Introduction to

Research Methodology
(Theory and Project Report)

Dr. Priti Ranjan Majhi

M.A., MBA, [Link]., Ph.D.
Principal & Professor, Management Studies,
Regional College of Management (RCM),
Bhubaneswar-751023.
Odisha, India.

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© Author
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First Edition : 2019

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 DEDICATED TO
My Parents,
My Lovely Wife and Son
Lord Baba Gokuleswar
and
My Dear Students

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(iv)
 Preface for First Edition

In recent years, the role of research in various fields of management related to economics,
commerce, business, industry, trade or the economy as a whole, has greatly increased. The
complex nature of business and economy has shifted our attention on the use of research in
solving the existing problems. One of the obstacles in the way of self-knowledge and desirable
change is the separation between knowing and doing. The need of the hour is for greater
interaction between societies, industries and organisations with universities or institutions. As the
world of business and economy are changing drastically and speedily, one cannot wait for
changes at the institutional level. Keeping in mind all these aspects, the present book entitled
“Introduction to Research Methodology” aims at a lucid exposition of various fundamental
concepts and techniques of research that would be useful, particularly to the Indian students and
practitioners.
This book is aimed primarily at academic researchers, management and doctoral students,
teachers and graduate students of mathematics, management science and various other science
and social science disciplines, practicing managers and marketing research professionals. The
objective is to make the reader understand how they can use various statistical techniques for their
research problems. The book covers the theoretical and practical aspects of research and research
methodology, business research process, problem identification, sampling and measurement
scaling techniques, sources of data collection methods and the project report writing in a clear and
exhaustive manner. Every chapter in this book explains the principles through appropriate
descriptive and analytical explanations, for scientific and business methods of research.
I am deeply indebted to various authors and publishers whose books we have referred to.
I am thankful to my parents, lovely wife, son and family members for their active support
and encouragement during the preparation of manuscripts.
I am very much grateful to our friends, colleagues for their valuable suggestions and students
for their constant encouragement.
At last my hearty thanks to Director Mr. Neeraj Pandey and Mr. B.K. Ojha Sales manager
of Himalaya Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai, for their whole hearted support and
cooperation in bringing out this edition in an elegant form.
I welcome suggestions and constructive criticisms for further improvement of the book.

Dr. Priti Ranjan Majhi

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 Brief Contents

Preface for First Edition

Chapter 1: Research: An Introduction
1.1 Definition and Meaning of Research
1.2 Nature, Scope, Types and Purpose of Business Research
1.3 Unit of Analysis and Research Foundation: Basic Concepts
Chapter 2: Business Research Process
2.1 Definition and Research Process: An Overview
2.2 Research and Business Research Process
2.3 Selection of Basic Research Methods
Chapter 3: Research Problem and Design
3.1 Definition of Research Problem
3.2 Research Problem Identification
3.3 Research Design
Chapter 4: Sampling and Measurement Scaling Techniques
4.1 Definition and Meaning of Sampling
4.2 Sampling Process, Designing and Writing Items
4.3 Measurement Scales and Techniques
Chapter 5: Sources and Methods of Data Collection
5.1 Definition and Meaning of Data Collection
5.2 Sources of Data and Data Collection Methods
5.3 Preliminary Decisions in Questionnaire Design
Chapter 6: Testing of Hypothesis: Parametric Test
6.1 Definition and Meaning of Hypothesis
6.2 Basic Concepts of Hypothesis Test
6.3 Hypothesis Testing with Large Sample, Proportion and Small Sample
Chapter 7: Testing of Hypothesis: Non-parametric Test
7.1 Definition and Meaning of Hypothesis
7.2 Chi-square ( χ2 ) Test and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
7.3 Other Non-parametric Test
Chapter 8: Project Report Writing
8.1 Definition and Meaning of Report
8.2 Types, Layout and Different Steps in Report Writing
8.3 Citation, Bibliography and JEL Classification

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 Detailed Contents

Preface for First Edition ······························································································································ (v)

Chapter 1: Research: An Introduction ······························································································· 1 – 36
1.1 Definition
1.2 Meaning of Research
1.3 Purpose of Research
1.4 Objectives of Research
1.5 Characteristic of Research
1.6 Types of Research
1.6.1 Basic or Fundamental Research
1.6.2 Applied Research
1.6.3 Exploratory Research
1.6.4 Descriptive Research
1.6.5 Quantitative Research
1.6.6 Qualitative Research
1.6.7 Action Research
1.6.8 Diagnostic Research
1.6.9 Experimental Research
1.7 Criteria of Good Research
1.8 Research Ethics
1.9 Meaning of Business Research
1.10 Significance of Business Research
1.11 Nature and Scope of Business Research
1.12 Purpose of Business Research
1.13 Research Methods vs Research Methodology
1.14 Types of Business Research Methods
1.15 Unit of Observation and Analysis
1.15.1 Individuals as Units of Analysis
1.15.2 Group as Units of Analysis
1.15.3 Organisations as Units of Analysis
1.15.4 Social Artifacts as Units of Analysis
1.15.5 Data Frames as the Unit of Analysis
1.16 Research Foundation: A Basic Concepts
1.16.1 Concepts/Conception
1.16.2 Constructs
1.16.3 Attributes
1.16.4 Variables
1.16.5 Hypothesis
1.16.6 Deduction and Induction
1.16.7 Reliability and Validity
Key Terms – Multiple Objective Type Questions – Long Questions – Short Questions
Chapter 2: Business Research Process ······························································································ 37 – 66
2.1 Definition
2.2 Research Process: An Overview
2.3 Primary Stages of Research Process
2.4 Research Process
2.4.1 Formulating Research Problems
2.4.2 Extensive Literature Review/Survey
2.4.3 Development Working Hypothesis
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 2.4.4 Preparing/Development Research Design
2.4.5 Determining Sample Design
2.4.6 Collecting the Data
2.4.7 Execution of the Project
2.4.8 Analysis of the Data
2.4.9 Hypothesis Testing
2.4.10 Generalisations and Interpretation
2.4.11 Preparation of the Report/Thesis
2.5 Business Research Process
2.5.1 Identifying and Defining the Problem
2.5.2 Exploratory Research
2.5.3 Preparing the Statement of Research Objectives
2.5.4 Developing the Hypotheses
2.5.5 Planning the Research Design
2.5.6 Selecting the Research Method
2.5.7 Survey Method
2.5.8 Experiments
2.5.9 Secondary Data Studies
2.5.10 Observation Techniques
2.5.11 Analysing Research Designs
2.5.12 Selecting the Sampling Procedure
2.5.13 Data Collection
2.5.14 Evaluating the Data
2.5.15 Analysis
2.5.16 Preparing and Presenting the Research Report
2.6 Selection of Basic Research Methods
2.6.1 Field Study Research
2.6.2 Laboratory Study Research
2.6.3 Existing Data Based Research
2.6.4 Longitudinal Studies
2.6.5 Panel Studies
2.6.6 Ex-post Facto Research Study
Key Terms – Multiple Objective Type Questions – Long Questions – Short Questions
Chapter 3: Research Problem and Design ························································································ 67 – 97
3.1 Definition
3.2 Statement of Research Problem
3.3 Identification of Research Problem
3.4 Characteristics of a Good Research Problem
3.5 Selection of Research Problem
3.5.1 The Mode of Selection
3.5.2 Formulation of the Selected Problem
3.6 How to Select Research Problem?
3.7 Choosing a Good Research Problem
3.8 Research Design
3.9 Contents of Research Plan/Design
3.10 Concept Relating to Research Design
3.11 Types of Research Designs
3.11.1 Exploratory Research Studies
3.11.2 Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Studies
3.11.3 Experimental Studies (Hypothesis – Testing Research Studies)
3.12 Principles of Experimental Designs
3.12.1 Principle of Randomisation

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 3.12.2 Principle of Replication
3.12.3 Principle of Local Control
3.13 Important Experimental Design
3.14 Informal Experimental Design
3.15 Formal Experimental Design
3.16 Designing and Writing Items
3.16.1 Designing
3.16.2 Item Writing
3.16.3 Item Formats
Key Terms – Multiple Objective Type Questions – Long Questions – Short Questions
Chapter 4: Sampling and Measurement Scaling Techniques ······················································ 98 – 131
4.1 Definition
4.2 Sample Design
4.3 Meaning of Sampling
4.4 Steps in Sampling Process
4.4.1 Defining the Target Population
4.4.2 Specifying the Sampling Frame
4.4.3 Specifying the Sampling Unit
4.4.4 Selection of the Sampling Method
4.4.5 Determination of Sample Size
4.4.6 Specifying the Sampling Plan
4.4.7 Selecting the Sample
4.5 Sampling Methods in Research
4.5.1 Population Parameter vs. Sample Statistic
4.5.2 Probability vs. Non-probability Samples
4.6 Probability Sampling
4.6.1 Simple Random Sampling
4.6.2 Systematic Sampling
4.6.3 Stratified Random Sampling
4.6.4 Multistage Cluster Sampling
4.7 Non-probability Sampling
4.7.1 Convenience Sampling
4.7.2 Quota Sampling
4.7.3 Judgment Sampling
4.7.4 Snowball Sampling
4.8 Sampling Error
4.8.1 Sampling Error or Random Sampling Error
4.8.2 Non-sampling Error or Systematic Error
4.9 Meaning of Measurement
4.10 Uni-dimensional and Multi-dimensional Scales
4.10.1 Uni-dimensional Scale
4.10.2 Multi-dimensional Scale
4.11 Measurement Scales
4.11.1 Nominal Scale
4.11.2 Ordinal Scale
4.11.3 Interval Scale
4.11.4 Ratio Scale
4.12 Test of Good Measurement
4.12.1 Test of Validity
4.12.2 Test of Reliability
4.12.3 Internal Consistency of Measures
4.12.4 Test of Sensitivity and Practicality

