12-08-2023

Introduction to Landscape Architecture

What is Landscape Architecture?

The noun landscape evolved from the Dutch landschap and the
German landschaft, meaning a place that is both human-altered
or inhabited and surrounded by forest or WILDERNESS.

A view or PROSPECT of natural inland scenery such as can be

taken in at a glance from one point of view; a piece of country
scenery.

The use of landscape as a very, meaning “to embellish the

grounds around a structure by making it part of a continuous
and harmonies landscape,”

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What is Landscape Architecture?

Landscape architecture is concerned with the design of outdoor space
using three basic elements. 1. Landform
1. Landform
2. Water
3. Vegetation

2. Water 3. Vegetation
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What is Landscape Architecture?

The term Landscape Architecture was

first used in a book
“THE LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE”
published by Gilbert Laing Meason in
1828.

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What is Landscape Architecture?

• In 1863, Frederick Law Olmstead
and Calvert Vaux, the designers
of New York’s Central Park,
established a new profession in
America- Landscape Architect

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Source: [Link]

What is Landscape Architecture?

In 1970, Harvard became the 1st

university to offer a
professional training program
in landscape architecture.

Harvard University, United States

Later in 1971, Norman T. Newton, wrote in “Design on the

land” that landscape architecture is
“the art or science of arranging land, together with
the spaces and objects upon it for safe, efficient,
healthful, pleasant human use”.
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What is Landscape Architecture?

Landscape architecture is the profession, which applies
artistic and scientific principles to the planning, design and
management of both natural and built environment.

Include: investigation, selection, feasibility studies,

formulation of graphic and written criteria to govern the
planning and design of land construction, programs,
preparation, review, and analysis of master plans for land
use and development, production of overall site plans
landscape grading and landscape drainage.

Landscape Architects design outdoor spaces to serve

specific purposes and meet certain needs of the users.

Purpose of Landscape Design

• To blend man's technology (house or building) into the
natural surroundings.
• With the exception of facilities specifically designed for
the display or growth of plants (such as greenhouses or
conservatories), plant materials must be able to tolerate
the environmental conditions created for human
comfort.
• Must consider the ecosystem and climate of that
particular area.
• The potential user demand ease and beauty.
• Landscape architecture embodies a skillful integration
of these forces so that the changes on the land respond
to human needs yet remain sensitive to the environment.

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Landscape Practice & Profession of Landscape

Architecture

The International Federation of Landscape Architecture (IFLA)

defines the landscape architect as one who:

“plans and designs the aesthetic layout of land areas for

projects such as parks and other recreational facilities,
roads, commercial, industrial, residential sites and public
buildings with site conditions being studied.”

Landscape Practice & Profession of Landscape

Architecture
Interdisciplinary aspects
• Landscape has an intrinsic relationship with
architecture, urban design, urban planning and civil
engineering.
• Hence while doing landscape design one has to consider
the other disciplines also.
• Landscape could be taken as the basis of other
disciplines because it deals with the land resource.

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Landscape as a Profession
Landscape Architects are • Policy Development
involved with: • Public Engagement
• Commercial Enhancement • Regional Recreation
• Environmental Advocacy • Residential Design
• Green Roofs • Streetscapes
• Habitat Restoration • Sustainable Site Water
• Historic Preservation/ Management
Education • Therapeutic Gardens
• Institutional Site Design • Transportation Planning
• Local Government • Urban Plazas
• Naturalization
• Neighborhood Parks
• Placemaking

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LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS

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Landscape Elements
Types:
1. Hard landscape Elements
2. Soft landscape Elements

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Hard Landscape Elements

Hardscape refers to hard landscape materials in the built

environment structures that are incorporated into a
landscape.

This can include paved areas, driveways, retaining walls, or

any other landscaping made up of hard wearing materials
such as stone, concrete etc. as opposed to softscape, the
horticultural elements of a landscape.

The importance of soft landscaping is well recognised but

yet it can be the hard landscaping (the walls, fences and
surfaces) which dictates the character of the spaces we
visit.

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Hard Landscape Elements

• Civil work component of landscape
architecture such as pavement,
walkways, roads, retaining walls,
sculpture, street amenities,
fountains and other built
environment
• Usually, hard landscape is
employed in an earlier stage of
landscaping in order to get the
form and space for soft
landscaping later on.

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Hard Landscape Elements

Walkway Road

Retaining Wall Street Amenities Sculpture

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Hard Landscape Elements

Function
• Create links between
buildings
• Enclose space
• Create a ‘theme’ within a Enclosed Space Link Between Building
development
• Define private areas
• Give security to private
areas
• Cater for pedestrian or Theme Based Garden
vehicular movement
• Assist people with
disabilities

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Assist People Complete Street

Hard Landscape Elements

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Hard Landscape Elements

Choosing Materials
• Materials to be selected not
only for their appearance but
also for their ability to
withstand the use to which they
are being put.
• Use of appropriate, good quality
and durable materials will
frequently reduce long-term Broken Bench
maintenance costs whereas the
use of an inappropriate
material (low initial cost) is
often a false economy.
• Materials should enhance the
surrounding buildings

Furniture to withstand Weather19

Hard Landscape Elements

Walls
• Appropriately designed walls
can greatly enhance the
appearance of new
developments by physically
and visually linking them to
the established street scene.
• Serpentine walls which
comprise a series of curves
on plan can provide visual
interest as well as structural
stability

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Serpentine Wall

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Hard Landscape Elements

Walls
• Appropriately designed walls can
greatly enhance the appearance
of new developments by
physically and visually linking
them to the established street
scene.

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Hard Landscape Elements

Fences
• Closed fences provide more
effective screening and security
but can become visually
obtrusive unless combined with
substantial soft landscaping

• Simple timber fences used

around gardens in rural areas,
though do not provide a
complete visual or security
barrier, they do mark
boundaries and deter
encroachment.
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Hard Landscape Elements

Fountains
• Piece of architecture which pours
water into a basin or jets it into
the air to supply drinking water
and/or for a decorative or
dramatic effect
• Used to beautify and coordinate
public squares in cities.
• Helps to maintain the
microclimate of the immediate
zone by cooling a hot area.
• One of the attractive elements of
composition in the gardens

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Hard Landscape Elements

Fountains
• Selecting the right size for your fountain so it will be proportionate
to its surroundings and your building
• Factors to consider when choosing the best location for a fountain
includes the style of your open space, want to use fountain as a
focal point

Fountain as a focal point

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Hard Landscape Elements

Stone Benches

• Add interest and functionality

to parks, garden or yard.

• Stone garden furniture is

alluring which can add
aesthetic charm and
functionality to an outdoor
space

• Suits any purpose- as per

design style

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Hard Landscape Elements

Arbor / Trellis

• They are a vertical structure in a

landscape or garden that can
provide shelter, privacy, shade and
serve as an emphasis.
• They can be constructed from wood
or wrought iron Consists of two or
four posts with a simple slatted roof
• The side of an arbor can be open or
covered with lattice or trellis work
for more enclosed effect & to help
vines attach better

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Hard Landscape Elements

Gates
• Main function of gate is to divide,
separating the inside from the
outside
• On the other hand, it is also the
only connecting element, guiding
people to a certain point, where
the inside & outside gets unified.
• The design is not just about the
link of the inside with the outside,
but also about the connection of
its visitors – the gate as an area
of gathering, instead of a point of
passing through

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Hard Landscape Elements

Textures and Colours
• Textures and colours of materials
should be carefully selected to create a
desired effect rather than being used at
random
• For example: Garden walls built in the
same colour brick as the dwellings can
give consistency to an area.
• Changes in texture and colours can be
used to good effect to denote changes
of function

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SOFT LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS

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Soft Landscape Elements

• The natural elements in landscape
design, such as plant materials, water
and the soil itself.

• Process of designing the elements of a

landscape that do not involve
construction.

• These elements include trees, shrubs,

hedges and flowers, as well as
meadows, turf, container gardens,
natural ponds and stream, potted
plants, and green walls

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Soft Landscape Elements

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Soft Landscape Elements

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Soft Landscape Elements

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Soft Landscape Elements

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Soft Landscape Elements

Function
1. Functional and structural characteristics- Plants create
landscape structure which both defines spaces and
serves their function
2. Visual and other sensory- Plants create an enormous
wealth of aesthetic characteristics, the appearance of
their twigs, bark, flower and fruit, fragrance of flower
and aromatic foliage, the physical texture of bark and
leaves
3. Plant growth habit and cultural requirement- planting
design can help us make the best use of our
environment, restore balance between people, nature
and in some extent to the wild life and the eco- system.

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Soft Landscape Elements

Function
4. Trees- Barriers formed with plants are needed in
landscape for screening unpleasant views, for dividing up
the landscape into spaces, for providing shelter from
wind, for protection against pollution, for defining
boundaries
5. Shrubs- impenetrability is essential unless the barrier is
for visual purpose, thus the twigs or thorns are
considered as an advantage, to create line effects
6. Ground covers and grasses- Provide variety of texture
and colour, reduce soil erosion and serve as a transition
between grass areas and shrub or flower beds
7. Water Features – controls micro climate, acts as a design
feature to bind a space together.
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Hard & Soft Landscape Elements

• The design is not complete without the presence of
elements of both categories

• Through design one must demonstrate the harmony

and balance between them in highlighting all of
them and in most cases this is a measure of the
success of the design and the idea put forward.

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Ecological and environment aspect

Ecology is the study of the environment, and helps us

understand how organisms live with each other in
unique physical environments.

Ecology explains how the natural world is and how it

behaves, and design is also the key intervention point
for making sustainability in ecology.

The knowledge gained from ecology can influence

landscape design.

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Ecological and environment aspect

Ecological Landscaping is a method of designing,
building, and maintaining landscapes that considers
the ecology of a site and creates gardens that enhance
the surrounding environment for the benefit of
humans and all other life in the ecosystem.

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Ecology: Relations of organisms to one another and to their physical surroundings.

Ecological and environment aspect

When the earth is disturbed during the construction
of buildings, homes, driveways, and roadways, the
land is forever altered. Although the natural
landscape can never be restored completely.

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Ecological and environment aspect

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Ecological and environment aspect

With thoughtful attention to the site, ecological
landscapers can create outdoor spaces that are
practical, healthy, and aesthetically pleasing.

Ecological landscaping strives to balance the building

site with the natural environment.

It draws upon the wisdom of natural systems which is

a balance between water, land and living things.

Landscape to be designed not just for humans but for

fauna too.
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Ecological and environment aspect

• By studying the inter-relationships between living
things, non-living things, and the environment,
ecological landscapers can create a landscaped
community that will conserve natural resources,
preserve biodiversity, and protect the environment.

• With proper design and implementation, a healthy

pattern begins to form with each component in the
landscape; people, animals, plants, water, soil,
insects, and wildlife, all interacting in a sustainable
way.

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The park is situated on the roof of two four-layered underground parking

garages. With its 200 meter length, it’s the largest rooftop park in the
Netherlands. The Vierhavensstrip rooftop park connects living, shopping,
working, study, culture and recreation in a unique way.
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Ecological and environment aspect

Built and green environments, the unique contribution that the

natural environment makes to the quality of city life, and the
importance of the role that landscape architects play.

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Ecological and environment aspect

• Conservation is an important part of ecological landscaping.

• The objectives of an ecological landscaper are to

❖ reduce water consumption,
❖ preserve water quality,
❖ prevent soil erosion,
❖ protect biodiversity,
❖ diminish the use of toxic pesticides,
❖ and minimize the use of non-renewable resources.

By striving toward these goals, the ecological landscaper can

create gardens that are both environmentally responsible and
enjoyable to experience.
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1.2 NATURAL PROCESSES

GEOLOGICAL PROCESS

In less technical terms, and greatly simplified, GEOLOGIC

PROCESSES are those by which rocks are formed,
differentiated, eroded, and deposited to be reformed
again into rocks, sands pebbles etc.

Predictable sequences of events, powered by geologic

forces.

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GEOLOGICAL PROCESS

They are according to Press and Siever in

Earth (1974), the activities through
which
“rock materials pass from a sedimentary
form,
through diastrophism and deformation
of sedimentary rock,
through metamorphism and eventual
melting and magma formation,
through volcanism and plutonism to
igneous rock formation, and
through erosion to form more
sediment.

BIOLOGICAL PROCESS

Ecological systems are sustained by a number of biological, physical,

and chemical processes,
• including primary production (conversion of the sun's energy into
organic matter through photosynthesis),
• the associated cycling of carbon, nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus),
• hydrogen/oxygen
• other elements from the physical environment (air, water, land)
through biological organisms and back into the physical
environment.

ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES, SUCH AS PRIMARY

PRODUCTION, INFLUENCE THE EXTENT, DISTRIBUTION,
AND BIODIVERSITY OF SYSTEMS.

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BIOLOGICAL PROCESS
Collectively, ecological processes produce

Enable
Organic
organisms to
matter
reproduce.

Nutrients,
Transfer
drive soil
carbon
formation

They also play an important role in providing ecological services—for

example, providing natural resources, such as food, fiber, and timber,
and regulating air and water quality.

SOIL FORMING PROCESS

The soil is a natural system in

itself.

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SOIL FORMING PROCESS

Soil influences the availability of water and nutrients, the activity of soil
micro-organisms, and temperature within the root zone, and thus may have a
determining effect on the types of plants which will grow successfully in the
garden.

