen, fungus will not grow. Fungus will grow over a range of
temperatures from 5C to 40C. Too high or too low and fungal growth will not occur. The optimum
temperature for growth is about 27C.

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Protection strategies:
Durability by design
Design detailing plays a very important part in preventing deterioration of wood members. Simply, wood must
be kept dry. Detailing joints, wall systems, etc. to prevent wetting and penetration of water (or if that is not
possible, ensuring the wood can quickly dry) is essential in preventing decay.

Durability by nature
Selection of wood can determine the resistance of a wood structure to biological attack. Some species of
wood have significant natural resistance to decay and insect attack due to the presence of natural chemicals
contained in the wood. Cedar and white oak have high resistance, Douglas fir and white pine, moderate
resistance, and elm, spruce and maple, low resistance.
The durability of wood also depends upon the age of the wood. The outer portion of a tree trunk is sapwood
while the older, inner portion is heartwood. With some species, heartwood is significantly more durable than
the sapwood. In some structures, logs are lathed to remove the sapwood, leaving only heartwood.

Durability by treatment
Coatings
Various coatings are effective is preserving wood, though a drawback to coatings is the required maintenance.
Paint, stain, varnish, etc. provide varying degrees of protection for wood. The effectiveness of the coating
depends upon the species of wood and the degree to which the coating is maintained.
Chemical-based Preservative Treatments
Preservative-treated wood is coated or pressure-impregnated with chemicals that greatly improve resistance
to biological attack, thus increasing the service life of the wood. Preservative-treating wood is by no means a
new process. The British Navy treated wood on its ships in the 18th and 19th centuries; railway ties have been
preservative-treated for over a century. Preservatives generally fall into one of three categories: waterborne
inorganic compounds, creosote or creosote solutions and oil-borne chemicals.
The first category includes water-soluble chemicals that protect against insect attack and decay. The
chemicals are dissolved in water, the solution of which is then pressure-impregnated into the wood. The water
evaporates leaving the chemicals in the wood cells. These types are most commonly used in residential
applications where human exposure is common. The most common preservatives for residential use are
copper-based and include Alkaline Copper Quarternary (ACQ) and Copper Azole (CA).
Creosote and oil-borne preservatives are typically used in industrial and non-residential applications such as
railway, utility and bridge structures, where human exposure is less common. Creosote is a distillate of coal
tar composed of liquid and solid aromatic hydrocarbons as well as tar acids and bases. Predominately used
for utility poles, railway ties and trestles, as well as for bridges, creosote-treated wood is not usually used in
building construction. When used in bridges, it can only be used on elements for which direct contact with
pedestrians is prevented.
The most common oil-borne preservative is pentachlorophenol. Because it is petroleum-based, it is not
generally used in building construction, but limited to utility poles and bridges.
In general, preservative chemicals are not present in large enough quantities to affect the strength of the
wood, however incising is frequently used to facilitate better penetration of the preservative, and thus may
affect the strength of a member, though this is dependent upon the member size.

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Thermally-Modified Wood
High temperature (~200°C) and steam are combined under pressure to alter the molecular structure of the
wood fibre. Sugars and resins in the wood fibre are oxidized, removing any source of food for pests and
therefore making it resistant to rot or insect attack.
Acetylated Wood
This process involves soaking the wood in acetic anhydride which chemically alters the wood and makes it
resistant to biological attack. Fungi no longer recognize it as food. It is also more dimensionally stable than
conventional preservative-treated wood.
Connections must be executed with stainless steel hardware to withstand the acidity of the wood.
Charred Wood Preservation
Charred wood is also known as Shou Sugi Ban, a traditional Japanese method of preserving wood, usually
used for wood siding. The surface of the wood is charred, forming a layer that is resistant to rot, insects and
weathering. The surface is also less susceptible to fire as the char insulates the sound wood beneath. Without
maintenance, charred wood can last over 50 years. This timeframe can be increased with additional treatment
of the surface using oil.

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Renovation and Adaptive Reuse of Timber Buildings

Typical structural systems for industrial buildings from the early part of the last century included heavy timber
floor and roof framing with exterior masonry load-bearing walls. In recent decades, with industry moving to
green-field suburban sites and off-shore, urban industrial buildings are being reclaimed for use as office and
residential space. Adaptive reuse of such buildings involves many code-related considerations related to the
building structure.
Many buildings built at the start of the last century were not designed to any sort of Building Code. They were
“designed” based on what had worked in the past and were not necessarily engineered in the same way
modern buildings are designed. Frequently older structures are deficient when compared to current Building
Codes either due to abuse, poorly performed modifications, or because of lack of adequate initial design. That
said, Commentary L of the National Building Code allows some relief to current load factors when level of risk
and past performance is taken into consideration.
In Ontario, adaptive reuse of an old building is governed by Part 10 (Compliance Alternative) and Part 11
(Renovation) of the OBC. Changes in occupancy—for instance from industrial to residential—requires certain
due diligence and upgrades to be performed to ensure minimum levels of safety and reliability. Structurally,
there are three main considerations that may have significant effect on the structure:
• Structural adequacy due to changing occupancy (e.g. higher loads or inadequate initial capacity)
• Fire protection (e.g. additional load due to fire resistant finishes)
• Sound attenuation (e.g. additional loads due to acoustic treatments)

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References:
Engineering Guide for Wood Frame Construction. Canadian Wood Council, Ottawa, 2014.
Engineering Materials and Their Applications. Richard Flinn & Paul Trojan, Houghton Mifflin
Company, Boston, 4th Edition, 1990.
Fire Safety Design in Buildings. Canadian Wood Council, Ottawa, 1996.
Forest Products and Wood Science, An Introduction. John Haygreen, Jim Bowyer, Iowa State
University Press, Ames, Iowa, 3rd edition, 1996.
Introduction to Wood Building Technology. Canadian Wood Council, Ottawa, 1997.
Introduction to Wood Design. Canadian Wood Council, Ottawa, 2018
The State of Canada’s Forests, 2020. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service,
Ottawa, 2020
Wood Design Manual 2020. Canadian Wood Council, Ottawa, 2021
Wood Handbook: Wood as an Engineering Material, General Technical Report FPL-GTR-190, U.
S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison WI, 2010
Wood Reference Handbook. Canadian Wood Council, Ottawa, Fourth Edition, 2000
woodSMART - Off the Shelf Timber Engineering Course. Canadian Wood Council, Ottawa, 2021

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