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 4.13 Scaling
4.13.1 Comparative Scales
4.13.2 Non-comparative Scales
Key Terms – Multiple Objective Type Questions – Long Questions – Short Questions
Chapter 5: Sources and Methods of Data Collection ·································································· 132 – 158
5.1 Definition
5.2 Meaning of Data Collection
5.3 Sources of Data Collection
5.3.1 Primary Sources
5.3.2 Secondary Sources
5.4 The Nature of Secondary Sources of Information
5.5 Evaluation of Secondary Data
5.6 Uses of Primary and Secondary Data in Research
5.7 Differences between Primary Data and Secondary Data
5.8 Primary Data Collection Method
5.8.1 Observation Method
5.8.2 Survey Method
5.8.3 Depth Interview Method
5.8.4 Focus Group Interview Method
5.8.5 Projective Techniques
5.8.6 Case Study Method
5.8.7 Experimental Method
5.9 Collection of Data Through Questionnaires
5.9.1 Questionnaire Design Process
5.9.2 Decide on the Structure of the Question
5.9.3 The Qualities of a Good Questionnaire
5.10 Preliminary Decisions in Questionnaire Design
Key Terms – Multiple Objective Type Questions – Long Questions – Short Questions
Chapter 6: Testing of Hypothesis: Parametric Test ··································································· 159 – 187
6.1 Definition
6.2 Meaning of Hypothesis
6.3 Characteristics of Hypothesis
6.4 General Procedure for Hypothesis Test
6.5 Basic Concepts of Hypothesis Testing
6.6 Hypothesis Testing with Large Sample (n > 30)
6.6.1 Hypothesis Testing for Single Population Mean
6.6.2 Hypothesis Testing for Difference between Two Population Mean
6.7 Hypothesis Testing for Proportion
6.7.1 Hypothesis Testing for Single Population Proportion
6.7.2 Hypothesis Testing for Difference between Two Population Proportion
6.8 Hypothesis Testing with Small Sample (n ≤ 30)
6.8.1 Hypothesis Testing for Single Population Mean
6.8.2 Hypothesis Testing for Difference between Two Population Mean
Key Terms – Multiple Objective Type Questions – Long Questions – Short Questions
Chapter 7: Testing of Hypothesis: Non-parametric Test ··························································· 188 – 238
7.1 Definition
7.2 Chi-square (χ2) Test / Distribution
7.3 Characteristics of Chi-square (χ2) Test
7.4 Types of Chi-square (χ2) Test / Distribution
7.4.1 χ2-test for Population Variance
7.4.2 χ2-test for Goodness-of-Fit
7.4.3 χ2-test for Independence
7.5 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
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 7.6 ANOVA Technique
7.6.1 One-way ANOVA
7.6.2 Two-way ANOVA
7.6.3 ANOVA in Latin-square Design
7.7 Other Non-parametric Techniques
7.7.1 Sign Test
7.7.2 Wilcoxon Signed-rank Test (for Matched Pairs)
7.7.3 Run Test
7.7.4 Mann-Whitney U Test
7.7.5 Median Test
7.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Non-parametric Test
Key Terms – Multiple Objective Type Questions – Long Questions – Short Questions
Chapter 8: Project Report Writing ······························································································· 239 – 267
8.1 Definition
8.2 Meaning of Report
8.3 Different Types of Report
8.3.1 Analytical Report
8.3.2 Informational Report
8.3.3 Research Report
8.3.4 Statutory Report
8.3.5 Non-statutory Report
8.3.6 Routine Report
8.3.7 Special Report
8.3.8 Technical Report
8.3.9 Popular Report
8.4 Significance of Report
8.5 Characteristics of Report
8.6 Layout/Body of the Report
8.7 Section and Stages of Report
8.8 Meaning of Research Report
8.9 Meaning of Report Writing
8.10 Key Elements of Report Writing
8.11 Different Steps in Report Writing
8.12 Business Report Writing
8.13 Research Report Written
8.14 The Analytical Report Written
8.15 Citation
8.16 References
8.17 Bibliography
8.18 Annexure
8.19 Appendix
8.20 JEL Classification
Key Terms – Multiple Objective Type Questions – Long Questions – Short Questions
Sample Project Report ····················································································································· 268 – 287

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 Chapter 1

Research: An Introduction

C Chapter Highlight
H 1.1 Definition

A 1.2
1.3
Meaning of Research
Purpose of Research

P 1.4
1.5
Objectives of Research
Characteristic of Research

T 1.6
1.7
Types of Research
Criteria of Good Research

E 1.8
1.9
Research Ethics
Meaning of Business Research
1.10 Significance of Business Research
R 1.11 Nature and Scope of Business Research
1.12 Purpose of Business Research
1.13 Research Methods vs Research Methodology
1.14 Types of Business Research Methods
O 1.15
1.16
Unit of Observation and Analysis
Research Foundation: A Basic Concepts
N Key Terms
Multiple Objective Type Questions
E Long Questions
Short Questions

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2 Introduction to Research Methodology (Theory and Project Report)

Learning Objectives:
● Explain the meaning of research in the context of making intelligent decisions.
● Discuss the need for research in decision making.
● Explain the business process of research and its role in managerial decisions.
● Distinguish between the various types of research.
● Identify various topics in business research.
● Discuss the basic research foundation for managerial decision making.

1.1 DEFINITION
Research is a way of thinking and finding answers to the questions that come into your mind. In
our day-to-day life, we formulate several questions in our mind. We want to get answers for these
questions. Some of these questions can be answered easily without any need of scientific scrutiny.
While there are also some questions that need to be answered in a logical manner. The process that
needs to be followed in finding answers to such question should have to be empirical and subjective.
The techniques and procedures that need to be used should also be valid and logical. In this way, we
are able to get answers that are authentic and verifiable.
The research process also requires scientific scrutiny and the procedures involved in this scrutiny
should have to be valid and reliable and should have the following features:
● It should be undertaken in a scientific manner. Biases and subjectivity should be avoided.
● The process should follow valid and verifiable tools, techniques and procedures.
● The process follows the logical and sequential procedures that are established by the
academic discipline in which you are conducting research.
There are several definitions of research proposed by famous authors and scholars of their time.
You will find out that the basic meaning and the context of these definitions are same. The difference
between these definitions lies only in the way the author has undertaken research in his discipline.
Research is a careful study of a subject which is undertaken in order that the new facts or
information may be discovered.
Research is also a methodical investigation which is applied into a subject, so that a theory may
be established or revised accordingly. It is through the research that the plan of action may be
developed on the basis of the facts having been discovered.
Research comprises “creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the
stock of knowledge, including knowledge of man, culture and society, and the use of this stock of
knowledge to devise new applications.”
Scientific research is a systematic way of gathering data, a harnessing of curiosity. This research
provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties of the
world. It makes practical applications possible. Scientific research is funded by public authorities, by
charitable organisations and by private groups, including many companies.
 Research: An Introduction 3

A broad definition of research:

“Research is a careful enquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles, a diligent
investigation to ascertain something.” — Clifford Woody
“Research includes any gathering of data, information, and facts for the advancement of
knowledge.” — Godwin Colibao
“Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our
understanding of a topic or issue.” — John W. Creswell
“In the broadest sense of the word, the definition of research includes any gathering of data,
information and facts for the advancement of knowledge.” — Martyn Shuttleworth

1.2 MEANING OF RESEARCH

Research is careful and organised study or gathering of information about a specific topic. It is
the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and
reach new conclusions. It comprises “creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to
increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of humans, culture and society, and the use of
this stock of knowledge to devise new applications.” It is used to establish or confirm facts, reaffirm
the results of previous work, solve new or existing problems, support theorems, or develop new
theories.
A research project may also be an expansion on past work in the field. Research projects can be
used to develop further knowledge on a topic, or in the example of a school research project, they can
be used to further a student’s research prowess to prepare them for future jobs or reports. To test the
validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects
or the project as a whole.
Research is divided into two general categories: (1) Basic research is inquiry aimed at increasing
scientific knowledge, and (2) Applied research is effort aimed at using basic research for solving
problems or developing new processes, products, or techniques.
Research is a thorough, orderly, organised, efficient and logical investigation of an area of
knowledge or of a problem. Research can be scientific or scholarly. The scientific method can be used
for all research.
1. Curiosity: Science is knowledge of the physical or material world gained through
observation and experiment. Research begins with a broad question that needs an answer. A
review of similar research narrows the scope of the research to a manageable, realistic
question.
2. Theory (Hypothesis): Research creates a theory (hypothesis) to be proved from the question;
the researcher maintains an awareness of the limitations of budget, time and technology on
experiments needed to answer the question.
3. Experiment: Researchers design an experiment with steps to test and evaluate the theory
(hypothesis) and generate analysable data. Experiments have controls and a large enough
sample group to provide statistically valid results.
4. Observation: Observing and recording the results of the experiment generates raw data to
prove or disprove the theory.
4 Introduction to Research Methodology (Theory and Project Report)

5. Analysis: Statistical analysis on the data and organising it so that it is understandable

generates answers to the initial question. Data may show trends that allow for the
broadening of the research.
6. Conclusions: Research following the scientific method will either prove or disprove the
theory (hypothesis). What happened and why needs to be explained by the researcher. Even
when a theory (hypothesis) is disproved, valuable data collected in the research may lead to
further research. The results are usually published and shared.