❑ The soil must be plant-root friendly.

❑ The soil is a natural system in itself.

• The creation of life-sustaining substances and the exchange of energy, water, and
gases occur there. Organisms unique to the soil exist there.

❑ All soils are not created equal.

• Natural soil varies in its properties and characteristics across the landscape, but its
composition and extent is predictable by trained soil scientists.
• Soil of urban areas and restoration sites has been altered to varying degrees by
human activity and is unpredictable.

SOIL FORMING PROCESS

NATURAL SOIL URBAN SOIL

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SOIL FORMING PROCESS

Several of the natural agents such as water, wind, ice, gravity, and heat
becomes the predominant active agent for the placement of soil
material and its alteration

In the urban environment, the detrimental effects on the soil are

1. removal of more plant and animal nutrients than are replaced,
2. addition of materials toxic to plants and animals,
3. causing soil subsidence by drainage or mining,
4. excavation and compaction,
5. subjecting soil to excessive heat and wind,
6. altering aspects by land-forming,
7. clearing and burning of organic matter with removal of plants and
animals, and
8. burying soil under solid fill or water.

1.3 SCOPE OF WORK

Design Scope
• Landscape design focuses on both the planning of a property and the
specific garden design of certain landscape elements and plants within it.
• The practical, aesthetic, horticultural and environmental sustainability
components are all considered in landscape design.

Landscape designers often collaborate with related disciplines such as

• architecture,
• civil engineering,
• land surveying,
• landscape contracting,
• Edaphology (Edaphology is the science or study of soil, especially with respect to
plant growth)
• botany and
• artisan specialties.

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Interdisciplinary nature of Landscape Architecture

Urban Planner + Urban Designer + Architect + Landscape Architects

Urban planners determine what their community needs and where it is

appropriate for different things to be located. Most urban planners work
for the government, although some may work for engineering or
architectural firms.
Responsibilities of an urban planner include:
• Inform the community about proposed projects, identifying community
needs.
• Review relevant environmental laws or building codes
• Discuss community needs with other professionals who may be
involved with the projects

Interdisciplinary nature of Landscape Architecture

• Urban designers, Architects and

Landscape architects work with
local, regional and central
government, transport agencies,
private developers and
communities.

• Landscape architecture and

urban design is about
understanding the connections
between people and places and
creating sustainable solutions to
meet the complex requirements
of our outdoor environments.

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Interdisciplinary nature of Landscape Architecture

Landscape architects are primarily involved with the design, planning and
management of the outdoor spaces around public buildings,
condominiums, townships, parks, farmhouses, bungalows and so on.

Urban
planning

Urban Design

Landscape
Architecture

Interdisciplinary nature of Landscape Architecture

• Range of work spans transportation, energy, mining, urban spaces,

sports and recreation, education and residential, cultural and heritage
landscapes.

Urban Planners, Urban Designers , Architects and Landscape Architects

work together to provide following services:

Environmental Economic Habitat Community

sustainability revitalisation protection aspirations

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2.0 DESIGN RESOURCES AND

TECHNIQUIES

2.1 LAND, LANDFORM AND GRADING

LANDFORM IN LANDSCAPE DESIGN

• The perception of land in three dimensions or ‘relief’.
• Generally denoted and expressed by use of contours.
• Develops as per the ecological, cultural and technological forces on
earth’s surface.
• Usability of a certain landform for a landscape project depends upon:
Shape, Size, Slope,

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2.1 LAND, LANDFORM AND GRADING

Landforms can be categorized according to:

a. Shape and Size

According to shape and size of the land forms they may or may not be
suitable for certain use for example a moderately terrain land may be used
interestingly for residential purpose but may not fit for sports like football,
basket ball, volleyball etc.

b. Slope and Gradients

A firm slope may be good for easy drainage rather than flat land without
slope. Slopes up to 5% is taken as better for natural gradient.

c. Scale and Proportions

The functionality depends on the scale of the place and the amenities
extended.

2.1 LAND, LANDFORM AND GRADING

Roles of Landform in Landscape Design
I) AESTHETIC
The sloping of the land could be interesting as the mountains viewed from the
aeroplanes.
• Provides rich visual variety and character to designs.
• Can be a representation of nature in crafted design.

II) ECOLOGICAL
• Respect to natural landform can result in ecological benefits.
• Aids natural site water management and greenery management.
(RIVER SYSTEMS ,WETLANDS, SPRINGS, HILLS & PLAIN LANDS )

III) FUNCTIONAL
• Helps to concentrate and direct the views and view points as desired in
design.
• As places of specific function or to direct circulation.
• As barrier, enclosure, secondary paths, segregation of functional spaces.

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APPLICATION OF LANDFORM IN DESIGN

APPLICATION OF LANDFORM IN DESIGN

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APPLICATION OF LANDFORM IN DESIGN

SPACE DEFINED

DISPLAY AREA
FOCAL POINT

TILTED SLOPE FOR DISPLAY OF ELEMENTS

APPLICATION OF LANDFORM IN DESIGN

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GRADING
Grading is the intervention on landform for changes as per design
concept
• The act of moving and reforming portions of the earth;
• The arrangement of the surface of the earth to suit human
purposes.

In other way when natural landforms are changed according to the

necessity of design concepts, keeping in mind the drainage, wind
direction etc. such practice is called ‘Grading’.

• It is the only tool for making use of existing landform aesthetically

economically and functionally. In other way Grading means re-
contouring of the contour line according to the plan.

MAJOR LANDFORMS:
Plains ,Plateaus, Hills, Mountains

GRADING
Grading
General term used to refer to modification to
the existing landform.
• Needs careful change of contours to
support the integration of building with
site.
• It is expressed in or ratio or degrees:
1 % slope= 100 : 1

Percentage of slope is expressed as the

number of meters rise in 100 If the slope
rises 2 m in 100 m, the gradient is: 2m X 100

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2.1 LAND, LANDFORM AND GRADING

SUMMARY : ROLE OF GRADING IN LANDSCAPE DESIGN:

• To achieve better drainage. To allow water to flow to a certain
portion of the site and away from buildings
• To maintain regularity of site surface by balancing cut and fill.
• To achieve certain visual effects.
• To adjust for the functional needs of design.

2.1 LAND, LANDFORM AND GRADING

Grading: Cut and Fill
• The process of removal of earth from one part of site and using the
dug up earth by filling it at another place on the same site to
achieve required grading.
• The amount of material from cuts should roughly match the
amount of fill needed to make nearby embankments.

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2.1 LAND, LANDFORM AND GRADING

Grading is the re-contouring of the Contours are imaginary lines joining
site contour according to plan and all the points of equal elevation or
design: altitude above mean sea level.
This helps to show the relief features
Contours: charateristics of any region.
• Contours never cross each other A contour line is drawn to show
or merge. places of equal heights
• Contours have equal vertical
separation.
• All contour lines close on
themselves
• The steepest slope is a line
perpendicular to the contour
(water always flows here).
• By convention the existing
contours are shown as dashed
lines and proposed contours are
shown as solid lines.
• Forms valley and ridge lines.

2.1 LAND, LANDFORM AND GRADING

Grading to create berms:

A berm is a ridge or barrier
constructed of compacted soil,
gravel, rocks, and stones to
prevent, divert, or direct water
away from a particular area. It is
constructed as a level space or
mound that separates two areas.

Berms can be created for noise,

wind and undesirable sight
barriers Or for additional soil
depth above unfavourable sub
grade conditions such as high
ground water table, landfill sites

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2.1 LAND, LANDFORM AND GRADING

Berms

2.1 LAND, LANDFORM AND GRADING

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2.1 LAND, LANDFORM AND GRADING

2.1 LAND, LANDFORM AND GRADING

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2.1 LAND, LANDFORM AND GRADING

Considerations to be made for Landscape Grading:

• Proper balance between “adjusting site surface for design needs”

and “designing to least disturb the existing site surface” must be
achieved.
• Extensive alterations may lead to landslides, erosion, and complete
destruction of ecosystem.
• Result should be visually pleasing.
• Cut fill should be equal.
• Positive drainage should be maintained.
• Conservation of top soil should be done.

2.1 LAND, LANDFORM AND GRADING

Grading in following conditions must be avoided or re evaluated:

• Grading that results in radical loss of vegetation and or topsoil.

• Grading that interrupts in natural drainage.
• Grading that results in aesthetic degradation.
• Grading on difficult slopes excess of 25% , in floodplains, estuaries
or in other environmentally unique conditions.
• Grading in areas liable to natural disasters such as mud slides or
along earthquake fault.

(An estuary is a partially enclosed, coastal water body where freshwater

from rivers and streams mixes with salt water from the ocean.)

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2.1 LAND, LANDFORM AND GRADING

2.1 LAND, LANDFORM AND GRADING

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2.1 LAND, LANDFORM AND GRADING

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DESIGN RESOURCES AND TECHNIQUES :

WATER

WATER

“Water is the most interesting object in landscape

and the happiest circumstance in retired recess;
captivates the eye at a distance,
invites approach and is delightful when near;
it refreshes an open exposure and enriches the most
crowded views in form.,
in style and in extent, may be made equal to the
greatest composition.”

John Omsbee Simonds

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WATER

NATURAL PROCESS – WATER SYSTEM

Water flows from source to receiving ocean basin.

This continuity of rivulets, streams and rivers can be readily observed.
Not so obvious are the sequential and interacting relationship of the
ponds, lakes and wetlands. These too are links in the chain of flow.

Water and water area well used can benefit all who live within their
sphere of influence.

If however they are unwisely used, contaminated or wasted,

dependent life is threatened with minor loss or inconveniences ,
sometimes with major disasters .

WATER
WATER AS A RESOURCE
In planning the use of land areas in relation to waterways and waterbodies, a
reasonable goal would be to take full advantage of the benefits of proximity. These
benefits fall within the following categories.

• Transportation
• Microclimate Moderation: The extremes of temperature are tempered
by the presence of moisture and by the resulting vegetation.
• Wildlife Habitat: Lakeshores, stream edges, and wetlands together form a
natural food source and habitat for birds and animals. the indigenous
vegetation is to be allowed to remain standing whenever feasible, and
continuous swaths of cover are to be left intact to permit wildlife to move
from place to place undisturbed.
• Recreational Use
• Scenic Values
• Site Amenity: Natural resources (lake, stream etc) nearby or within, adds
more value to the site.
• Water Supply, Irrigation, and Drainage

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WATER AS A RESOURCE
• Water Supply, Irrigation, and Drainage
• When these are important considerations, the area of more
intensive use will be located near the sources. Usually gravity flow
will have much to do with the plan layout.
• Irrigated fields will be established below points of inlet where
possible and be so arranged that lines or planes of flow will slope
gently across the contours to achieve maximum percolation and
continuity.

WATER AS A RESOURCE
• Water Supply, Irrigation, and Drainage
• Drainage should be maintained whenever possible along existing
lines of flow, with the natural vegetation left undisturbed
• Run-off from fertilized fields or turf will be directed to on-site
retention swales or ponds so that the water may be filtered and
purified before re-entering the source or percolating into the soil to
recharge the water table.

Bioswales
are vegetated, shallow,
landscaped depressions
designed to capture,
treat, and infiltrate
stormwater runoff as it
moves downstream.

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WATER: PRINCIPLES
In considering the site development of any landscape area, a first
concern is the protection of the surface and subsurface waters both
as to quality and as to quantity.

1. All related uses are to be compatible with the water resource

and landscape.
2. The intensity of the introduced uses must not exceed the
carrying capacity or biologic tolerance of the land and water
areas.
3. The continuity of the natural and built systems is to be ensured.

If these three principles are adhered to, it can be seen that all
landwater areas, from homesite to region, can be planned and
developed in such a way that both the scenic quality and the ecologic
functions are maintained.

WATER AS A RESOURCE

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WATER-RELATED SITE DESIGN

In the development of land-water holdings, special care is required in the
delineation of use areas, in the location of paths of vehicular and pedestrian
movement, and in site and building design.
Natural streams and water bodies
• Where these exist, they represent the resolution of many dynamic
forces at work—precipitation, surface runoff, sedimentation,
clarification, currents, wave action, and so forth. (Natural water
System)

First consideration in the site planning of water related areas is to

leave the natural conditions undisturbed and build up to and around
them.
• In their existing state, the banks of streams and rivers are lined by a
fringe of grasses, shrubs, and trees that stabilize soils and check the
sheet inflow of surface storm water drainage. The bank faces are
held in place by stones, logs, roots, and trailing plants that resist
currents and erosion. Example: Marsh land, mangroves and wetlands

WATER-RELATED SITE DESIGN

Mangroves Marshy Areas Riparian Zones

Mangroves provide natural infrastructure to help protect nearby populated

areas by reducing erosion and absorbing storm surge impacts during extreme
weather events such as hurricanes.
Coastal marshes are crucial to the environmental health of the region,
filtering nutrients and pollution from the water, protecting communities from
rising sea level and harsh storms, supporting breeding grounds for
commercially valuable fish, and offering recreational opportunities.
Riparian Zones: Improves the natural and beneficial functions of the
floodplain. Prevents stream bank erosion. Filters storm runoff, removing
pollutants before they reach the creek.

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WATER-RELATED SITE DESIGN

Canals and Impoundments
At a greater scale, huge reservoirs or lakes may be impounded for water storage, flood
control, or the provision of hydroelectric energy.
From the smallest dam to the largest, the location must be well selected to ensure its
stability. Water levels are to be studied in relation to topographical forms so that the
edges of the pond or lake may create a pleasing shape well suited to adjacent paths of
movement, use areas, and structures.
Example- Indrasarowar lake (1986 BS), Markhu Kulekhani dam

WATER-RELATED SITE DESIGN

Paths, Bridges, and Decks

captivates the eye at a distance,

invites approach and is delightful
when near;

• Overlooks may be as
unprepossessing as a bench in the
widened bend of a path.
• These may be decked, terraced, or
walled, to bring the user into the
most favourable relationship to the
water for the purpose intended, be
it viewing, relaxing, fishing, diving,
or entering a boat.

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WATER-RELATED SITE DESIGN

Pools, Fountains, and Cascades
It is hard to imagine any planned landscape area—patio, garden, or public square—
that would not benefit by the introduction of water in natural or architectural form.
Its sound, motion, and cooling effects give it universal appeal.

• Water has become symbolic. It expresses and promotes refreshment

and stimulates rich vegetative growth. Its presence can convert
seeming desert into seeming oasis.
• Where water is plentiful and its use is to be featured, as in urban
courts, malls, or plazas, its treatment is often carried to an
exhilarating scale and high degree of refinement.
• In even the smallest garden also ,can add refreshment and interest.

WATER DISPLAY PURPOSE

Aesthetic Factors
• A designer usually incorporates water into a space as a visual
element .
• The aesthetic qualities of water, however, reach far beyond the
visual aspect due to the documented psychological effects of water
as a metaphor and as a physical factor providing sound, and
climatic modification .
• The sound of water and the coolness associated with being near or
touching water are equally a part of our emotional response to
water in the environment.
• Visual
• Psychological
• Auditory
• Sensory effects

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WATER DISPLAY PURPOSE

Visual:
Water can function as a focal point within a space or as a means of
creating and maintaining a sense of continuity.
A water display can strongly temper the character of a space .

A sense of calm and serenity is created by a quiet stream or pool, while

excitement and drama can be achieved by swiftly moving, densely massed, or
strongly vertical displays . The level of formality will be influenced by the forms
of the pools and displays, and the mood further defined or reinforced by
appropriate lighting .

WATER DISPLAY PURPOSE

Psychological:
It is an essential aspect of human
behavior to be drawn toward a
riverbank, lake edge, or seashore .
We either live near water or convey it
to where we live, using canals or
pipelines . Our food supply likewise
depends upon water for growth and
sustenance.

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WATER DISPLAY PURPOSE

Auditory:
The intensity and frequency of the sound generated by a water display
can be used to convey a sense of calm or excitement, and can also
mask unpleasant or distracting ambient noise.

Quiet stream Turbulent stream Aerated waterfall Smooth waterfall

Sensory Effects:
Airborne spray and evaporation from water displays cause a cooling
effect. Droplets and sprays from active, aerated displays are
particularly effective .

WATER DISPLAY PURPOSE

Functional Reasons

Recreation :
• Pools may be designed for swimming, fishing, boating, or just water
play, as with participatory/ interactive water displays .

Circulation Control:
• Pools may be used to direct or interrupt traffic patterns for reasons
of safety or security or simply to promote an orderly progression
through a space .

Utilitarian:
• Practical applications for water displays include their use as a fire
fighting or irrigation reservoir, as a retention pond for site
drainage, or as a means for cooling air and/or mechanical
equipment .

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ELEMENTS OF VISUAL DESIGN

The particular characters displayed by water contribute to the mental

images it evokes.

• Line
• Form
• Colour and
• Texture

ELEMENTS OF VISUAL DESIGN

Line
• The edge of the water, that is, the
character of its outline, has a major
impact upon the images it evokes
in the mind of the Beholder
• A soft textured line can evoke
unbridled (not controlled) nature
• A highly controlled sinuous (curve
or twist) line can allude (refer) to a
controlled or symbolic nature
• Water can also express its surface
as line

Examples include the rhythmic line of

waves that move across the surface
under the influence of wind and the
lines that pulse outward when
something impacts the surface.

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ELEMENTS OF VISUAL DESIGN

Form
Water features can be linear, an
accentuating water movement and
flow characteristics
• They can be compact in form and
convey a sense of centrality
• Their form can be a complex
combination of different
characters, thereby pulling
together disparate elements (i.e.
using water as complex form) or
• Conversely they can be consistent
and convey a more unified sense
(water as simple form)

ELEMENTS OF VISUAL DESIGN

Colour
• Good quality water has little colour.
• Colour is imparted by the reflections carried upon its surface, by its
diffusing character, and by the colour of its container

• White coloured and mirrored containers express the transparent

nature of water. They also create the illusion of shallowness.
• Light blue containers impart a clarity, cleanliness, and purity to the
water
• Dark blue and black containers maximize the reflections and give the
illusion of shadowy depths

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ELEMENTS OF VISUAL DESIGN

Texture
• When water is moving, its surface texture is determined by that of its
container and by its dept and flow characteristics
• Protrusions (projections) into the flow cause turbulence, which
increases surface texture
• When a thin sheet of water moves down a nearly vertical surface,
minor ripples in the surface can impart interesting texture and
aeration to the water.

Landscape lighting

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LANDSCAPE LIGHTING
Lighting can be an important aspect of landscape design. In most cases,
various types of lighting techniques may be classified and defined by
heights: SAFETY LIGHTING, UPLIGHTING, AND DOWNLIGHTING.

Safety lighting is the most practical application. However, it is more

important to determine the type of lamps and fittings needed to create
the desired effects.

• Landscape lighting has excessive potential to enhance the landscape

and provides many benefits for both residential and other
applications.
• Through a variety of applications, lighting serves the major
PURPOSES: Security and Aesthetics (Ambience/ Drama).
• Landscape lighting can be CATEGORIZED as: GARDEN, PLAZA,
STREET, WALKWAY, and PARKING LOT etc.

PURPOSE OF LANDSCAPE LIGHTING

SECURITY
• Low levels of light evenly spread
around the perimeter of
buildings can act as a preventive
to intruders.
• Provide greater security than
floods which create pools of light
along with dark shadows where
someone can hide.
• Light sources that emit low level
light from the knee down help to
figure intruders and make them
visible from every angle.

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PURPOSE OF LANDSCAPE LIGHTING

AMBIANCE AND DRAMA
• Beauty, hospitality and drama are enhanced by the proper selection
and placement of landscape lights.
• Choosing focal points of architecture, art, unique features and
landscape plant material can add night time drama to the landscape.

PURPOSE OF LANDSCAPE LIGHTING

STREET LIGHTING
• Reinforces street hierarchy by visually differentiating major and
minor roads through varied light intensities, fixture types, pole
spacing, and height.
• Provides safety and security, eases navigation and distinct
intersections.

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PURPOSE OF LANDSCAPE LIGHTING

ARCHITECTURAL LIGHTING
• Architectural lighting are used to emphasize the variation in texture
as well as architectural features in brick and stone cladding, soffit
details, façade etc.
• Draws attention to a desired point: the entrance, special features,
facility.
• Enhances visual interest of prominent buildings or displays.

Types of LANDSCAPE LIGHTING

Architectural Lighting can be in the form of:

o Spotlighting or Highlighting
o Silhouetting
o Shadowing
o Grazing Light
o Washing
o Cross Lighting

Spotlighting or Silhouetting & Grazing Light or

Highlighting Shadowing Washing

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DESIGN RESOURCES AND TECHNIQUES :

VEGETATION

Landscape Architecture

VEGETATION

Plants are the crucial first step in the food chain, cycling
nutrients through ecosystems.

In addition to capturing large amount of energy and making it

available as food , green plants provide many ecological
benefits.

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VEGETATION

Process
• Plant materials are the result of biological processes
operating within the specifics of place and time.
• Contribute to their environment by providing oxygen,
improving air quality, climate amelioration, conserving water,
preserving soil, and supporting wildlife.
• They are dependent on the materials of the environment.
• There are numerous environmental conditions necessary for
growth. Depends on the climate of any particular location.
• There must be sunlight, water nutrients and appropriate
temperatures.

PLANT STRATA AND SIZE

• Strata refers to the various horizontal layers that comprise a plant
community, including canopy tree, under story tree, shrub and
ground cover.
• Size refers to the overall height and width of the plant and its
relative size or scale when compared to other plants, structures,
and spaces in the yard.
• Size usually refers to the height to the top of the plant.
• Large trees (> 40 feet)
• Intermediate tree (30-40 feet)
• Small and Flowering (under storey) trees (15-20 feet)
• Tall shrubs (to 15 feet)
• Intermediate shrub (3-6 feet)
• Low shrubs (1-3 feet)
• Ground Covers < 1 feet)

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SEASONAL CHARACTER
Based upon their form and seasonal foliage condition, plants are
differentiated into:
• Deciduous Plants
• Evergreen Conifers
• Broadleaf Evergreens
• Mixed Planting ( shrubs vines and bushes)

TREES
In botany, a tree is a perennial (existing for a long time) plant with an
elongated stem, or trunk, supporting branches and leaves in most
species. Size may vary from 10’ to 40’ tall.
Trees are distinguished by their large size, their trunks, and their
canopy.

Deciduous Plants Evergreen Conifers Broadleaf Evergreens

Example: Oak, Example: Pine, Example: Magnolia,
Maple, Birch Dhupi, Ceder Camphor

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SHRUBS
• A shrub is a small- to medium-sized perennial woody plant. Which is
usually less than 3m (10 feet) tall.
• When much-branched and dense, it may be called a bush
• Shrubs are low maintenance plants that are perfect for borders in both
large or small gardens

Hibiscus

Shrub foliage
Jasmine

SHRUBS
Uses:
• Shrubs are used in gardens for decorative purposes as these shrubs are
found more in ornamental and provide a variety of interest.
• Shrubs can be both evergreen and deciduous and planted best against
noise and dust.

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ANNUALS
• Any plant that completes its life cycle in a single growing season.
• The dormant seed is the only part of an annual that survives from one
growing season to the next.
• Annuals include many wildflowers, garden flowers, and vegetables.

Sweet Pea Snapdragon Cornflower Marigold

CACTI

• Cacti are succulent perennial plants.

• Cacti make outstanding landscaping plants. They require little
maintenance, grow in a variety of climates, and are easy to care for and
grow. ( indoor and potted environments)

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CACTI
Landscaping with cactus

Agave plants produce a The prickly pear cactus

big, wide bundle of
Columnar cactus
grows in large, wide
long, spiny “leaves” varieties, such as cereus
bunches that can work
that take up a lot of and euphorbia, grow
well in place of bushes.
space. They make a very tall.
great centerpiece for
beds of native plants

BUSHES
• A bush is a large plant which is
smaller than a tree and has a lot
of branches.
• It is a woody plant that has
several stems, none dominant,
and is usually less than 3m (10
feet) tall.
• Grown in a wide range of shapes,
sizes and bloom colors, bushes
also make ideal screening or
barrier plants when grown in
masses along the landscape.

Boxwood Bush when pruned

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HEDGE
• A hedge or hedgerow is a line of closely spaced shrubs and
sometimes trees, planted and trained to form a barrier or to mark the
boundary of an area, such as between neighboring properties.
• Hedges used to separate a road from adjoining fields or one field from
another, and of sufficient age to incorporate larger trees, are known as
hedgerows.
• When clipped and maintained, hedges are also a simple form of topiary.

CREEPERS
• Creeper plants or creeping plants are small, vine-like plants that grow
close to the ground.
Creeper plants are commonly found near the ground and grow
horizontally while climbing plants tend to grow vertically, alongside
buildings or other structures.
• Common creeper plants are: watermelon, strawberry, pumpkin, creeping fig.
• Common vines are: Creeping fig, Curtain vines, Orange trumpet vines, Turtle vines

Strawberry Curtain vines Creeping Fig

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PLANT CHARACTERISTICS

Texture, Form, Size and color are the physical

characteristics of plants that provide interest, variety,
functional and aesthetic appeal to a landscape.

Physical characteristics give each plant a distinct look

and personality.

TEXTURE

• Foliage: plant leaves collectively.

• Texture refers to how coarse
or fine the overall surface and
individual leaves of the plant
feel or look .
• The size and shape of the
leaves most often determines
the perceived texture of the
plant.
• A plant can generally be
described as having a coarse,
medium, or fine texture.
• Coarse, medium, and fine
textures in foliage, branching,
and blades.

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TEXTURE

Coarse Texture
• Plant characteristics that create
coarse texture include thick twigs
and branches; leaves and twigs with
spines or thorns; large leaves;
leaves with very irregular edges or
irregular forms.

• Examples of plants with coarse

texture include philodendron, agave,
palm, and hydrangea.

• Coarse texture shows in the

irregular edges, spiny foliage,
and bold branching pattern.

TEXTURE

Coarse Texture

Philodendron Agave

Bromeliad Palm

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TEXTURE

Medium Texture
• Medium-textured plants have foliage
and branches that are neither overly
large nor small and delicate; most
plants fall in this category.
• Plants with medium texture include
Camellia, Euonymus, Pittosporum,
and Gardenia (Indrakamal)

• They are characterized by

medium-sized leaves with
simple shapes and smooth
edges.