1.3 PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. Three of the most influential and common purposes of research are exploration,
description and explanation.
1. Exploration: Exploration involves familiarising a researcher with a topic. Exploration
satisfies the researcher’s curiosity and desire for improved understanding. Exploration tests
the feasibility of undertaking a more extensive study and helps develop the methods that will
be used in a study.
2. Description: Description involves describing situations and events through scientific
observation. Scientific descriptions are typically more accurate and precise than causal ones.
For example, the Census uses descriptive social research in its examination of characteristics
of the population.
3. Explanation: Explanation involves answering the questions of what, where, when, and how.
Explanatory studies answer questions of why. For example, an explanatory analysis of the
2002 General Social Survey (GSS) data indicates that 38 percent of men and 30 percent of
women said marijuana should be legalised, while 55 percent of liberals and 27 percent of
conservatives said the same. Given these statistics, you could start to develop an explanation
for attitudes toward marijuana legalisation.
4. Evaluation: This includes elements of Exploration, Description and Explanation with
purpose of evaluating policies, programmes and interventions.

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

Research objectives are formulated to find answers to the research question. There are two types
of research objectives, namely, general objectives and specific objectives. Some researchers use the
terms primary objectives and secondary objectives regardless of the name the purpose is same.
Primary objectives are same as specific objectives while secondary objectives are same as general
objectives. Not every research has secondary or general objectives but every research has a specific
objective.
Research objectives describe what the researcher wants to achieve from the research/study. They
are formulated after the research problem is finalised. They provide meaning and define the research
to the readers. Their purpose is to find answers to the research problem.
General objectives: General or secondary objectives provide a detailed view of the aims of the
study. They provide a general overview of the study usually; there is one general objective in each
study.
 Research: An Introduction 5

Specific objectives: The specific or broad objectives define what the main aim of the study is.
There can be many specific objectives because every “what”, “where” and “how” of the research
should be provided in the specific objectives. The specific objective is the essence of the study and it
gives the main idea since they provide focus to the study.
The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research
objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it. (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies).
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies).
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies).
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).

1.5 CHARACTERISTIC OF RESEARCH

Certain terms are very commonly used in research and the success of any research depends on
these terms. These terms determine whether a research is free of biases, prejudices, and subjective
errors or not. They are called the characteristics of research.
Characteristics of Research
1. Reliability: Reliability is a subjective term which cannot be measured precisely, but today
there are instruments which can estimate the reliability of any research. Reliability is the
repeatability of any research, research instrument, tool or procedure. If any research yields
similar results each time it is undertaken with similar population and with similar
procedures, it is called to be a reliable research. Suppose a research is conducted on the
effects of single parenting on the class performance of the children. If the results conclude
that it causes low grades in class, these results should have to be reliable for another sample
taken from a similar population. More the results are similar; more is the reliability in the
research.
2. Validity: Validity is the strength with which we can make research conclusions,
assumptions or propositions true or false. Validity determines the applicability of the
research. Validity of the research instrument can be defined as the suitability of the research
instrument to the research problem or how accurately the instrument measures the problem.
Some researchers say that validity and reliability are co-related, but the validity is much
more important than reliability. Without validity, research goes in the wrong direction. To
keep the research on-track define your concepts in the best possible manner so that no error
occurs during the measurement.
3. Accuracy: Accuracy is also the degree to which each research process, instrument, and tool
is related to each other. Accuracy also measures whether research tools have been selected
in best possible manner and research procedures suits the research problem or not. For
example if a research has to be conducted on the trans-gender people, several data collection
tools can be used depending on the research problems but if you find that population less
6 Introduction to Research Methodology (Theory and Project Report)

cooperative the best way is to observe them rather than submitting questionnaire because in
questionnaire either they will give biased responses or they will not return the
questionnaires at all. So choosing the best data collection tool improves the accuracy of
research.
4. Credibility: Credibility comes with the use of the best source of information and best
procedures in research. If you are using second-hand information in your research due to
any reason, your research might complete in less time but its credibility will be at stake
because secondary data has been manipulated by human beings and is therefore not very
valid to use in research. A certain percentage of secondary data can be used if the primary
source is not available but basing a research completely on secondary data when primary
data can be gathered is least credible. When researcher gives accurate references in the
research the credibility of the research increases but fake references also decrease the
credibility of the research.
5. Generalisability: Generalisability is the extent to which a research finding can be applied to
larger population. When a researcher conducts a study he/she chooses a target population
and from this population he takes a small sample to conduct the research. This sample is
representative of the whole population so the findings should also be. If research findings
can be applied to any sample from the population, the results of the research are said to be
generalisable.
6. Empirical: Empirical nature of research means that the research has been conducted
following rigorous scientific methods and procedures. Each step in the research has been
tested for accuracy and is based on real life experiences. Quantitative research is easier to
prove scientifically than qualitative research. In qualitative research biases and prejudice are
easy to occur.
7. Systematic: Systematic approach is the only approach to carry on a research. No research
can be conducted haphazardly. Each step must follow other. There are set of procedures that
have been tested over a period of time and are thus suitable to use in research. Each research,
therefore, should follow a procedure.
8. Controlled: Controlled is in real life experience, there are many factors that affect an
outcome. A single event is often a result of several factors. When similar event is tested in
research, due to the broader nature of factors that affect that event, some factors are taken as
controlled factors while others are tested for a possible effect. The controlled factors or
variables should have to be controlled rigorously. In pure sciences, it is very easy to control
such elements because experiments are conducted in the laboratory but in social sciences it
becomes difficult to control these factors because of the nature of research.

1.6 TYPES OF RESEARCH

Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.
According to Clifford Woody research in companies comprises of defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making
deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
 Research: An Introduction 7

1. Basic or Fundamental Research

2. Applied Research

3. Exploratory research

4. Descriptive Research

Types of Research 5. Quantitative Research

6. Qualitative Research

7. Action Research

8. Diagnostic Research

9. Experimental Research

Fig. 1.1: Types of Research

1.6.1 Basic or Fundamental Research

Basic research is systematic study directed toward greater knowledge or understanding of the
fundamental aspects of phenomena and of observable facts without specific applications towards
processes or products in mind. It includes all scientific study and experimentation directed toward
increasing fundamental knowledge and understanding in those fields of the physical, engineering,
environmental, and life sciences related to long-term national security needs. It is farsighted high
payoff research that provides the basis for technological progress.
Basic research is also called fundamental or pure research, and is conducted primarily to improve
our understanding of general issues, without any emphasis on its immediate application. It is regarded
as the most academic form of research since the principal aim is to make a contribution to knowledge,
usually for the general good, rather than to solve a specific problem for one organisation. This may
take the form of the following:
1. Discovery: where a totally new idea or explanation emerges from empirical research which
may revolutionise thinking on that particular topic.
2. Invention: where a new technique or method is created.
3. Reflection: where an existing theory, technique or group of ideas is re-examined possibly in
a different organisational or social context.

1.6.2 Applied Research

Applied research is problem-oriented as the research is carried out to solve a specific problem
and is a methodology used to solve a specific, practical problem of an individual or group. The study
and research is used in business, medicine and education in order to find solutions that may cure
diseases, solve scientific problems or develop technology.
8 Introduction to Research Methodology (Theory and Project Report)

The following are examples for applied research. Notice, each of these studies aim to resolve a
specific and an immediate problem.
● A study into the ways of improving the levels of customer retention for Wall-Mart.
● An investigation into the ways of improving employee motivation in Marriot Hotel, Hyde
Park.
● Development of strategies to introduce change in Starbucks global supply-chain
management with the view on cost reduction.
● A study into the ways of fostering creative deviance amongst employees without
compromising respect for authority.
● The improvement of safety in the workplace.