TEXTURE

Medium Texture

Agapanthus Camellia Euonymus

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TEXTURE

Fine Texture
• Characteristics that create fine
texture include small, delicate
foliage; thin, strappy leaves
(grasses); tall, thin stems; small,
fragile twigs with many
branches; narrow trunks; long
stems (vines); and small, delicate
flowers.
• Plants with a fine texture include
grasses, ferns Japanese maples, • Small, delicate foliage and thin
vines, and junipers with fine stems give ferns a fine texture
needles.

TEXTURE

Fine Texture

Japanese Maples Vines Dhupi

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TEXTURE
Properties of Texture
• Coarse textures have high visual weight, and fine textures have low
visual weight.
• Figures show the contrast between a visually dominant landscape
with all coarse texture and a less visually strong landscape with all
fine texture.

A visually dominant landscape with coarse A fine-textured landscape with less

textures. visual strength.

TEXTURE
Properties of Texture

• Texture affects the perception of distance and scale.

• To make a space feel larger, locate plants so that the fine textures
are along the outer perimeter, the medium textures are in the
middle, and the coarse textures are closest to the viewer.
• The small size of the fine texture recedes in the landscape and is
perceived as being farther away.

A space feels larger

with fine textures
on the perimeter.

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TEXTURE

Properties of Texture
• To make a space feel smaller, place the coarse textures along the
outer perimeter and the fine textures closest to the viewer.
• The detail of the coarse texture makes the plants appear to be
closer, and the space feels smaller.

A space feels smaller

with coarse textures
on the perimeter.

TEXTURE
Strategies for Using Texture

• Mix textures for a balance of all three—coarse, medium, and fine.

• Use all of the same texture (monotexture) if you want to
emphasize the form or color of the plants.
• Choose one texture as the dominant texture; add just a few
plants of the other texture for specimen plants and contrast.
• Use the dominant texture throughout the composition.
• Use texture and color together to emphasize plants.

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Landscape with different colour and texture

Landscape with similar texture

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Landscape with different colour and texture

FORM
• Form is the three-dimensional shape of a plant or a plant mass.
• Trees are distinguished by their large size, their trunks, and their
canopy.
• Canopy :the uppermost branches of the trees in a forest, forming a
more or less continuous layer of foliage

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FORM
Tree Forms
• Tree forms are often dominant in the garden because of their size.
• Trees are also the most functional plants in the landscape, providing shade
and blocking views, so when choosing a tree form, consider function first.

FORM
• Creating a shaded area in the garden requires a round or oval tree, while a
screen usually requires a more columnar or pyramidal form, and a
weeping tree form makes a good focal point.
• Choose the tree for its mature size and shape in relation to the space.

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FORM
Shrub Forms
• Shrubs have a variety of forms, so it is
important to consider how shrubs will
look when massed together.
• Mounding and spreading shrubs look
best in a mass, while cascading and spiky
forms work well for individual specimen
plants.
• Shrub forms include arching, irregular,
cascading, upright, spiky, rounded,
mounding, and vase shaped.
• The form of the shrub determines its
most suitable function.

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FORM
Shrub Forms

• Upright, vase, mounded, and round forms work best as taller screens and
buffers; irregular and spreading forms work well as groundcovers; and
arching, cascading, pyramidal, and spiky forms work best as focal points.

FORM
Groundcover Forms

• Groundcover or bedding plants tend

to have the most complex forms, but
they typically look better in masses
because they are often small and
have little impact as individual
plants.
• Groundcover forms include clumping
(mass form), matting, sprawling,
short spikes, and spreading.
• Matting, spreading, or sprawling • Plants that grow in clumps or short
plants are used to form a solid, low spikes can be used in smaller masses
cover over large areas. and work well in planters or enclosed
areas.

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FORM
Groundcover Forms

Examples: Carpet grass, Clover, Blade grass

COLOUR

• Color is the characteristic that most people notice first in a landscape, and it
is also the characteristic by which most people select plants.
• Colors affect emotions.
• Choosing a color theme requires an understanding of the properties of
color and the basics of color theory.

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COLOUR

Strategies of Colour
• Use a color theme to guide color selection. A simple theme
uses only two or three colors.
• Consider the amount of color in each plant. Some plants have
large, showy flowers or big, dramatic leaves with color .
• Other plants have tiny flowers but might make up for size by
having masses of blooms.
• Bright color makes small plants look bigger and coarser in
texture.

COLOUR
Monochromatic Scheme
• A monochromatic color scheme uses only one color.
• One color can have many light and dark variations, which can add
interest. For example, variations of violet can include lavender,
maroon, and blue-violet.

• Monochromatic color scheme with variations of violet

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COLOUR
Analogous Scheme
• Analogous color schemes include any three to five colors that are
adjacent on the color wheel, such as red, red-orange, orange,
yellow-orange, and yellow.

Analogous color scheme with red to yellow

COLOUR
Complementary Scheme
• Complementary colors are those that are opposite each other on
the color wheel.
• They tend to have high contrast (strikingly different) between
them. The most common sets are violet and yellow, red and
green, and blue and orange.

Complementary color scheme with orange and blue

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Plant Material Uses in the Designed Landscape

Climatological Modification Uses of Plants
• Temperature modification by the cooling action of plants.
• Modification of the relative humidity through evapo-transpiration.
• Retaining daytime heat from nighttime loss within tree canopy.
• Channelling air movement for ventilation.
• Trapping static air around building with plants for insulation.

Plant Material Uses in the Designed Landscape

Climatological Modification Uses

of Plants
• Temperature modification by
the cooling action of plants.

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Plant Material Uses in the Designed Landscape

Environmental Engineering Uses of Plants
• Reducing soil erosion and protecting the soil surface
• Intercepting rainfall, slowing runoff and directing drainage.
• Reducing wind flow.
• Absorbing and reducing noise.
• Absorbing and reducing air pollution.

Plant Material Uses in the Designed Landscape

Environmental Engineering Uses of Plants

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Plant Material Uses in the Designed Landscape

Uses of deciduous trees:

• The same deciduous tree shades
your house in the summer and
lets sunlight filter through its
bare branches to help warm your
home in winter after it drops its
leaves.
• Some deciduous trees provide
fruits also.
• Many wildlife species rely
on deciduous forests and trees as
their primary sources of food and
shelter.

Plant Material Uses in the Designed Landscape

Environmental Engineering Uses of Plants

Uses of Evergreen trees:

• Evergreen trees not only shade home in the summer, but they also
provide a wind screen to block harsh winter breezes.
• Evergreen tree types provide a year-round privacy fence to block
unwanted views.
• Birds seek refuge in evergreen trees, particularly during the
winter.

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Plant Material Uses in the Designed Landscape

Environmental Engineering Uses of Plants

• Reducing glare and screening unwanted light.

Plant Material Uses in the Designed Landscape

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Plant Material Uses in the Designed Landscape

Architectural Uses of Plants
• Defining spaces with “walls”, “floors”, and “ceilings” created by
plants.
• Controlling views, enframing vistas.
• Creating screening for privacy or to eliminate an undesirable view.
• Marking the location of an entry or pathway.

Plant Material Uses in the Designed Landscape

Architectural Uses of Plants

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Plant Material Uses in the Designed Landscape

Architectural Uses of Plants
• Groupings to create linkages or connections between other
elements.

Plant Material Uses in the Designed Landscape

Architectural Uses of Plants

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Plant Material Uses in the Designed Landscape

Architectural Uses of Plants

Plant Material Uses in the Designed Landscape

Foundation plantings are

simply beds of plants
(often dominated by
shrubs) installed along
house foundations

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Plant Material Uses in the Designed Landscape

Plant Material Uses in the Designed Landscape

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Plant Material Uses in the Designed Landscape

Plant Material Uses in the Designed Landscape

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Plant Material Uses in the Designed Landscape

Plant Material Uses in the Designed Landscape

Other Uses of Plants
• Wildlife habitat.
• Food values (for humans and wildlife).
• Educational, medicinal values.
• Recreational values.
• Historical and socio- cultural values.
• Economic goods such as building materials, fuel.

• Trees plantation is necessary: contribute to their environment by

providing oxygen, improving air quality, climate amelioration,
conserving water, preserving soil, and supporting wildlife.
• From health to environmental impact, to economics and even
psychological effects (Biophilic nature )
• Planting and then maintaining trees helps lower energy costs, reduce
pollution, surroundings improves with green ambience and also
increases the value of any property.
• Trees enhance the beauty and making surroundings pleasant and
convenient.

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SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT & SITE

PLANNING

SITE ANALYSIS

“For every site there is an ideal use, for every

use there is an ideal site.”

IAN Mc HARG

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SITE ANALYSIS

Any land or space that is intended to be developed for a certain

purpose is termed as “SITE”.

• Site is composed of many factors- above, below and on the ground

and all these are interrelated and have achieved some approximate
balance with each other.
• A design always tends to intervene with this natural balance of site
factors; thus site analysis is crucial step in design process.
• Every Landscape design process begins with a thorough site
evaluation and analysis of existing conditions.

SITE ANALYSIS

Why is Site Analysis so crucial?

So that the designer can confidently move earth, move trees, create
focal points, frame views and make an outdoors “place”.

A site is an ever changing living community of plants and animals.

Site Analysis thus needs to be done in a deeper way:

• Suitability of the site for our purpose and interest
• Consideration to the existing occupants.

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SITE ANALYSIS

Aim to make the site better than what it was before…

• Conscious analysis also reveals hidden potentialities where a design

can clarify character, form new connections and develop deeper
meanings (concepts)
• It is thus a prelude to successful evolution of site.
• Based on the findings of site analysis, a landscape architect can make
preliminary decisions about features that will be incorporated into
the site plan and those that will be modified or deleted.

Method of SITE ANALYSIS

DESIGN WITH NATURE

• Ian L. McHarg (20 November 1920 – 5 March 2001) was a Scottish

landscape architect and writer on regional planning using natural systems.
• His benchmark book Design with Nature ( published 1969 ) , presents an
ecological design concept that is based on ecosystem services, and he lays
the foundation for using ecological science as the base for design and
decision making.

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DESIGN WITH NATURE

Ian L. McHarg believed that design should let nature perform the
maximum amount of work .

• McHarg’s followers build upon his environmental focus and further

strengthen social, economic, aesthetics, and public health dimensions of
sustainability, and advance theoretical and learning frameworks.
• A series of quantitative measurements (e.g., water, vegetation, and
material selection) assess project performance . The design process
respects, integrates, and facilitates multiple ecosystems’ processes,
functions, and services.
• McHarg called upon interdisciplinary professionals and the design process
started with an inquiry of land intrinsic carrying capacity.
• Land suitability analysis is probably McHarg’s best known method. Based
on a thorough ecological survey, the approach weighs opportunities to
determine suitability for specific land uses.

Method of SITE ANALYSIS

DESIGN WITH NATURE- IAN McHARG
In his book Design with Nature (1969) he has very clearly stated that:
• if we understand the nature and the site, it helps us to design better.
• “The site is sum total of its physical, social, historical, and biological
attributes”
• Landscape planners must conform to ecology, not compete with it.
• It is very essential to know the site and its attributes completely and in a
comprehensive way.

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DESIGN WITH NATURE

When we talk about the attributes of the site we mean the site factors which
consist of :

PHYSICAL SOCIAL HISTORICAL BIOLOGICAL

TOPOGHRAPHY COMMON OPEN HYDROLOGY

SPACES HISTORIC LANDSCAPES

VEGETATION
GEOLOGY PLACE OF WORSHIP HISTORIC GARDENS
FLORA AND FAUNA
INFRASTUCTURE LAND USE / BYE LAWS HISTORIC ARTIFACTS/
STATUES ALL ECOSYSTEMS AND
VISUAL QUALITIES HABITATS
SOIL CONDITIONS

• The site is thus a total of its physical, social, historical, and biological
attributes.
• So once we have an understanding of these we can analyse the site in a
deeper/ meaningful way.

DESIGN WITH NATURE- IAN McHARG

To analyze the site data, he employed
the OVERLAY TECHNIQUE:

Thematic maps are prepared for each

of the site attributes, such as soil,
topography, vegetation, visual quality,
etc.
• Transparent sheets of the site for
each theme are prepared.
• By having certain weightage system
he devised a way of giving
importance to a certain theme to be
incorporated in the composite map.
• Suitability Analysis is prepared.
• It is qualitative as well as
quantitative analysis to come to a
viable solution.

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SITE PLANNING
AFTER AVAILABILITY OF SITE

Site Planning it followed by 3 steps

1. Site Analysis
2. Design Concept
3. Design Developments

SITE FACTORS – factors relating to the characteristics of the site.

USE FACTORS – factors relating to the proposed use of the site,
i.e. the building programme

SITE PLANNING FACTORS

1. Topography: The physical features, both natural and human-made, on
the earth’s surface; RELIEF, drainage, surface materials, vegetation, special
physical phenomena, and human-made (cultural) features.
2. Geology: The branch of physical geography that studies process of rock
formation and soil types.
3. Vegetation: The plant life that covers land areas of the earth is known
as vegetation. In other words vegetation means the sum of all plant
populations occupying a certain region at a certain time.
4. Hydrology: The branch of physical geography that studies water
distribution, movement, and quality.
5. Microclimate: Succession of atmospheric conditions measure within a
given locality (e.g. meteorology at different place within a city or other
specific environment)
6. Visual Quality: Land may have different visual qualities like; Plain Land,
Desert Land, Mountains Land, Hilly Land, River Side, Lake Side, Sea Shore,
Ocean Bay

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SITE PLANNING FACTORS

7. History/ Background: main events that shape the landscape
8. SWOT analysis: Analysing in aspect to different attributes of site.
9. Urban sprawl- Land Use – Bye laws- Infrastucture: Land zoning
as per the intended or existing land use
10. Access or existing Circulation pattern : This study aims to discover
the best approach to any site for maximum utilization.
11. Program Formulation: Since a site always has ideal use, program
formulation figures out the scale of design for any particular site.
12. Behaviour Mapping: Helps is understand and deconstruct the
activities of the site to better/ enhance the use .

Site Analysis: Intangible aspects

CULTURAL

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SITE PLANNING FACTORS

Physical Factors
1. Location
2. Infrastructure
3. Zoning
4. Topography
5. Soil / Geology
6. Climate
7. Orientation
8. Wind Direction
9. Vegetation-Plant material
10. Hydrology / Water
availability

SITE PLANNING FACTORS

Cultural and Social Aspects
• Zoning Ordinances (formal
categorization of land-use policies
applicable to land within a
municipality.)
• Codes
• Historical values

Sensory Factors
• Views
• Sounds
• Smells

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Site Analysis : Hydrology

The water table is the level below

the surface of the ground where
water can be found.

Site Analysis : Wind Direction

Wind rose, map diagram that summarizes information about the wind
at a particular location over a specified time period

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SITE ANALYSIS

SITE PLANNING

SITE ANALYSIS SITE USE- CONCEPT SKETCH

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SPACE AND PLACE

Space is absolute and it remains permanent.

There is a present of masses and the space is the
voids between these masses.

A space has no importance or any significance. It

lies between prominent structures without being
noticed. It is the responsibility of the architects
and planners to convert this meaningless void
(space) into a place.

Place is a defined space which is used for various

purposes in our daily life.
A space (void) can be converted into a place by
putting physical, social and cultural values into
it; particularly during local social, cultural and
religious activities and festivals.

SPACE AND PLACE

FUNCTIONAL CONCEPT

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SITE PLANNING
THEMATIC CONCEPT
Common themes include:
• Geometric shapes: Irregular, Organic
• Prevalent styles: French, Oriental, Classical
• Nature: Tropical, desert (Eg: Qatar Botanical Oasis… Concept from
“Sidra Tree”), Meadow, Woodland

Falling water house Sundar Nursery, Delhi

SITE PLANNING
PHILOSOPHICAL CONCEPT
• Designing with nature
• Dynamism
• Holistic: Landscape as a system
Interconnection of biotic and abiotic components/ site
features
• Responsive: To cultural / natural processes
To local character of the place (vernacular touch)
• Intuitive: Integrating emotions and imaginations
User/ observer as a participant in design
Knowledge blended with creativity

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DESIGN PRINCIPLES
• Design is the search for forms that satisfy a program.
• The design process is the organization of the external physical
environment to accommodate human behaviour/ needs.
• It creates a pattern of those elements in space and time, which will be
subject to continuous future management and change.
• The technical output --the grading plans, utility layouts, planting plans,
sketches, drawings, and specifications are simply a conventional way of
specifying this complex organization

PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZATION IN LANDSCAPE DESIGN:

• Order, Unity, Harmony
• Emphasis/ Focalization
• Proportion and Scale
• Balance
• Rhythm and Sequence

DEVELOPMENT FOR LANDSCAPE AND SITE PLANNING PROJECTS

Basically, form development is a composition combining lines and arcs

to form geometric shapes derived from circles, squares and triangles.

Simply Stating….
• Create a “visual theme”
• Give a sense of consistency to the design by repeating certain
shapes.
• Make the design functional.
• Orderly arrangement of elements using Principles Of Design.

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DEVELOPMENT FOR LANDSCAPE AND SITE PLANNING PROJECTS

RECTILINEAR
A rectilinear design approach uses
vertical and horizontal lines on a square
grid.
Characteristics:
DOMINANT ,QUICK ,ORDERLY ,BASIC ,
EASY, LOGICAL , PREDICTABLE , STRONG
RIGID FORCEFUL DEFINED STATIC

DEVELOPMENT FOR LANDSCAPE AND SITE PLANNING PROJECTS

RECTILINEAR: When To Use?

• It’s most appropriate for creating
spaces that serve as an extension of
the home, like with decks and
patios.
• It’s also ideal for restrictive sites like
city gardens that are enclosed by
fences and walls.
• This approach works best with level
ground, although you can terrace
slopes for an extraordinary effect.

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DEVELOPMENT FOR LANDSCAPE AND SITE PLANNING PROJECTS

DIAGONAL
Diagonal design approach introduces
vertical, horizontal, and 45 or 60 degree
lines on a square grid. Diagonal lines
can make a space more dynamic and
exciting, as well as make a space seem
larger.

Characteristics
DYNAMIC INTENSE VARIOUS ACTIVE
JAGGED
TENSE EXCITING STRONG BOLD
ENERGETIC CONNECTING FAST

DEVELOPMENT FOR LANDSCAPE AND SITE PLANNING PROJECTS

DIAGONAL: When To Use?

• It’s used on similar sites as the
rectilinear, except it’s less with
formal, traditional architecture
• The approach works well with
modernist buildings/ built
environment esp. designed from
similar diagonal lines.

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DEVELOPMENT FOR LANDSCAPE AND SITE PLANNING PROJECTS

IRREGULAR
The irregular theme combines
multidirectional lines on a square grid
but isn’t restrictive to 45- or 60-degree
lines.
This approach can make for a very bold
and complex space.

Characteristics
ASYMMETRICAL INTERESTING
DIVERSE NON-TRADITIONAL
EXCITING ACTIVE COMPLEX
SURPRISING FLUCTUATINGUNIQUE
UNCERTAIN DYNAMIC INTRIGUING

IRREGULAR
: When To Use?
Public Spaces and in contemporary
architectural designs.

DEVELOPMENT FOR LANDSCAPE AND SITE PLANNING PROJECTS

RADIAL
A radial design approach uses various
sizes of circles that branch out from a
central point and multidirectional
straight lines on a radial grid.

Characteristics
INTENSE INTERESTING DIRECTIONAL
BOLD DEVELOPING/ EXPANDING
SPIRAL FLAMBOYANT ATTRACTIVE
MAZELIKE CONCENTRATING

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DEVELOPMENT FOR LANDSCAPE AND SITE PLANNING PROJECTS

RADIAL: When To Use?

• It works best when there’s an

underlying radial grid, in courtyards
or where you want to have a
concentrated design.
• To create a radial theme, use
concentric circles that radiate from a
central point.
• An Overlapping Circular design
theme can work equally well on
small and large sites, because the
circles can be moved in any
direction.
• For a larger property, rather increase
the size of the circles and not the
number of circles. This ensures that
they will be in scale with the site.

DEVELOPMENT FOR LANDSCAPE AND SITE PLANNING PROJECTS

ARC AND TANGENT
• An arc-and-tangent design approach
is compromised of horizontal,
vertical, and 45-degree lines, and
quarter, half, three quarter, and full
circles on a square grid.
• The arc-and-tangent method
combines the stability of a linear
line and the softness of a curved
line.
• The easiest way to arrive at an arc &
tangent concept is to begin with a
rectilinear theme and insert arcs
into some of the corners.

Characteristics
FLOWING SOOTHING
INVITING TRANSITIONAL
REFINED SMOOTH
PLEASING PASSIVE

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DEVELOPMENT FOR LANDSCAPE AND SITE PLANNING PROJECTS

CURVILINEAR
• A curvilinear design approach
consists of compound curves and
the absence of straight lines
• Formed from continuous flowing
lines using the circumferences of
adjacent circles and/or ellipses.
• The fewer circles used and the more
of each circle you can utilize, the
more effective this theme will be.

Characteristics
FLUID SOFT FLOWING ROLLING
INTERESTING GRACEFUL ORGANIC
CONTINUAL SPIRITUAL DELICATE
SENSUAL SERENE PLEASANT
RELAXED NON-TRADITIONAL CASUAL

DEVELOPMENT FOR LANDSCAPE AND SITE PLANNING PROJECTS

CURVILINEAR : When To Use?

• Can be used for a rolling terrain,
where curves can help
accommodate changes in grade.
• More appropriate for large, open
sites, large enough to accommodate
some big bold arcs.

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DESIGN PROCESS
DESIGN DETAIL DRAWINGS

DESIGN PROCESS

• Initial Information
• Preliminary Data
• Conceptual ideas
• Design & Details
• Implementation

The design process should be considered a useful organizational tool for the
designer. Despite the particulars, it should guide a designer in seeking an
appropriate design solution in a thoughtful yet creative manner.

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DESIGN PROCESS
INITIAL
PRELIMINARY DATA CONCEPTUAL DESIGN & DETAILS
INFORMATION

WHAT , WHERE AND MASTERPLAN

TOPOGRAPHY SKETCHES
HOW OF SITE
PLANTING PLAN
CLIENT REQUIREMENT SOIL ANALYSIS IDEA DEVELOPMENT
LAYOUT PLAN

SITE MEASUREMENT SITE RESPONSIVE

SITE CONSTRAINTS DETAILS GRADING PLAN
CLIMATE
DESIGNER’S VISION
DRAINAGE PLAN
WIND PATTERN

IMPLEMENTATION

DESIGN PROCESS

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DESIGN PROCESS
SITE VISIT / SITE INVENTORY / Project contains such
DATE GOAL SETTING
documents & drawings as:

CONCEPTUALIZAT 1. Master Plan,

ANALYSIS ION
2. Layout Drawings/
Dimension Plan
EVALUATION
DESIGN 3. Detailed Planting Plan
DEVELOPMENT 4. Detailed Lighting Plan
5. List Of Materials
6. Sketches And 3d Renders
FINAL DESIGN
7. Grading Plan, Drainage Plan
8. Site Details And Sections
Thus, landscape design is a labour 9. Estimation
intensive and multistage process;
however, it is very captivating and
interesting.

DESIGN PROCESS
Project contains such documents & drawings as:

1. Master Plan,
2 . L AYO U T D R AW I N G S / D i m e n s i o n P l a n
3. Detailed Planting Plan,
4. Detailed lighting plan
5. List of Materials,
6. SKETCHES AND 3D RENDERS,
7. Grading Plan, Drainage Plan,
8. Site Details and Sections,
9. Estimation

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Open spaces and Parks

&
Other landscape design components

OPEN SPACES AND PARKS

Open Space includes

1. Hard Paved or Dry zone: 2. Water body or Wet zone:

• Paved areas • River
• Roads and Highways • Sea
• Squares Chows • Ocean
• Bahals • Lake
• Bahi etc. in context of • Pond
Kathmandu • Wet lands
• Dhungedhara
• Grass covered grounds
• Forests etc.

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ROLE OF OPEN SPACES

1. Recreational Need
Human beings need open space as:
a) Active recreational areas
i. Jogging track
ii. Cycling track etc.
iii. Playgrounds
b) Passive recreational area
i. Sitting in open space- It may be park, riverside, sea shore, beach etc.
ii. Walking track etc.

2. Biophilic Need
Human beings dependency on nature for all resources, and the need
to be close to nature, explains the importance of open spaces in any
built up area.

ROLE OF OPEN SPACES

3. As Essential Element in Urban Planning and Design
Open Space also are the essential of urban planning and design. Urban
planning cannot be successful without provision of open spaces. The
pronounced landscape elements of Kathmandu valley Bahal, Bahi, Ghat etc.
are the examples of the open spaces in urban planning.

4. Cultural Link
Open spaces like Bahal, Bahi, Ghats, Aagan, Khya (like Lagankhel, Jyawalakhel,
Bhuikhel etc.) have cultural links with people:
• The ritual functions of communities are performed in Bahals, Bahi.
• The carriage ceremonies of God and Goddess in Khya like Rato
Machhendra Nath carriage ceremony in Jyawalakhel, Samaik Puja
ceremony in Bhuikhel etc.
• The morning exercise bathing, bhajan-kirtan and worship of god and
goddess are performed in open space like Ghats. Ghat is also a place for
keeping people at the last moment of their life and cremation.

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ROLE OF OPEN SPACES

5. Calamity Refuge
During earthquake open spaces serve as refuse areas.
Open spaces act as ground water recharge area in any settlement. E.g.:
Tudikhel

6. Visual Asset
It is very pleasant to look at the open grounds. The green colour of grass and
other plant material positively act at retina of or eyes and makes our visions
sharp and strong and open grounds add beauty to the city.
Open spaces should not be encroached, occupied or destroyed. But in
context of our country, open space is reducing day by day.

PLAYGROUNDS

Jim Leggitt – drawing for park

and open spaces

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PLAYGROUNDS
Playground, playpark, or CHILDREN’S play area is a place specifically
designed to enable children to play there. It is typically outdoors.
While a playground is usually designed for children, some target other
age groups.

Modern playgrounds often have recreational equipment such as the

seesaw, merry-go-round, swingset, slide, jungle gym, chin-up bars,
sandbox, spring rider, trapeze rings, playhouses, and mazes, many of
which help children develop physical coordination, strength, and
flexibility, as well as providing recreation and enjoyment and
supporting social and emotional development.