1.6.3 Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is conducted to clarify ambiguous problems. Management may have
discovered general problems, but research is needed to gain better understanding of the dimensions of
the problems. Exploratory studies provide information to use in analysing a situation, but uncovering
conclusive evidence to determine a particular course of action is not the purpose of exploratory
research. Usually, exploratory research is conducted with the expectation that subsequent research
will be required to provide conclusive evidence. It is a serious mistake to rush into detailed surveys
before less expensive and more readily available sources of information have been exhausted.
In an organisation considering a program to help employees with childcare needs, for example,
exploratory research with a small number of employees who have children might determine that many
of them have spouses who also work and that these employees have positive reactions to the
possibility of an on-site child-care program. In such a case exploratory research helps to crystallise a
problem and identify information needs for future research.
The quickest and the cheapest way to formulate a hypothesis in exploratory research are by using
any of the four methods:
● Literature search: This refers to “referring to a literature to develop a new hypothesis”. The
literature referred are – trade journals, professional journals, market research finding
publications, statistical publications etc.
● Experience survey: In experience surveys, it is desirable to talk to persons who are well
informed in the area being investigated. These people may be company executives or
persons outside the organisation. Here, no questionnaire is required. The approach adopted
in an experience survey should be highly unstructured, so that the respondent can give
divergent views. Since the idea of using experience survey is to undertake problem
formulation, and not conclusion, probability sample need not be used.
● Focus group: In a focus group, a small number of individuals are brought together to study
and talk about some topic of interest. The discussion is co-ordinated by a moderator. The
group usually is of 8-12 persons. While selecting these persons, care has to be taken to see
that they should have a common background and have similar experiences in buying. This is
required because there should not be a conflict among the group members on the common
issues that are being discussed. During the discussion, future buying attitudes, present
buying opinion etc., are gathered.
● Analysis of selected cases: Analysing a selected case sometimes gives an insight into the
problem which is being researched. Case histories of companies which have undergone a
 Research: An Introduction 9

similar situation may be available. These case studies are well suited to carry out
exploratory research. However, the result of investigation of case histories arc always
considered suggestive, rather than conclusive.

1.6.4 Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the current status of the
phenomena to describe “what exists” with respect to variables or conditions in a situation. The
methods involved range from the survey which describes the status quo, the correlation study which
investigates the relationship between variables, to developmental studies which seek to determine
changes over time. The following are the Descriptive Research Methods:
1. Case Studies: Detailed analysis of a single (or limited number) of people or events. Case
studies are usually interesting because of the unusualness of the case. The major problem
with case studies is the problem of objectivity. The person who is presenting the case
usually has some theoretical orientation. It is acceptable for a theoretical orientation to
affect one’s interpretation of events. In a case study the theoretical orientation can also lead
to the selection of the facts to include in the case. It is not surprising that case studies often
seem to provide very compelling evidence for a theory. Case studies can therefore assist
psychology by illustrating how a theory could be applied to a person or events and by
assisting with the development of hypotheses for more systematic testing.
2. Observational Research: Accounts of the natural behavior of individuals or groups in some
setting. Unless the observation is unobtrusive, there may be some subject reactivity to being
observed. This often decreases with time, a process called habituation. Observers cannot
usually observe all behaviors all of the time. They may use a behavioral checklist and may
also use time sampling or event sampling procedures. It is important to assess observer bias
by the use of inter observer reliability. Observational research may also pose ethical
problems. These can arise when the behaviors being observed are not public behaviours and
when the observer joins a group in order to observe the members’ behaviour – participant
observation.
3. Survey Research: Structured questions to assess people’s beliefs, attitudes, and self-reports
of behaviour. If the researcher wishes to generalise the responses to a population, it is
important to have a representative sample. Surveys that rely on self-selection (respond if
you are interested) produce non-generalisable results. Surveys also provide information for
co relational research. One can correlate responses to some questions (often demographic
questions) with responses to other questions (often attitudes or reports of behaviour). Survey
question must be clear and unambiguous. Even if the questions are unambiguous and non-
leading, people may display a social desirability bias and give positive or socially
acceptable and desirable answers. Survey methods include:
1. The interview or face-to-face method which is generally viewed as the best method for
obtaining a high rate of responses but is also very costly.
2. Phone surveys, which are less expensive but have a higher non-response rate (which
has probably increased with caller ID).
3. Written or mail surveys, which are least expensive but have a very high non-response
rate.
4. Archival Research: Analysis of pre-existing data or records. Archival research often
involves content analysis, a qualitative analysis of material. For example, one would use
10 Introduction to Research Methodology (Theory and Project Report)

content analysis to determine whether there had been an increase in the frequency with
which women and minorities were mentioned in US history books between 1920 and 2000.
Some archival research is quasi-experimental.

1.6.5 Quantitative Research

Quantitative research involves a collection of numerical data to answer a specific research
question. Taking this definition one step further Christiansen goes on to note that quantitative research
is a descriptive type of research where the goal is to attempt to provide an accurate description or
picture of a particular situation or phenomenon. Rather than utilizing the cause and effect relationships
that are common to quantitative methodologies, qualitative investigations attempt to identify variables
that exist in a given situation and, at times, to describe the relationship that exists between these
variables. To accomplish this task statistical data is typically utilized. The following are the Methods
of Quantitative Research:
1. Correlational Study: The basic context of the correlational study you may observe that this
method involves measuring two specific variables and attempting to quantify the
relationship that exists between these variables. Correlational studies are important because
they demonstrate the specific relationships that exist between two variables. If A can be
correlated with B, other variables correlated with B may also have relationships to A. Thus,
by delineating the specific relationships that exist between two variables researchers can
make a number of predictions about the impact of other variables in the same or similar
situation.
2. Ex-post Facto Study: The ex-post facto study is unique because it requires the investigator
to determine the specific variables for analysis after the research has been completed. In this
context, a similar variable is identified that links the subject population together. Subjects
are broken into various groups and exposed to the same experimental conditions.
Observations are made by the researcher to discern if there are differences in behaviour
based upon the notable differences among individuals in the population. Through this
process, the researcher is able to investigate subjects in a naturalistic environment and to
draw conclusions about what specific variables will influence behaviour and outcomes.
3. Longitudinal Study: A longitudinal studies makes the following observations, longitudinal
studies investigate developmental changes that take place at the time. The longitudinal study
involves choosing a single group of participants and measuring them repeatedly at selected
time intervals to note the changes that occur over time in the specified characteristics. The
longitudinal study provides a salient means for collecting data with respect to the age and
development of the subject. In particular, longitudinal studies often involve children, as
researchers seek to discern how specific variables change through the course of growth and
development. In this context, the longitudinal approach can provide marked insight into the
process of change.
4. Meta-analysis: Meta-Analysis can be used to synthesize the large volume of data describing
numerous independent variables and their correlations with reference accuracy. Meta-
analysis enables researchers to utilise information from past studies to better understand the
specific variables that impact a subject. Typically, meta-analyses are undertaken for the
purpose of synthesizing extensive amounts of work on a particular subject. Utilising the
data that has been collected in previous investigations, researchers can synthesize
information to better understand the subject and to develop new research methodologies that
 Research: An Introduction 11

specifically target the gaps in information that are identified through the process of meta-
analysis.
5. Survey: The survey is defined as a method of collecting standardised information by
interviewing a representative sample of some population. Although the survey is one of the
most popular methods for quantitative investigation, over the course of the last several years,
the integrity of this method has been questioned. In most cases surveys involve direct
contact with the population under investigation. Although well-established survey methods
can be utilised for investigation, in many cases researchers seeking to understand a new
facet of a particular population will develop a survey whose validity and reliability have not
been proven. Even though specific methods for the development of surveys have been
presented in the literature, utilising a survey that has not been validated can serve as the
basis for corrupting the integrity of data collection.

1.6.6 Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a type of social science research that collects and works with non-
numerical data and that seeks to interpret meaning from these data that help us understand social life
through the study of targeted populations or places. People often frame it in opposition to quantitative
research, which uses numerical data to identify large-scale trends and employs statistical operations to
determine causal and correlative relationships between variables.
Qualitative research is typically focused on the micro-level of social interaction that composes
everyday life, whereas quantitative research typically focuses on macro-level trends and phenomena.
Methods of qualitative research include observation and immersion, interviews, open-ended surveys,
focus groups, content analysis of visual and textual materials, and oral history. Qualitative research is
designed to reveal the meaning that informs the action or outcomes that are typically measured by
quantitative research. So, qualitative researchers investigate meanings, interpretations, symbols, and
the processes and relations of social life.
Qualitative researchers use their own eyes, ears, and intelligence to collect in-depth perceptions
and descriptions of targeted populations, places, and events. Their findings are collected through a
variety of methods, and often, a researcher will use at least two or several of the following while
conducting a qualitative study. The following are the methods of qualitative research:
1. Direct observation: With direct observation, a researcher studies people as they go about
their daily lives without participating or interfering. This type of research is often unknown
to those under study, and as such, must be conducted in public settings where people do not
have a reasonable expectation of privacy. For example, a researcher might observe the ways
in which strangers interact in public as they gather to watch a street performer.
2. Open-ended surveys: While many surveys are designed to generate quantitative data, many
are also designed with open-ended questions that allow for the generation and analysis of
qualitative data. For example, a survey might be used to investigate not just which political
candidate’s voters chose, but why they chose them, in their own words.
3. Focus group: In a focus group, a researcher engages a small group of participants in a
conversation designed to generate data relevant to the research question. Focus groups can
contain anywhere from 5 to 15 participants. Social scientists often use them in studies that
examine an event or trend that occurs within a specific community. They are common
within market research too.
12 Introduction to Research Methodology (Theory and Project Report)

4. In-depth interviews: Researchers conduct in-depth interviews by speaking with participants

in a one-on-one setting. Sometimes a researcher approaches the interview with a
predetermined list of questions or topics for discussion but allows the conversation to
evolve based on how the participant responds. Other times, the researcher has identified
certain topics of interest but does not have a formal guide for the conversation, but allows
the participant to guide it.
5. Oral history: The oral history method is used to create a historical account of an event,
group, or community, and typically involves a series of in-depth interviews conducted with
one or multiple participants over an extended period of time.
6. Participant observation: This method is similar to observation, however with this one, the
researcher also participates in the action or events in order to not only observe others but to
gain first-hand experience in the setting.
7. Ethnographic observation: Ethnographic observation is the most intensive and in-depth
observational method. Originating in anthropology, with this method, a researcher fully
immerses herself into the research setting and lives among the participants as one of them
for anywhere from months to years. By doing this, the researcher attempts to see events and
have experiences from the viewpoints of those studied in order to develop an in-depth and
long-term account of the community, events, or trends under observation.
8. Content analysis: This method is used by sociologists to analyse social life by interpreting
words and images from documents, film, art, music, and other cultural products and media.
The researchers look at how the words and images are used, and the context in which they
are used to draw inferences about the underlying culture. In the last decade, content analysis
of digital material, especially that generated by social media users, has become a popular
technique within the social sciences.