In the 19th century, developmental psychologists such as Friedrich

Fröbel proposed playgrounds as a developmental aid, or to inspire
children with a sense of fair play, good manners and social skills.

PRINCIPLES OF PLAYGROUND DESIGN

1. Design for different types of play. (Create zones for different
energy levels)
• Active play- Running, jumping, climbing, kicking, and punching. Twirling,
swinging, spinning, and rolling around. Moving your body up, down, and around.
• Sensory play – Touching different interesting textures, smelling flowers and
plants, hearing music and sounds, tasting edible plants and fruits, seeing different
perspectives and angles as well as beautiful shapes and colours.
• Creative play – Drawing, crafting, painting, colouring, writing, singing, drumming,
and dancing. Creative expression allows children to communicate and connect.
• Imaginative Play – Dressing up, make-believe, and pretend play. Play houses,
pretend ships, dolls, costumes, and props let children act out imaginary scenes and
adopt roles. + Manipulative play – Building, molding, manipulating, sifting,
pouring, scooping, stacking, combining, and altering.
• Social play – Talking, sharing, cooperating, taking turns, following “rules,” and
playing sports.
• Reflective play – Watching, resting, reflecting, thinking, daydreaming, and just
staring into space. Of course these aren’t the only ways children play, but these
categories help us to broaden our understanding of play.

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PRINCIPLES OF PLAYGROUND DESIGN

2. Create a sense of place
A playground with a strong sense of place speaks to the culture, location, and “spirit”
of community. It fosters a sense of civic pride and belonging. The aim is for a
playground to become a special place, a unique symbol of the community. Spaces for
children to play are expressions of local imagination and spirit.
3. Make room for secrets and surprises.
4. Consider the “flow” of the space.
Children in a natural state of play do not move in straight lines. Having a playground
that “flows” well involves having all the components of the playground well-connected.
5. Work with, not against nature
The best playground is the one nature provided. Tree limbs are perfect for climbing and
swinging on and river rocks make the best stepping stones. Incorporate nature into
your design as much as possible by adding gardens, trees, flowers, boulders, stumps,
and logs.
6. Add basic necessities
Shade, Drinking water, Seating for adults, Trash cans, Storage for any loose parts or play
equipment. Any necessary playground rules or signage

ROOF / TERRACE GARDEN

A vegetated roof, also known as

a green roof, living roof, eco roof or
terrace garden is a planting system
where materials and plants are
installed on the top of a building.

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ROOF / TERRACE GARDEN

The Components of a Green Roof

1. The load-bearing
component of the roof
2. The moisture barrier
3. The thermal insulator
4. The waterproofing
membrane (root barrier)
5. The drainage layer
6. The filtering layer
7. The growing medium
(substrate) ie soil
8. The plant layer

ROOF / TERRACE GARDEN

Advantages of Terrace garden
• Effective use of rainwater
Sustainable drainage is an important component of any building, as a way to
counter flooding in the event of excess rainfall, green roofs are a good option to
collect surface run off into urban areas.
• Boosting thermal performance
• Supporting wildlife habitats
• Aiding air quality
• Create a growing culture
‘Edible gardens’ have become another recent trend enabled by rooftop spaces.
Rooftop and podium landscapes are ideal for facilitating these community
allotments, and provide the benefits of being outdoors amid nature.

Disadvantages of Terrace garden

• Extra structural weight to the building
• Need of regular maintenance

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INDOOR LANDSCAPES
• Humans have a biophilic (connections with nature) response to
plants.
• Research has explored how exposure to plants, or even images of
plants, indoors and outdoors can improve productivity and create a
sense of well-being.

INDOOR LANDSCAPES
• Improved indoor air quality: With the right plants, indoor plants can
reduce common household air pollutants.
• Improved health: Up to ten percent reduction of rates of asthma,
headaches, and respiratory problems.
• Increased human productivity: Productivity rates can increased by 20
percent in environments with superior air quality.

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INDOOR LANDSCAPES
• Choose plants and vegetables the can grow indoors.
• Choose the location wisely. ( lighting and ventilation)
• Use furniture for decoration.
• Choose the soil carefully.
• Don't water indoor plants regularly

INDOOR LANDSCAPES
Green Gardens/Horticulture

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INDOOR LANDSCAPES
Living Walls/Vertical Gardens

INDOOR LANDSCAPES
Waterscaping

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INDOOR LANDSCAPES
Floating Indoor Landscaping

INDOOR LANDSCAPES
Stone Scaping

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ATRIUM

In architecture, an atrium is a large

open air or skylight covered space
surrounded by a building. Atria
were a common feature in Ancient
Roman dwellings, providing light
and ventilation to the interior.

Atria are a popular design feature

because they give their buildings a
"feeling of space and light."

Changi airport, Singapore

AVENUES / ROADSIDE PLANTATIONS

In landscaping, an avenue, or allée, is traditionally a straight path or
road with a line of trees or large shrubs running along each side.

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AVENUES / ROADSIDE PLANTATIONS

Boulevard is a wide road usually with trees on each side or along the
centre running through a city.
It often means a wide, multi-lane arterial thoroughfare, often divided with a
median down the centre, and perhaps with roadways along each side
designed as slow travel and parking lanes and for bicycle and pedestrian usage

AVENUES / ROADSIDE PLANTATIONS

Median strip or central reservation is the reserved area that separates
opposing lanes of traffic on divided roadways, such as divided
highways, dual carriageways, freeways, and motorways.

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STREET FURNITURE

• Street furniture is objects and pieces

of equipment installed along streets
and roads for various purposes.
• The design and placement of
furniture takes into account
aesthetics, visual identity, function,
pedestrian mobility and road safety.
• Street furniture also addresses
specific needs (universal
accessibility) , such as tactiles,
seating and shelter when one is
waiting for transportation. If well
planned and designed, it can also
enhance the visual aspects, image
and identity of a site.

STREET FURNITURE
It includes :
• Benches,
• Traffic barriers - bollards,
• Phone boxes,
• Streetlamps ; traffic lights,
• Signages traffic signs, banners,
• Bus stops, taxi stands, parklets
• Fountains,
• Memorial, public sculptures,
• Kiosks,
• Trashcans, dustbins

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History of Landscape Architecture

Ancient Egypt , Greek and Roman
European Gardens
Prepared by: Ruchi Bajracharya

History of Landscape architecture- West

Ancient World- Ancient Egypt
• Gardens and parks from the ancient world were the traditional form
of the organization of the surrounding space with the aid of the green
planting.
• We find descriptions of gardens and parks in the treatises of ancient
historians, philosophers, and also in the works of poets and writers.
• They obtained special popularity with the courts of rulers and the
grandee of the countries of Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia (Assyrian –
Babylonian Period), Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome.

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History of Landscape architecture- West

Mesopotamia (Assyrian - Babylonian Period)
VIII c. B.C. - VII c. B.C.
• The special feature of this period is the active construction of houses and
stepped towers - ziggurats - this principle of construction was used with the
creation of the temple - pyramidal towers, which took the form of stepped
towers.
• It had gardens on its terraces, grown with the application of a unique
technical engineering water supply system.

Tower of Babel Ziggurat Temple Hanging garden of Babylon

History of Landscape architecture- West

Hanging garden of Babylon-

• Built in the ancient city-state of Babylon, near present-day Iraq in between
the Tigris and the Euphrates in the naked sandy plains 90 kilometres from
modern Baghdad of around 6 c B.C.
• They were built by the Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar II to please his
homesick wife Amitis, who longed for the trees and fragrant plants of her
homeland Persia,

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History of Landscape architecture- West

Hanging garden of Babylon-
• The Hanging Gardens had a pyramidal
shape, which was arranged into four
stepped terraces, which became
narrower each level and were located
on the green stepped terraces in the
court of southern palace (605-562 B.C.)
• A garden was arranged on each terrace
on which they grew different variations
of vegetation ( flowering and
ornamental)
• Gardens on the terraces were grown
with the use of a unique technical-
engineering water supply system.
• Through an opening in one of the
columns the water of the Euphrates
rose by pumps to the upper level of the
pyramid, where a pond was located.

Water pumping system

History of Landscape architecture- West

• The excavations of the ancient city archaeologists found deep wells and
remainders of powerful terraced structures, this confirmed the existence of
suspended gardens - a wonder of the ancient world
• The idea of the creation of the stepped gardens, or “the hanging gardens”,
has proved to be sufficient.
• It found its development in the gardens of Persia, Italy, Russia
• In it; many trees brought from other countries were planted: cypresses,
cedars, sycamore, willow, poplar, box-tree and some fruit trees.
• There were very large parks too, intended for hunting and horseback riding.
• These parks are the predecessors the large parks we have today that can
contain entire forests and more.

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History of Landscape architecture- West

Ancient Greece
• Landscape design of ancient Greece (VI B.C. - IV A.D.) was in essence garden
design.
• The presence of a good combination of utilitarian, religious and aesthetical
features was typical to the gardens of that time
• The landscaping design of ancient Greece was characterized by considerably
freer planning and structure of composition.
• The Greeks originally had characteristic tendency towards harmony with
nature, use of a relief as by topographical component

Acropolis Theatres Forum and squares

History of Landscape architecture- Ancient Greece

Herron - the Memorial garden
• Grove, planted on the spot of the
burial of a hero.
• Hippodrome, ancient Greek
stadium designed for horse racing
and especially chariot racing.

Philosophical gardens were created

specially so that philosophical
conversations could be conducted in Hippodrome
them.
Basic principles of city construction of
The private gardens of prosperous Aristotle (IV B.C.): Populated areas
owners most frequently bore an and parks must be examined not only
exceptionally utilitarian nature. as a complex technical question, but
also from an artistic point of view and
Strict symmetry predominated. Alleys that a city must be built so as to
and parks were decorated with ensure the peoples safety and to make
fountains, columns, vases, sculptures. them happy at the same time.

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History of Landscape architecture- Ancient Rome

Ancient Rome
• Ruled by emperors; the accumulation of enormous riches, which made it
possible to widely develop houses.
• Town construction increases rapidly: the construction of public forums,
stadiums, theatres, emperor palaces and villas increases.
• The climate of the Apennine peninsula was Mediterranean, but softer and
less arid than in Greece. The abundance of water in the form of rivers and
channels was characteristic, as well as mountainous relief, presence of
valuable construction materials (marble and limestone) and a broad
spectrum of trees, shrubs and flowering plants.

Forums and Theatres Palaces Villas

History of Landscape architecture- West

Ancient Rome
• Different forms of pine trees, oaks, cypress, sycamores, strawberry trees,
poplars, chestnut edibles, pomegranates, olives and other fruits grew here.
• There were also types of trees which are well suited for trimming such as
boxwood, laurel, myrtle ( for topiary)
• Romans created their park culture,
• The new element of landscaping - peristyle - in which the courtyards of
ancient Roman houses were decorated with ponds and columns.

Topiary- Boxwood hedges Peristyle Parks/ Forums

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History of Landscape architecture- West

Ancient Rome
• In ancient Rome they proclaimed the idea of the contrast of the geometric
and rectilinear forms of the artificial landscape of free shape of the
surrounding nature.
• Romans used monumental and immense structures for landscape design in
the compositions, i.e., they seemingly tried "to subordinate nature".
• Rome memorized with the luxury of its urban palaces, villas, gardens and
parks.
• Villas, as a rule, were built in the mountainous country; therefore they had
the stepped composition solution. ( Terraces )

The landscape design of ancient Rome the following features are

characteristic:
• the improvement of the methods of ancient Greece and the creation of their
own. Specifically, in the landscape design of Ancient Rome appeared arbors,
alleys, topiaries - neatly figured trimmed.
• the creation of new types of gardens (public gardens, peristyle gardens,
gardens in the villas, hippodrome gardens);
• the absence of composition unity in the gardens.

Italian Gardens
in 15th century

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Italian Gardens : History

• Italian gardens are also known as Italian Renaissance gardens

• This style of garden design of one the oldest in the world. It
emerged in the late 15th Century at villas in Rome and Florence.
• The origins of the style are to be found in ancient Rome.
• The style was imitated throughout Europe, influencing the
gardens of the French Renaissance and the English garden.
• A formal garden is distinguished by order, neatness, geometry
and symmetry.
• It was inspired by classical ideals of the order and beauty and
intended for the pleasure of view of the garden and the
landscape beyond, for the enjoyment of sights, sound and
smells of the garden.

Italian Gardens

• The gardens became larger, grander and more symmetrical and

were filled with fountains, statues, grottoes (a small picturesque
cave) , water organs and other features designed to delight the
owners and amuse and impress visitors.
• The Italian Gardens innovated the art of gardening as well as
architecture of waterways.
• Geographically Italian peninsula, because of the topography of
the land gardens were designed in terraces.
• They site their villas on the countryside with exceptional views.
• Within the villas there were courts and colonnades designed
for every phase of wind and weather.

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Italian Gardens

• A peninsula is a landform that extends from a mainland and is

surrounded by water on most, but not all of its borders

Italian Gardens

DESIGN FEATURES OF ITALIAN GARDENS

• Order and balance are the design

goals, illustrating man’s power over
nature.
• Symmetry is paramount in Italian
gardens.
• Beds, or parterres, are shaped
geometrically in squares, rectangles
or triangles.
• Because many Italian gardens are on
hillsides, they are laid out on several
levels, or terraces.
• Water features played an important
role in these gardens.