1.6.7 Action Research

Action research is inquiry or research in the context of focused efforts to improve the quality of
an organisation and its performance. It typically is designed and conducted by practitioners who
analyse the data to improve their own practice. Action research is simply a form of self-reflective
enquiry undertaken by participants in social situations in order to improve the rationality and justice
of their own practices, their understanding of these practices, and the situations in which the practices
are carried out.
There are various methods to conducting action research, in the various fields including
individual action research and collaborative action research.
1. Individual action research: Individual action research involves working independently on a
project, such as an elementary school teacher conducting her own, in-class research project
with her students.
2. Collaborative action research: Collaborative action research involves a group of
researchers working together to explore a problem that might be present beyond a single
classroom, perhaps at the departmental level or an entire grade level.
Action research always involves the same seven-step process.
● Selecting a focus
● Clarifying theories
● Identifying research questions
 Research: An Introduction 13

● Collecting data
● Analysing data
● Reporting results
● Taking informed action

1.6.8 Diagnostic Research

Diagnostic research study is similar to descriptive research study but with a different focus. It is
directed towards discovering what is happening, why it is happening and what can be done about. It
aims at identifying the causes of a problem and the possible solutions for it. A diagnostic research
study may also be concerned with discovering and testing whether certain variables are associated.
The basic focuses of the diagnostic research study are:
1. Formulating the objective of the study.
2. Designing the methods of data collection.
3. Selecting the sample.
4. Collecting the data.
5. Processing and analysing the data.
6. Reporting the findings

1.6.9 Experimental Research

Experimental is a systematic and scientific approach to research in which the researcher
manipulates one or more variables, and controls and measures any change in other variables.
Experimental Research is often used where: (1) There is time priority in a causal relationship (cause
precedes effect), (2) There is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same
effect) and (3) The magnitude of the correlation is great.
The major feature that distinguishes experimental research from other types of research is that
the researcher manipulates the independent variable. There are a number of experimental group
designs in experimental research. Some of these qualify as experimental research, others do not.
1. True experimental research: In true experimental research, the researcher not only
manipulates the independent variable, he or she also randomly assigned individuals to the
various treatment categories (i.e., control and treatment).
2. Quasi experimental research: In quasi experimental research, the researcher does not
randomly assign subjects to treatment and control groups. In other words, the treatment is
not distributed among participants randomly. In some cases, a researcher may randomly
assigns one whole group to treatment and one whole group to control. In this case, quasi-
experimental research involves using intact groups in an experiment, rather than assigning
individuals at random to research conditions. (some researchers define this latter situation
differently. For our course, we will allow this definition).
3. Causal comparative research: In causal comparative (ex post facto) research, the groups
are already formed. It does not meet the standards of an experiment because the independent
variable in not manipulated.
14 Introduction to Research Methodology (Theory and Project Report)

1.7 CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH

The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts bemused. The
research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat
the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained. The
procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that areas objective as
possible. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal
its significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of
the data should be checked carefully. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of
the research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis. Greater confidence in
research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a
person of integrity.
The Qualities of a Good Research
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be
taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules. Systematic
characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject
the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying
out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas
deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows
from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the
context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more
aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external
validity to research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

1.8 RESEARCH ETHICS

Research ethics is specifically interested in the analysis of ethical issues that are raised when
people are involved as participants in research.
1. Verifiability - Research projects must fully document the methods, original motivations, and
hypotheses. Research in progress must be clearly labeled as such.
2. Honesty - Research results are always honestly reported and without omissions, even if the
results are undesirable, don’t fit predetermined beliefs, or proposed hypotheses. Don’t lead
participants into drawing specific conclusions.
3. Transparency - Research reports must clearly explain everything done in the course of the
research in a open and transparent manner so that other participants can draw their own
independent conclusions.
4. Objectivity - Strive to conduct and report research in a way that allows experts to
independently test, verify and confirm the validity of the research.
 Research: An Introduction 15

5. Subjectivity - You are free to express your views and opinions, but they should be clearly
identified as such.
6. Sources - When sources of previous knowledge, data or other information are relied on cite
your sources. This allows examination of those works too. Be clear to distinguish previous
knowledge from new knowledge.
7. Safety - Research must be conducted in a safe and lawful manner. Do no harm.
8. Consensual - Inform and ask for consent before involving others in your research. People,
groups, and organisations must be willing participants of your research.
9. Disclosures - Declare any biases or potential conflicts of interests that you are aware of at
the start of research projects.
10. Review process - The peer-review process contributes to quality control and is an essential
step to ascertain the standing and originality of a research project.

1.9 MEANING OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

Business research is the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order
to establish facts and reach new conclusions. Business research involves establishing objectives and
gathering relevant information to obtain the answer to a business issue. You can conduct business
research to answer a business-related question, such as: What is the target market of my product?
Business research can also be used to solve a business-related problem, such as determining how to
decrease the amount of excess inventory on hand. Adequate planning and information-gathering are
essential to derive results for your business.
Business and management research is a systematic inquiry that helps to solve business problems
and contributes to management knowledge. It is an applied research. Four factors combine to make
business and management a distinctive focus for research:
● Trans discipline approach.
● Information access is difficult since managers see information as competitive advantage on
the market.
● Managers are educated and want some information produced by the classical research
method.
● Finding must resolve practical management problems.
Business research is an important management activity that helps companies to determine which
products will be most profitable for companies to produce. Several steps are necessary when
conducting business research; each step must be thoroughly reviewed to ensure that the best decision
is made for the company.
(A) Product Analysis: Product analysis is the first step of business research. Companies must
find a product that meets or exceeds consumer demand, or the product will fail in the
economic market place. One type of analysis is to find an existing product that can be
improved through design or features. Another type of product analysis will find emerging
markets with high demand and low supply, which allows for companies to sell new products
to meet consumer demand.
(B) Market Analysis: Companies will conduct a market analysis to determine how much profit
may be earned from current demand. Management will look at which stage of the business
cycle the market is currently in, whether emerging, plateau, or declining. Each stage has its
16 Introduction to Research Methodology (Theory and Project Report)

own level of profitability, with the first stage being the highest and the last stage being the
lowest profitability. A market analysis will also determine the price points at which
products can be sold; for example, high-quality products at a higher price may not tempt
consumers to start buying the product based on quality itself.
(C) Financial Analysis: A financial analysis determines the cost of each production item used
to produce goods and services. High costs may not allow companies to price goods or
services competitively, leading to an unprofitable situation. Management will examine the
costs of raw materials, labour, and manufacturing overhead to find the best raw goods
available to produce the most profitable product. Management will also review the best cost
application methods, ensuring that all production costs are properly applied to each product
or service produced.
(D) Competitor Analysis: Analysing the current competitors of a market is an important part of
business research. Knowing which companies have the best production methods or
customer loyalty helps new companies understand how they can create a competitive
advantage when entering a new market. Proper business research will also indicate how
financially stable companies are and if they can be purchased outright by a company
wanting to enter the industry. Buying a competitor may be cheaper than starting new
operations for a company.
(E) Growth Analysis: Business research usually includes forecasting the growth and direction
of the current industry or market. Knowing which direction the market is headed helps
companies determine the stability of new business operations. Entering a slow-growth
industry may be unprofitable early on but have better long-term growth potential. High-
growth industries will sometimes face a quick downfall, such as the [Link] boom of 2000-
2001. Strong growth early in the business cycle quickly gave way to record losses, leading
many businesses into bankruptcy from poor growth analysis.

1.10 SIGNIFICANCE OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

The significance of research in a number of fields of applied economics, whether associated with
business, industry, commerce, trade, services or to the economy in general, has tremendously
increased these days. The extremely complex character of business, its size, fast changes in
technology etc. has focused attention on the utilisation of research in managing operational problems.
The following aspects highlight the business research significance:
1. New Knowledge: The fascination and desire for new knowledge, new facts for business
cycles, environment analysis and technological upgradation are the primary reasons of
research.
2. Solution of Operational and Planning Problems of Business: Operational research,
marketing research and motivational research are deemed essential and their outcomes help
in many different ways, in taking business decisions.
3. Market research is the study of the structure and development of a market with the intention
of forming effective policies for purchasing, production, and sales.
4. Operational research means the use of mathematical, logical and analytical methods to the
solution of business difficulties of cost minimisation or of profit maximisation or what can
be referred to as optimisation problems.
 Research: An Introduction 17

5. Motivational research is worried about market characteristics and figuring out why
individuals behave as they do. Put simply, it is focused on the determination of motives
underlying the consumer behavior.
6. Research pertaining to demand and market factors has good utility in operating a business.
Provided information about future demand, it is easy for an organisation or for an industry
to alter its supply plan within the boundaries of its estimated capacity. Market analysis has
grown to be an intrinsic tool of business policy nowadays.
7. Business projecting which eventually provides an estimated profit and loss account relies
primarily on sales estimates which in turn is determined by business research. Once sales
forecasting is completed, efficient production and investment programmes could be put in
place around which are arranged the buying and financial plans. Thus research replaces
intuitive business decisions by more logical and scientific decisions.
8. Research assists the company to find the right supplier at the right price and at the right time.
An appropriate supplier choice makes it possible for the company to obtain or acquire top
quality raw materials which result into production of good quality items which are
consumed by the end user. Additionally trustworthy and efficient suppliers help a company
to perform effectively as supplies will be available on time.
9. Research aids the business enterprise to enhance the productivity, reduce the cost, save time
and maintain expertise of their core competencies through research discovery of latest
technology which contributes to development of innovation management system for future
growth.

1.11 NATURE AND SCOPE OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

Business research is described as the systematic and objective procedure for producing
information for help in making business decisions. Business research should be objective, which
means that the information found needs to be detached and impersonal instead of biased. Research
facilitates the managerial decision process for all aspects of a business.
Scope of Business Research Includes:
1. Production Management: The research performs an important function in product
development, diversification, introducing a new product, product improvement, process
technologies, choosing a site, new investment etc.
2. Personnel Management: Research works well for job redesign, organisation restructuring,
development of motivational strategies and organisational development.
3. Marketing Management: Research performs an important part in choice and size of target
market, the consumer behaviour with regards to attitudes, life style, and influences of the
target market. It is the primary tool in determining price policy, selection of channel of
distribution and development of sales strategies, product mix, promotional strategies, etc.
4. Financial Management: Research can be useful for portfolio management, distribution of
dividend, capital raising, hedging and looking after fluctuations in foreign currency and
product cycles.
5. Materials Management: It is utilised in choosing the supplier, making the decisions
relevant to make or buy as well as in selecting negotiation strategies.
6. General Management: It contributes greatly in developing the standards, objectives, long-
term goals, and growth strategies.
18 Introduction to Research Methodology (Theory and Project Report)

1.12 PURPOSE OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

Business research helps the business in many ways, such as contributing towards new strategic
directions and ideas, evaluating and re-evaluating the current processes and providing better ideas to
make the current processes efficient in forecasting and predicting the future trend of the business. It
enhances the understanding of what consumers want and how they view the company. Another
important goal of business research is the invention and development of new business practices, rather
than simply examining existing ones.
The main advantage of any research conducted in the business is to help in the decision making
process, which is important for business growth, its associates and its customers. There are three types
of business research. These are exploratory, descriptive and causal.
1. Exploratory research: The exploratory research is used to discover new opportunities for
the business.
2. Descriptive research: The descriptive study answers the who, what, when, where, and how
questions.
3. Causal research: The causal research which tends to find the effect of a particular change
on the business.
The major purpose of business research is to provide executives knowledge regarding the
organisation, the markets, the economy, finance, and sales. Business intelligence enables the
executives of the company to make better and rational decisions based on the results provided by the
research.

1.13 RESEARCH METHODS VS RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research methods may be understood as all those methods/ techniques that are used for
conduction of research. Research methods refer to the methods the researchers use in performing
research operations. In other words, all those methods which are used by the researcher during the
course of studying his research problem are termed as research methods. Since the object of research,
particularly the applied research, it to arrive at a solution for a given problem, the available data and
the unknown aspects of the problem have to be related to each other to make a solution possible.
Keeping this in view, research methods can be put into the following three groups:
In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the collection of data.
These methods will be used where the data already available are not sufficient to arrive at the required
solution; The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing
relationships between the data and the unknowns; The third group consists of those methods which
are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained.
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be
understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the various
steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic
behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research methods/techniques but
also the methodology. Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how
to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply
particular research techniques, but they also need to know which of these methods or techniques, are
relevant and which are not, and what would they mean and indicate and why.
 Research: An Introduction 19

The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research methods. Thus, when we talk
of research methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also consider the logic behind
the methods we use in the context of our research study and explain why we are using a particular
method or technique and why we are not using others so that research results are capable of being
evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others.
Key Differences Between Research Method and Research Methodology:
The differences between research method and research methodology can be drawn clearly on the
following grounds:
1. The research method is defined as the procedure or technique applied by the researcher to
undertake research. On the other hand, research methodology is a system of methods, used
scientifically for solving the research problem.
2. The research method is nothing but the behaviour or tool, employed in selecting and
building research technique. Conversely, research methodology implies the science of
analysing, the manner in which research is conducted appropriately.
3. The research method is concerned with carrying out experiment, test, surveys, interviews,
etc. As against this, research methodology is concerned with learning various techniques
which can be employed in the performance of experiment, test or survey.
4. Research method covers various investigation techniques. Unlike, research methodology,
which consists of complete approach aligned towards the attainment of purpose.
5. Research method intends to discover the solution to the problem at hand. In contrast,
research methodology aspires to apply appropriate procedures, with a view to ascertaining
solutions.

1.14 TYPES OF BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

Research is essential to determine if your business idea has a chance of being successful. In the
process of business research, all types of data are gathered in order to better define the startup’s focus
and to determine what products and services that customers really want. Business research functions
to study the internal and external factors that affect profitability and market share for a company.
Several research methods help executives to focus the energy of developers, production staff and
distribution forces. Business researchers utilise a variety of research methods to gather relevant data
so that business enterprises can make educated decisions. Established businesses also use research to
determine whether they can succeed in a new geographic region, assess competitors or select a
marketing approach for a product.
For a new company, research can help entrepreneurs see to accurately gauge consumer demand
and see how the competition is performing. Research can also benefit the business that is currently in
operation as it can be an ongoing effort to spot new trends or to gauge departmental performance.
Utilising a variety of research methods can give the startup or the established business a well-rounded
look at their endeavours. Here are some types of business research techniques utilised by corporations.
1. External Information: Industry data and competitor analysis is one strong method used in
business research to determine if the products and services of one company will penetrate a
market. This method uses external data from sources, such as Dun and Bradstreet, and
competitor information sources to compare against its own set of products.
20 Introduction to Research Methodology (Theory and Project Report)

2. Data collection: Entrepreneurs that are interested in a certain business endeavour are well
served when they start off researching their idea through secondary data such as government
and trade association data about the industry and market sector that they wish to enter.
3. Surveys: A survey can be one of the more inexpensive research options, especially if it is
done online. Succinct surveys that are more likely to be completed can be launched for free
on a survey website that can be linked to your own website or social media post. Telephone
surveys can possibly be more in depth, but only if the person agrees to be questioned on the
phone. Mailed surveys still have a niche, especially if they are targeted to a very specific
group, but cost more to launch and administrate.
4. Interviews and Focus groups: Interviews and focus groups take much more time to
administer but offer a much deeper look at consumer preferences and behaviours. Both
individual interviews and focus groups are made up of persons from the target audience of
the company and offer the interviewer the chance to clarify answers with follow up
questions. While offering a larger sample in less time than interviews, focus groups can be
more subject to bias from participants or facilitators.
5. Listening: Those who interact with the customer base can be trained to obtain valuable
information by listening and interacting with clients and consumers. This is an effective
method of business research if personnel are trained properly to understand what the
customers are saying and properly relay that to the management.
6. Website: In addition to placing an online survey on your website, you can also put traffic
data from your website to good use to spot trends in page views and keyword use. Analysis
of who is visiting your site can make you aware of consumer demographics that you have
not yet focused on. There are also research website resources that can help you keep an eye
on what the competition is doing.
7. Questionnaires and Questioning: Whether a consumer is being polled via oral or written
questionnaires, the questions must be easy to read, understand and answer. If they are too
in-depth, people will be less likely to complete the questionnaire, leaving the company with
the expense of producing it with no results to work with.
8. Case studies: A case study is one of the most time-intensive research propositions, but can
yield a depth of information about your prospective product that you cannot get otherwise.
In a case study, a member of the target audience for the product is given a product sample
and asked to use it at home for a period of time.