VILLA LANTE

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Italian Gardens
Italian gardens are characterized by the abundance of architectural
features or built features in the garden.

• Staircases
• balustrades
• cascades pavilions and
pavements
• statues in niche
• fountains
• even the cypress
avenues are imitations of
colonnades ( Topiary)

RISTORANTE VILLA GARZONI

Components of Italian Gardens

PARTERRE
• A parterre is a formal garden constructed on a level, consisting of
plant beds, typically in ornamental , symmetrical patterns, which
are separated and connected by paths.

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Components of Italian Gardens

PROMENADE/public walkway /pavement
The promenade is a wide, usually raised, pathway flanked by formally clipped
hedges where a visitors may stroll to view the garden.
• Hardscape -- stone walkway that direct towards a focal point.
• patios and walls - is a signature element of the Italian garden, rather than
expansive lawns.

Components of Italian Gardens

SECRET GARDEN AND GROTTO

• Often an Italian garden includes a grotto - an artificial cave filled with
sculpture and furnishings , creating a refreshingly cool space.
• Arbor / trellis: hideaway in the garden that might contain a vine-draped
pergola or just a tucked-away bench provides an private getaway space.

GROTTO

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Components of Italian Gardens

WATER
• The sound and cooling effects of water are essential elements of the
Italian garden, whether from bubbling fountains, pools or cascades.
• Often, an ornate stone fountain shooting arcs of water forms the focal
point of the garden.

LONGWOOD GARDEN

Components of Italian Gardens

STATUARY AND STONEWARE

The garden is considered an extension of the entertainment area of the
home, so it is decorated in the same manner, with plenty of art.
STATUES of gods, goddesses and heroes of ancient legends are common.

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Components of Italian Gardens

PLANTS
• Traditional Italian gardens have few flowers. The plants are mainly
evergreens, manicured into geometric hedges or topiaries.
• Italian cypress boxwoods and junipers are some of the plants commonly
used to form living walls and delineate different parts of the garden.
• Other green plants are massed within the borders of the geometric beds.

Italian Gardens

VILLA LANTE
• This garden is considered to be Italy’s most prestigious monument to Late
Rennaisance art, attributed to architect Vignola.
• The design consists of transition from the woods and nature at the
highest level to the extreme geometry of the lower terrace parterre.
• The design is centered on a single axis with water as the main theme
• The terraces consists of many features such as symmetricity , secret
gardens , statues and water features.

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Italian Gardens

VILLA LANTE

Transition from the woods

and nature at the highest
level to the extreme
geometry of the lower
terrace parterre

Italian Gardens
Villa Lante
• A feature of Italian garden is the lack of flowers and the
dominant, chiaroscuro ( the arrangement of light and dark
elements in a pictorial work of art) effect created by sculpted
trees and shrubbery.
• The garden represents the tale of humanity’s descent from the
Golden Age through seven different fountains as a story.

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Italian Gardens

VILLA LANTE

Villa Lante Italian Gardens

Fountain of Peagasus

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Villa Lante Italian Gardens

Fountain of the Flood

Villa Lante Italian Gardens

Fountain of the Lamps

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Villa Lante Italian Gardens

Fountain of Dolphins

Fountain of the Chains

Villa Lante Italian Gardens

Fountain of the Giants

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Villa Lante Italian Gardens

Fountain of the Moors (a tract of open uncultivated upland, typically covered
with heather)

Italian Gardens
Characteristic Features ( Summary)
• Careful design to showcase man’s control of nature. Result of aristocratic and social
control. Geometrical plants take care of the formal preview and a natural
presentation suffices for the informal space.
• Historic theme
• Climate responsive( for hot climate)
• Geometrically patterned beds or parterres are a distinct element of the Italian Style
• Had few flowers
• Plants were primarily evergreens for texture and shape. Green dominant colour.
• Display and backdrop for sculpture
• Contrast sun and shade
• Shaded walkways
• Water features
• Steps , urns and balustrades
• Geometrical to serpentine
• Designed to be inspired all year round
• Not dependent on colour
• An expansive vista

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French Gardens

Garden of Versailles

French Gardens

History
• The form of the French garden was strongly influenced by the Italian
Renaissance gardens, and was largely fixed by the middle of the 17th
century.
• The French royal Garden architects André Mollet and Jacques Boyceau de la
Baraudière laid the groundwork for the supremacy of the French garden
style under Louis XIV.
• Symmetry and geometry are the keywords when designing such gardens.
• The whole of garden is composed like a painting reaching for pure aesthetical
qualities. Like a painting, it is also created to be seen as a whole
Famous French Gardens:
• The Gardens at the Palace of Versailles in Versailles
• The Gardens at Château de Vaux le Vicomte in Maincy
• Parc de Bagatelle in Paris
• The Hanging Gardens of Marqueyssac

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French Gardens

Components of the French Garden

PARTERRE
• A parterre is a formal garden constructed on a level, consisting of plant beds,
typically in ornamental , symmetrical geometric patterns, which are separated
and connected by paths.
• They were intended to be seen from top of a house or terrace.

Components of the French Garden:

EMBROIDERY BOSQUET
A very curling decorative pattern A small group of trees, usually
within a parterre, created with some distance from the
trimmed yew or boxwood or house, designed as an
made by cutting the pattern out ornamental backdrop.
of a lawn and filling it with
colored gravel.

GARDEN-VERSAILLES-BOSQUET-STATUE-
FRANCE-MYTHOLOGY [After LE ROUGE, 1773]

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French Gardens
Components of the French Garden: ALLÉE.
A straight PATH, often lined with trees.

French Gardens
Components of the French Garden: TOPIARY

Trees or bushes trimmed into ornamental shapes. In French gardens, they were
usually trimmed into geometric shapes.

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French Gardens
Components of the French Garden: GOOSE FOOT “PATTE D'OIE”.

Three or five paths or more spread outward from a single point.

French Gardens
ARCHITECTURE AS AN INSPIRATIONS FOR FRENCH GARDEN
• The designers of the French garden saw their work as a branch of
architecture, which simply extended the space of the building to the
space outside the walls, and ordered nature according to the rules of
geometry, optics and perspective.
• Gardens were designed like buildings, with a succession of rooms
which a visitor could pass through following an established route,
hallways, and vestibules with adjoining chambers.

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French Gardens
ARCHITECTURE AS AN INSPIRATIONS FOR FRENCH GARDEN
• They used the language of architecture in their plans; the spaces were
referred to as salles( room) , chambres and théâtres of greenery. The
"walls" were composed of hedges, and "stairways" of water.

French Gardens
ARCHITECTURE AS AN INSPIRATIONS FOR FRENCH GARDEN

• On the ground were tapis, or carpets, of grass, brodés, or

embroidered, with plants, and the trees were formed into rideaux,
or curtains, along the alleys.
• Just as architects installed systems of water into the chateux, they
laid out elaborate systems to supply the fountains and basins of the
garden.
• Long basins full of water replaced mirrors, and the water from
fountains replaced chandeliers.
• The dominant role of architecture in the garden did not change until
the 18th century, when the English garden arrived in Europe.

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The Middle East and South Asia

History of Landscape architecture- East

The Middle East and South Asia

• Traditionally, the Middle East and South Asian gardens became the
reflection of the perception of peace through religion and
philosophy.

GARDENS WERE SYMBOLS OF PARADISE

• For example the charbagh, or paradise garden was intended for rest,
reflection and contemplation.
• For this reason, these gardens usually included places for sitting,
unlike European gardens, which were often designed for walking.
They were created for leisure at the royal residences and they
required high financial expenditures.

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CHINESE GARDEN

Chinese Historical Garden- Nature’s Splendor in a Garden

Splendor :magnificent features or qualities

YU GARDEN, SHANGHAI

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Chinese Historical Garden- Nature’s Splendor in a Garden

The earliest information about the gardens of this country, which we

know are from written sources, drawing and other sources, which
date back to XIIc. B.C.
The gardens of China and Japan provided an declaration of nature’s
largesse ( gifts) .

The history of gardening in China extends back to the ancient dynastic

emperors who built hunting parks and pleasure gardens as
expressions of royal power.
The art of Chinese garden design began in imperial parks during the
Shang Dynasty, around 3,000 years ago.
Historic Chinese gardens imitated the balance of opposites found in
the nature - referred to as YIN and YANG

Chinese Historical Garden- Nature’s Splendor in a Garden

China had two main styles. One of them was characterized by

1. the presence of miniature gardens in small sections of land (the
trees are given dwarfish forms )
2. the second style was that gardens and parks were located on
expansive pieces of land which contained ponds and were united
into a single, united composition.

The landscape of China is characterized by

a) steep mountains,
b) abundant plains,
c) peaceful lakes, and
d) dramatic waterfalls.

Chinese gardens reference all of the country’s natural treasures.

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Chinese Garden

Daoism (Chinese Philosophy, writing of Lao- tzu) advocated the idea of

eternal life through contact with mystical Immortals who inhabited
mountainous islands in an eastern sea.
Thus, gardens contained lakes and rockery that imitated the
mountain dwellings of the Immortals.
These lake-and-island estates set an example for garden form and
had particular influence on later Japanese gardens.
Rock formations, flowers, paving patterns, and architectural features
all communicated the theme of a garden.

Chinese Garden

The special features of the landscape design of these two styles

consist of the following:
• the natural views of the country serve as the basis of the creation
of gardens and parks;
• ideas taken from paintings are used for the design of park views;
• relief is created with such carefulness that it seems as though it
was created by nature;
• water is the most important element of a garden;
• gardens are filled with all possible structures such as urns, lamps
and sculptural images of birds and animals made of china and
bronze;
• the assortment of trees in the gardens is very diverse.

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Chinese Garden - SHIH TZU LIN

SHIH TZU LIN: The Lion Grove garden at Suzhou dates from
1342 AD. The “mountain” shaped by the rockery is evocative of
the Lion Cliff at Tien Mu mountain.

Chinese Garden - SHIH TZU LIN

Its rocky peaks, some of which

evoke the shape of the lion cliff

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Chinese Garden

As a traditional art form, garden making in China

was studied along with painting, poetry, and
calligraphy by scholar-officials seeking status.

Chinese Garden: Poetic Garden

Like a hand scroll unrolls from right to left, revealing a
succession of individual scenes, a Chinese garden is
experienced as a series of visual events.
These scrolls that depict the landscape are combined with lines
of his poetry.

Lakeside Pavilion
A light boat greets the honored guests,
far, far, coming in over the lake.
On a balcony we face bowls of wine
and lotus flowers bloom everywhere.

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Chinese Garden
• Garden design and landscape painting shared a language of visual
conventions (habit) that was established during the Song dynasty.
• Garden layouts were inspired by compositional techniques used by
landscape painters.
• The gardens of China were both monumental and miniature.
• In the parks many different structures: pavilions, gazebos, galleries,
walls, fences, bridges the rest park alleys took shape by the large
number of decorative elements.
• Trees and bushes transplanted in groups and even in entire groves,
of which most popular is the bamboo, the plum and the pine tree.
• Considerable attention was paid to the flower decoration.
• Ponds and cliffs were widely used.

• The parks of Tuisiyuan (330 ha), Beihai park (104ha) in Peking and
Liu Yuan in Suzhou are the most widely known parks.

Chinese Garden

Orchid Chrysanthemum Plum

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Chinese Garden
THE SYMBOLISM OF PLANTS:
To communicate the theme of a
Chinese garden, gardeners
chose plants more for their
physical and symbolic
attributes.

For example, the lotus, whose

roots thrive in the muddy
bottoms of ponds and whose
blossoms reach up to float on
the surface of the water,
represented spiritual freedom.

Chinese Garden
THE SYMBOLISM OF PLANTS:
The “three friends of winter”—
the pine, plum, and bamboo—
signified longevity (long life),
endurance tolerance), and
resilience (recover).

Plants representative of the four

seasons—the orchid, bamboo,
chrysanthemum, and flowering
plum—also represented the
traits (quality) of an ideal
gentleman: grace, resiliency,
nobility, and endurance.

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JAPANESE GARDEN

Historical Review
Japanese Garden

• Japanese garden is considered one of the most important elements

of Japanese art
• The ideas central to Japanese gardens were first introduced to Japan
during the Asuka period ( c. 6th to 7th century).
• List of historic Japanese gardens can be found across the country,
especially in Kyoto (formal capital city of Japan) and Tokyo

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Japanese Garden

• Parks in Japan were intended for solitude, meditation and the quiet
contemplation of the beauty of nature, these elements were
embodied in the garden composition.
• Basic elements of composition included relief - not only natural but
frequently artificial, water devices like ponds, creeks, waterfalls,
cliffs of many varied forms and sizes
• The most diverse assortment of species of trees and shrubs
(deciduous, coniferous and evergreen and flowering).
• Before the spread and the wide acceptance of Buddhism the gardens
of the ancient rulers were not intended for the concentrated
observation, but they were often used for courtier ceremonies.

But the influence of Buddhism, especially the study of Zen, leads to the
fact that the high ranks of state begin to carry out many hours of
meditation, trying to understand the essence of things. Therefore
monks became the first landscape designers.