1.15 UNIT OF OBSERVATION AND ANALYSIS

The unit of observation is a basic concept in quantitative research that represents the objects that
are observed and about which information is systematically collected. The unit of observation is
determined by the method by which observations have been selected.
A unit of analysis is the most basic element of a scientific research project. This is the first step
in deciding how you will analyse the data. The unit of analysis is the object about which
generalisations are made based on an analysis. The unit of analysis is determined by an interest in
exploring or explaining a specific phenomenon. Unit of analysis could be an individual student, a
group, or even an entire program.
It is important to understand that unit of analysis is not the same as your unit of observation. The
unit of observation and unit of analysis are the same when the generalisations being made from a
 Research: An Introduction 21

statistical analysis are attributed to the unit of observation. It is possible to analyse data in various
ways. Choosing the Units of Analysis is done in the Conceptualisation stage and after the formulation
of the Research Objectives and must be done before choosing the Research Instrument.
Research Instruments:
● Select a Topic
● Formulate a Thesis Statement
● Choose the Types of Analyses
● Research and Write a Literature Review and Refine the Thesis
● Formulate the Research Objectives and Questions
● Conceptualise a topic- Choose the Units of Analysis
● Choose Research Method / the Research Instrument
● Operationalise concepts / construct the instrument
● Formulate the Data Collection Strategy
● Obtain HIC Approval
● Perform a Pilot Study
● Collect Data
● Prepare the Data for processing and analysis
● Process and Analyse Data
● Interpret and make Inferences about Data
● Write the Research Paper
● Write Final HIC Report
In social science research, the most typical Units of Analysis are individual people, groups,
organisations, and social artifacts. Some studies make descriptions or explanations pertaining to more
than one unit of analysis. In studies using multiple units of analysis, it is important to anticipate what
conclusions the researcher wishes to draw/regard to what units of analysis.

1.15.1 Individuals as Units of Analysis

Individuals are the most typical Units of Analysis in the social sciences. The norm of generalised
understanding in social science suggests that scientific findings are most valuable when applied to all
kinds of people. But it must be understood, that unless designed otherwise, i.e., unless the Units of
Analysis are chosen from all people, most studies are generalisable only for a much narrower
population of the people in a nation, region, city, etc. Some comparative studies specifically design
their study to examine phenomenon across national boundaries. Thus, in most studies the groups
whose members may be units of analysis are circumscribed.
In descriptive studies, the researcher makes observations describing the characteristics of a large
number of individual people, such as their sexes, ages, regions or birth, attitudes, etc. In most of the
studies, the results of examining individual units of analysis are aggregated to describe the general
sub-population circumscribed by the units of analysis. Descriptive studies having individuals as their
units of analysis aim to describe the population that comprises those individuals. In explanatory
studies, individuals may be examined as the factors that cause them to act in a particular manner, and
then these results are aggregated to explain the behavior of the general population.
Individuals, as the units of analysis, may be characterised in terms of their membership in social
groupings. A research project might examine whether people college-educated mothers are more
22 Introduction to Research Methodology (Theory and Project Report)

likely to attend college that those with non-college-educated mothers. The individual is the unit of
analysis, not mothers or children of mothers. Each individual unit of analysis implies a circumscribed
population that must be delineated in the research design process of operationalisation.

1.15.2 Group as Units of Analysis

Groups as the units of analysis for social research are not the same as studying the individuals in
a group. In studying a criminal gang in order to learn about gangsters, the individual, the gangster, is
the unit of analysis. But in studying all the gangs in a city to learn the differences town, for example,
big and small gangs, or uptown and downtown gangs, etc., the gang, i.e., the group, is the unit of
analysis.
Other units of analysis at the group level include: the family, cliques, couples, census blocks,
cities, regions. When social groups are the units of analysis, their characteristics may be derived from
the characteristics of their individual members. A family might be described in terms of the age, race,
or education of its head.
Groups and individuals may be characterised in other ways; for instance according to their
environments or their membership in larger groupings. Each group unit of analysis implies a
circumscribed population that must be delineated in the research design process of operationalisation.

1.15.3 Organisations as Units of Analysis

Formal organisations, such as corporations, implying the population of all corporations, may be
the units of analysis in social research. Organisations are, in many respects, easier to operationalise as
units of analysis than informal social groups because the organisation itself, or the law often provides
clear boundaries.
Each group unit of analysis implies a circumscribed population that must be delineated in the
research design process of operationalisation. At the level of social groups and organisations, the
researcher may examine characteristics of individuals or characteristics of the groups and
organisations themselves and still use the population of the group or organisation as the unit of
analysis.
● If the researcher examines characteristics of individuals in a sample of organisations, and
then aggregates that information to compare organisations, then the organisations are the
units of analysis.
● If the researcher examines characteristics of the organisations themselves, such as the
income of the organisations, then the organisations are the units of analysis and individuals
are not even looked at.

1.15.4 Social Artifacts as Units of Analysis

Social Artifacts are the products of social beings or their behavior such as music, homes, cars,
ideas, poems, books, paintings, pottery, jokes, scientific discoveries, etc. Each social artifact implies a
population of all such objects. Social interactions are another important class of social artifacts,
including most social rituals such as weddings, divorces, parties, church services, etc.
It is important to be clear whether one is studying a social artifact or the individuals who create
or use the social artifact; i.e., is the purpose of the research to examine brides or weddings. Other
examples of social artifacts include friendships, court cases, traffic accidents, fist fights, ship
launchings, airline hijackings, race riots, congressional hearings, etc.
 Research: An Introduction 23

1.15.5 Data Frames as the Unit of Analysis

When collecting and organising data, it’s important to be clear about what is a case. For the sea
shells, this is pretty obvious; each individual shell is an individual case. But in many situations, it’s
not so clear. A key idea is the unit of analysis. Suppose, for instance, that you want to study the link
between teacher pay, class size, and the performance of school children. There are all sorts of
possibilities for how to analyse the data you collect. You might decide to compare different schools,
looking at the average class size, average teacher pay, and average student performance in each school.
Here, the unit of analysis is the school. Or perhaps rather than averaging over all the classes in one
school, you want to compare different classes, looking at the performance of the students in each class
separately. The unit of analysis here is the class. You might even decide to look at the performance of
individual students, investigating how their performance is linked to the individual student’s family
income or the education of the student’s parents. Perhaps even include the salary of student’s teacher,
the size of the student’s class, and so on. The unit of analysis here is the individual student.
In many studies, you need to bring together different data frames, each of which may have a
different notion of case. Returning to the teacher’s pay example, one can easily imagine at least three
different data frames being involved, with each frame storing data at a different level:
1. A frame with each class being a case and variables such as the size of the class, the school
in which the class is taught, etc.
2. A frame with each teacher being a case and variables such as the teacher’s salary, years of
experience, advanced training, etc.
3. A frame with each student being a case and variables such as the student’s test scores, the
class that the student is in, and the student’s family income and parent education.
Once you choose the unit of analysis, you combine information from the different data frames to
carry out the data analysis, generating a single data frame in which cases are your chosen unit of
analysis. The choice of the unit of analysis can be determined by many things, such as the availability
of data. As a general rule, it’s best to make the unit of analysis as small as possible. But there can be
obstacles to doing this. You might find, for instance, that for privacy reasons (or less legitimate
reasons of secrecy) the school district is unwilling to release the data at the individual student level, or
even to release data on individual classes.

1.16 RESEARCH FOUNDATION: A BASIC CONCEPTS

1.16.1 Concepts/Conception
Concepts are highly subjective in nature and that makes it difficult to use them as they are in a
research study. These subjective thoughts cannot be measured on a statistical scale. Kumar (2000)
says that concepts are mental images and therefore their meanings vary markedly from individual to
individual. Concepts are subjective impressions and their understanding will differ from person to
person, which, if measured, would cause problems in comparing responses. Concepts should be
converted into variables so that they can be measured, although on different scales same variable will
have different precision.
If the researcher is using some concepts in his research he needs to find out some indicators that
are reflective of these concepts. These indicators can be chosen subjectively by the researcher but they
should have a logical link with the concept. The indicators can then be converted into variables.
24 Introduction to Research Methodology (Theory and Project Report)

Example:
1. Take an example of the effectiveness of a medicine in curing a disease, the researcher can
use the indicators: changes in the mortality rate, changes in morbidity, changes in
recurrence of that disease, or prevention from that disease. These indicators can then be
converted into variable to be able to be measured.
2. We can take another example of another concept that is how rich someone can be? To
measure this concept you need an indicator and you can measure someone’s richness from
his wealth that he possesses. This wealth can be in the form of his income, money in his
bank accounts, owned houses or other property and so on.
3. A psychologist might want to test the effectiveness of his counseling to patients with
anxiety. Effectiveness is a concept and you cannot measure it on any statistical scale. He
can operationalise his concept of effectiveness of his counseling treatment into the
following indicators: percentage reduction in patients’ anxiety, reduction in his day offs
from the workplace, reduction in his visits to the psychologist office etc.
4. Without converting your concept into an indicator and then a variable you cannot measure it
on any scale. The subjectivity of these indicators make them not suitable to be used directly
in a research project. It should also be noted that the extent of variation can only be reduced
by operationalising these concepts, it cannot be eliminated completely.

1.16.2 Constructs
The construct is a proposed attribute of a person that often cannot be measured directly, but can
be assessed using a number of indicators or manifest variables. Constructs are also discussed under
other labels, such as theoretical constructs or latent variables, which are interchangeable terms.
Broadly speaking, constructs are the building blocks of theories, helping to explain how and why
certain phenomena behave the way that they do. During the dissertation process you will need to
clearly and precisely explain the theories, constructs, and variables that you are interested in, as well
as explain the relationship between them. In this article, we focus on constructs. We explain: (a) what
constructs are, (b) the use of theoretical or nominal definitions to express the meaning of constructs,
and (c) the need to create operational definition from constructs so that they can be measured.
Constructs are mental abstractions that we used to express the ideas, people, organisations,
events and/or objects/things that we are interested in. Constructs are a way of bringing theory down to
earth, helping to explain the different components of theories, as well as measure/observe their
behaviour. The table below provides some examples of these different types of constructs:
Types of constructs Examples
Ideas Ageism, sexism, racism, self-esteem, poverty, social capital, trust,
philanthropy, affluence, morality, tolerance, air pollution, genetic
engineering, euthanasia, marriage, taboos.
People Age, gender, ethnicity, height, obesity, morbidity, energy, muscle soreness,
fatigue
Organisations Financial performance, corporate social responsibility, firm survival,
organisational culture, service quality, corporate governance, outsourcing,
alliances.
Events Armageddon, famine, urban regeneration, Jihad, secularism
Objects/Things Sun, hurricanes, tsunamis, trees, flowers, amino acids, stem cells.
 Research: An Introduction 25

Constructs vary significantly in their complexity. By complexity, we mean the relative difficulty
that people have understanding and measuring (i.e., observing) various constructs. Some constructs
can be very easy to understand/measure (e.g., age, gender, ethnicity, height), but others are more
difficult/complex (e.g., ageism, sexism, racism, self-esteem). Take the following examples:
1. Easy to understand and measure: We know that the construct, sex, has just two attributes
in humans: male and female. If we choose to include the construct, sex, in our research, this
would be relatively easy to justify. After all, most people would associate the construct, sex,
as referring to males or females.
2. More difficult to understand and measure: Some constructs that we think we understand,
and that we think the reader will understand, can be more complex than we first thought.
For example, take gender. You often see students include the construct, gender, in
questionnaires, giving respondents just two options (i.e., male and female). This is because
the constructs of sex and gender are often used interchangeably. But social scientists would
argue that gender is a more complex construct, including additional attributes to just male
and female; perhaps including bisexual, homosexual, transsexual, and so forth. In reality, a
significant proportion of constructs are of the more complex type.

1.16.3 Attributes
An attribute refers to the quality of a characteristic. The theory of attributes deals with qualitative
types of characteristics that are calculated by using quantitative measurements. Therefore, the attribute
needs slightly different kinds of statistical treatments, which the variables do not get. Attributes refer
to the characteristics of the item under study, like the habit of smoking, or drinking. So ‘smoking’ and
‘drinking’ both refer to the example of an attribute.
The researcher should note that the techniques involve statistical knowledge and are used at a
wider extent in the theory of attributes. In the theory of attributes, the researcher puts more emphasis
on quality (rather than on quantity). Since the statistical techniques deal with quantitative
measurements, qualitative data is converted into quantitative data in the theory of attributes.
There are certain representations that are made in the theory of attributes. The population in the
theory of attributes is divided into two classes, namely the negative class and the positive class. The
positive class signifies that the attribute is present in that particular item under study, and this class in
the theory of attributes is represented as A, B, C, etc. The negative class signifies that the attribute is
not present in that particular item under study, and this class in the theory of attributes is represented
as α, β, etc.
The assembling of the two attributes, i.e., by combining the letters under consideration (such as
AB), denotes the assembling of the two attributes. This assembling of the two attributes is termed
dichotomous classification. The number of the observations that have been allocated in the attributes
is known as the class frequencies. These class frequencies are symbolically denoted by bracketing the
attribute terminologies. (B), for example, stands for the class frequency of the attribute B. The
frequencies of the class also have some levels in the attribute. For example, the class that is
represented by the ‘n’ attribute refers to the class that has the nth order. For example, (B) refers to the
class of 2nd order in the theory of attributes. These attribute symbols also play the role of an operator.
For example, A.N = (A) means that the operation of dichotomising N according to the attribute A
gives the class frequency equal to (A).
There is also independence nature in the theory of attributes. The two attributes are said to be
independent only if the two attributes are absolutely uncorrelated to each other. In the theory of
26 Introduction to Research Methodology (Theory and Project Report)

attributes, the attributes A and B are said to be associated with each other only if the two attributes are
not independent, but are related to each other in some way or another.
The positive association in the two attributes exists under the following condition:
● (AB) > (A)(B) / N.
The negative association in the two attributes exists under the following condition:
● (AB) < (A)(B) / N.
The situation of complete association in the two attributes arises when the occurrence of attribute
A is completely dependent upon the occurrence of attribute B. However, attribute B may occur
without attribute A, and the same thing holds true if attribute A is the independent one. Ordinarily, the
two attributes are said to be associated if the two occur together in a number of cases. The consistency
between the two attributes (A) = 20 and (AB) = 25 is not present as the attribute (AB) cannot be
greater than attribute (A) if they have been observed from the same population.
Attributes may have different values, called variables. In a survey, the variables are the possible
answers respondents will give.
Attribute Variable
Gender male, female
Marital status single, married, etc.
School grade A, B, C, D, E, F
Number of children 1, 2, 3
Age x years

1.16.4 Variables
Variables are measurable of course, with varying degree of accuracy. Measurability is the main
difference between concepts and variables. A variable can be measured either using crude or refined
method or either using subjective or objective methods. There are various scales and a variable can be
measured on either one of those scales. The statistical variables can be measured on either nominal,
ordinal, ratio or interval scale. This ability of the variables brings objectivity in the research findings.
As variables are capable of measurement they can take different values and every variable can
have different values. Generally speaking variables can be either independent variable or dependent
variable. There can also be extraneous and intervening variables.
1. Independent variable: From the viewpoint of causation an independent variable is a
variable that affects the dependent variable and in itself it is free of any effects from the
dependent variable. It is the cause for the change in any phenomenon, situation, disease etc.
For example in testing the cause of juvenile delinquency in a community, availability of
guns can be taken as the cause and hence the independent variable.
2. Dependent variable: The dependent variable is the other main variable that is the effect of
the independent variable. For example in a research on the impact of the availability of guns
on the youth crime rate in a certain community, the youth crime rate is the dependent
variable. In the above example the crime rate among youth is dependent on the availability
of the guns.
3. Extraneous variable: In reality the situation is not always perfect with independent and
dependent variable. Extraneous variables are all those variables that can impact the
 Research: An Introduction 27

dependent variable other than the independent variable. In a laboratory setting it is

comparatively easier to do the experiments in a perfect environment where the researcher
controls all the extraneous variables. On the other hand, in a natural setting it is difficult to
control the extraneous variables.
4. Intervening variable: In certain situation an intervening variable needs to be there to have
the independent variable affect the dependent variable. This variable is not always present
but in the certain situation its intervention plays an important role between the cause and
effect relationship.

1.16.5 Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a formal tentative statement of the expected relationship between two or more
variables under study. A hypothesis helps to translate the research problem and objectives into a clear
explanation or prediction of the expected results or outcomes of the research study. A clearly stated
hypothesis includes the variables to be manipulated or measured, identifies the population to be
examined, and indicates the proposed outcome for the study.
‘Hypothesis is a tentative prediction or explanation of the relationship between two variables.’ It
implies that there is a systematic relationship between an independent and a dependent variable. For
example, dietary compliance will be greater in diabetic patients receiving diet instruction in small
groups than in diabetic patients receiving individualised diet instructions
A hypothesis enables the researcher to objectively investigate new areas of discovery. Thus, it
provides a powerful tool for the advancement of knowledge. Hypotheses provide objectivity to the
research activity. It also provides directions to conduct research such as defining the sources and
relevance of data. A hypothesis provides clear and specific goals to the researchers. These clear and
specific goals provide the investigator with a basis for selecting sample and research procedures to
meet these goals.
Hypotheses provides link between theories and actual practical research. It provides a bridge
between theory and reality. A hypothesis suggests which type of research is likely to be most
appropriate. As it is a tentative statement of anticipated results, it guides the researcher towards the
direction in which the research should proceed. It stimulates the thinking process of researcher as the
researcher forms the hypothesis by anticipating the outcome. A hypothesis provides understanding to
the researchers about what to expect from the results of the research study. It serves as framework for
drawing conclusions of a research study. Without hypotheses, research would be like aimless
wandering.
1. Conceptual clarity: Hypothesis should consist of clearly defined and understandable
concepts. It should be stated in very terms, the meaning and implication of which cannot be
doubted. To facilitate the conceptual clarity, hypothesis can be stated in declarative
statement, in present tense.
2. Empirical referents: Research must have an ultimate empirical referent. No usable
hypotheses can embody moral judgments. A good hypothesis must have empirical basis
from the area of enquiry
3. Objectivity: Hypothesis must be objective, which facilitates objectivity in data collection
and keeps the research activity free from researcher value - judgment.
4. Specificity: It should be specific, not general, and should explain the expected relations
between variables. For example, regular yoga reduces stress.