Japanese Garden

Courtyards, Lakes and Island

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Japanese Garden

The Golden Age of

Garden- Middle Ages /
Japan / Heian Period
(794–1185)

SHINDEN-ZUKURI: Heian
gardens were settings
for poetry contests,
flower viewing festivals,
boating parties, and
musical events.

Japanese Garden

Kyoto is known for its historic temples and shrines that are mostly
decorated with beautiful gardens. The landscapes of these gardens
change frequently as the four seasons of Japan .

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Japanese Garden
There is a type of Japanese garden called “Paradise
Garden” – that was first developed in the Heian period
(794-1185)

• This kind of garden is also

known as Pure Land
Garden and imitates the
Buddha sitting on a raised
level surface or island.

• The major elements of this

type garden are a pond
with lotus flower, arch
shaped bridge, a large
Buddhist hall, and trees Byodoin Temple’s Paradise Garden, Uji in Kyoto

Japanese Garden

• Temple and courtier gardens appeared in Japan. But in 1473 the first
tea house was built and at the peak of its popularity special gardens
for tea drinking were created, in which the tea ceremonies could be
conducted.
• The tea ceremony was a unique form of meditation, which consisted
of the precise completion of all specified actions. As a rule, it
occurred in the special tea pavilion with convenient low furniture.

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Japanese Garden

Traditional Japanese Stone lanterns Tokonoma

• The tea pavilion was illuminated with traditional lamps and often
decorated with special compositions of irises called tokonoma - or
ikebana if it is located in a special niche
• The worship of nature allowed the Japanese to approach the
questions of the forming of the landscape with great care, making it
possible to reveal the authentic beauty of plants, stones, water
sources and ponds.

Elements of Japanese Garden

The important natural elements which

represent Japanese garden are
: water, sand, gravel, stone, rock,
island, hills, teahouse, bridge, stream,
fishes, strolling path, stone-lantern,
bamboo pipe, moss, flowers, pond,
trees, statues, gates, water basin,
garden fences, and garden
architecture.

Every element has different meanings

and they symbolize many things.

Stone Lantern and Basin in a

Japanese Garden, Kyoto

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Types of Japanese Garden

Three different types (Karesansui, Tsukiyama, Chaniwa) of Japanese
gardens.

Karesansui
(Rock/Dry/Zen Garden)

• Represents the spiritualism

of Zen Buddhism.
• Instead of using water in this
type of garden, sand or gravel
is used to represent river or
sea
Ryoanji Temple Zen Garden, Kyoto

Types of Japanese Garden

Tsukiyama
(Hill and Pond Garden)

• The word Tsukiyama refers to the

creation of artificial or manmade
hills
• This Japanese style garden
represents a miniature of natural
scenery.
• Includes ponds, hills, stones, trees,
fishes, bridges, moss, paths,
flowers, small plants and streams.

Ginkaku-ji Hill and Pond Garden,

Kyoto

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Types of Japanese Garden

Chaniwa
(Tea Garden)
• Tea garden is a type of
beautiful Japanese garden
that has a tea ceremony
house along with the garden
• The garden’s main features
are Ishidoro (a small stone
lantern), Tsukubai (A stone
basin where guests can wash
their hands), Tobi-ishi
(stepping stones) and Kakei
(a bamboo pipe through
which water flows
constantly) Kenrokuen Tea
Garden, Kanazawa in
Japan

Japanese Courtyard Garden

Japanese courtyard garden
(Tsuboniwa) is a small garden

• Japanese merchants used to build

small gardens behind their shops
and houses
• Some of Zen garden, tea garden, and
hill garden elements together make
a perfect Japanese courtyard garden
• Elements are not supposed to be
functional but ornamental.

Courtyard garden in Kyoto

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PERSIAN GARDEN
Haven on Earth

Persian Garden

• The Persian Garden consists of a collection of nine

gardens, selected from various regions of Iran

• Natural elements combine with manmade

components in the Persian Garden to create a
unique artistic achievement that reflects the
ideals of art, philosophical, symbolic and religious
concepts.

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Persian Garden

• Persian Garden, responds to

extreme climatic conditions.
The climates vary from hot to
dry, where rainfall is less.

• Intelligent application of
different fields of knowledge,
i.e.
• technology,
• water management and
engineering, architecture
• Botany and agriculture.

Persian Garden

• Principles best rooted at the time of Cyrus the

Great built around 500 BC
• Muslim science and medicine formed the
powerful system of medicine and gardens with
medicinal plants have been maintained .

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Persian Garden

The traditional Middle Eastern gardens included certain shared design

elements.
The most common were enclosing walls, water features, trees and
flowers, and extensive use of the arabesque, an Islamic geometric
decoration.

Persian Garden
• Influenced the art of garden design as far as India and Spain
• Different styles of Persian Garden are Hayat, Meidan, Char Bagh,
Park / Bagh
Types of Persian garden:
Formal garden Informal garden
• Hayat ( public and private) • Bagh (private )
• Meidan ( public) • Park ( public)
• Char Bagh ( Private )

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Persian Garden
The components of the Persian garden:
1. Shades
Shade is the greatest importance among other components of Persian Gardens
due to the arid and rainless climate as it can work to make the environment
pleasant, and protect it from the intense sunlight.
Trees planted across the entire east and west sides and thus cast shadows
across the whole garden throughout the day.

Persian Garden
The components of the Persian garden:

2. Walls
Walls of Persian Gardens function not only as a
marker of the boundaries of property, but also as a
border between the outer, dry land, and the inner
area with its shady, cooling components, which is a
reflection of paradise.
Walls for shape, temperature regulation and
insulation .
Use of clay material in construction of the walls .

Graphical Reconstruction of The Chahar Bagh

Type of Garden

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Persian Garden
The components of the Persian garden:
3. Water
• Main reason of Persian Garden’s existence.
• It is water that defines the existence of all concepts and components of
the Persian Garden, as it is present in all stages of its formation both in
functional and ornamental forms.

Persian Garden
The components of the Persian garden:
• Functional use of water
Water was supplied to the plants. Due to limited resources, it was stored in
tanks, and was used for irrigation at certain intervals. To create a calm, cool
and shade environment, streams of water throughout the whole garden
were added as basins.
• Ornamental use of water / reflection ponds.
Its conceptual, poetic and artistic use decorated the garden space and with
its presence brings freshness, vitality, movement and beauty. Pools in front
of the buildings complement the architecture and reflect them as a mirror.
• Symbolism
Ponds observed in mosque architecture, beyond the role of purification, has
a symbolic aspect and water created both the symbol of life and death.

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Persian Garden
• Persians used the side branches of rivers, mountain springs, wells
and qanats to supply water.
• (In the Middle East) Qanat is a gently sloping underground channel or
tunnel constructed to lead water from the interior of a hill to a village
below

Persian Garden
The components of the Persian garden:
4. Vegetation
• Arrangement of plants is the most
fundamental basis of garden design.
• Fruit-bearing and shade-providing trees
are also featured prominently.
• They provided not only food and daytime
colour but also a canopy over the Bagh-e Shahzadeh - Mahan

courtyard
• Tall narrow-leafed cypresses were added
to filter the dust and to reduce
windspeed within the garden.

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Persian Garden
The components of the Persian garden:

5. Geometry and viewpoint

The most prominent feature of
the Iranian garden is the
geometry, which dominates its
design.
a) The spine of the garden
b) Axis- Water pathway
c) Rectangular Geometry
d) Symmetry
e) Centralized structures

Persian Garden
The components of the Persian garden:

5. Geometry and viewpoint

What it actually meant by symmetry in
Persian gardens, the emphasis is placed
on the visual symmetry in the position
and viewpoint of certain spots of the
place (such as the porches of the
pavilions or the façade).

Also, what is meant by Chahar Bagh [the four-folded garden plan or the four
gardens] is the universal notion, which refers to the four principle elements
of Earth, sky, water, and plant and their creator, God.

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Persian Garden
• Persian Garden permeates Iranian
life and its artistic expressions:
references to the garden may be
found in
❖ literature,
❖ poetry,
❖ music,
❖ calligraphy and
❖ Fabric ; carpet design.

Persian Garden
• Gardens in Architectural Decorations
Like other branches of Persian art, the Persian Garden had also its influence upon
decorations especially Persian architectural decorations.

Patterns of cedars, palm trees and twelve petal flower upon Tile-work
Apadana Palace Stairway.

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Persian Garden
• Painting

Miniature, Left: Shahnameh; Right: Khavarnameh, Sultan Mohammad Tabrizi

• Carpets

Multiple Chahar Bagh units in a late 18th century northwest

Persian (Kurdish) Garden carpet

Persian Garden
Some famous Persian Gardens in Iran :
• Ancient gardens of Pasargadae
• Bagh-e Eram or Eram Gardens
• Shahzadeh Gardens

Shahzadeh Gardens. Eram Gardens.

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MUGHAL GARDEN

Mughal Garden
• The bloom of landscape design in India falls on the period between II
and IV c. A.D. Precisely at this time decorative and medicinal plants
become the object of study.

From 1526-1858 the bloom of horticulture is observed in the territory of

India, where the empire of Great Mughals was located. Symbolic value
was given to trees and to landscaping ensembles with the generously
decorated ponds were created at mausoleums.

The life of Indian aristocrats was mainly spent in the garden, instead of the
house; therefore the requirements for garden structures and accessories
increased.
They become an irreplaceable attribute of female accessories

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Mughal Garden

• Mughal Gardens- built by the Mughals in the Islamic style of

architecture
• Influenced by Persian Gardens
• Use of rectilinear layouts made within walled enclosures

Mughal Garden
Features of Mughal Gardens
• Fountains
• Water pools , canals
• Terraces
• Symmetry and rectilinear
in shape
• Gates to mark entrance
• High protecting wall
• Ornamental vegetation

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Mughal Garden
History
• Gardens designed for the royalty, the
priests and the courtier had to be
equipped with all of the necessary
features for recreation - such as pools,
swings and benches - but also had to
delight the eye with whimsical
combinations of different vegetation.

Categorized as:
• The construction of garden was a
beloved imperial pastime. Mughal
Emperor Babur had high aesthetic sense
and was fond of gardens
• Babur, described his formal garden type
as a CHARBAGH, a design inspired by
Mughal Emperor Babur
Persian Garden supervising the creation of garden

Mughal Garden

CHARBAGH

• Charbagh is Persian style garden

layout.
• In Persian Char means four and
bagh means garden.
• These garden were designed to
represent paradise.

Mughal ideal representation of the

Charbagh

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Mughal Garden

CHARBAGH

• The theme of traditional

Islamic garden is water
and shade.
• These gardens are
intended for rest and
contemplation
(viewing), this is reason
for including places for
sitting ( Baradari)

Ram Bagh, Humayun’s Tomb, Taj Mahal

Mughal Garden

Various Mughal Gardens

• In India
• Humayun’s Tomb, Delhi
• Taj Mahal, Agra
• Ram Bagh, Agra
• Mehtab Bagh, Agra
• Shalimar Bagh, Kashmir
• Safdarjung’s Tomb, Delhi
• Khusro Bagh, Alllahabad

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Mughal Garden
Taj Mahal
• The Taj Mahal garden is unusual in that the main element, the
tomb is located at the end of the garden
• A raised marble water tank at the center of the garden, reflects
the image of mausoleum.

Mughal Garden

Taj Mahal
• The complex is set around a
large 42 acres- square
charbagh or Mughal garden.
• The garden uses raised
pathways that divide each of
the four quarter into 16
sunken flowerbeds.

Site Plan- Taj Mahal

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Mughal Garden
Humayun’s Tomb

• While the main tomb took over eight years to build, it was placed in
center of a 30 acre Char Bagh Garden, with quadrilateral layout.

Mughal Garden
Humayun’s Tomb

• Divided into four squares by

paved walkways and two
bisecting central water channels
• Each four square is divided into
small square with pathways into
36 squares.

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Mughal Garden

Humayun’s Tomb

• The central water channels

appear to be disappearing
beneath the tomb structure and
reappearing on the other side in
a straight line, suggesting the
rivers flowing beneath the
Garden of Paradise.

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NEPALESE LANDSCAPE
ARCHITECTURE

Prepared by: Ruchi Bajracharya

Nepalese Landscape
Nepal’s rich biodiversity is a reflection of this unique geographical position as well
as its altitudinal and climatic variations.
The country experiences a wide range of climates, including extreme cold and
tropical rain.
The physical features of the nation of Nepal include mountains, wetlands, hills,
caves, and plains.

Himalayan region Hilly region Terai region

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Nepalese Landscape

A wetland is a place in which the land is covered by water—salt, fresh, or

somewhere in between—either seasonally or permanently. It functions as its own
distinct ecosystem.
Ecological significances:
Wetlands have a significant role in
conservation of biodiversity and genetic
resources. It helps purify static water, its
storage and conservation minimize floods
and erosion.
Further it helps in ground water recharge,
nutrient retention and even helps in
ecosystems maintenance via supporting
food web. Fig: Beeshazar and associated wetlands
People are also dependent on wetlands
for their livelihood from fishing, irrigation, Beeshazaar and Associated Lakes lie in
the bufferzone of Chitwan National Park,
religious and cultural use.
a World Heritage Site, Central, Nepal.

Nepalese Landscape Architecture

RIVER SYSTEMS
Because of its wide ranges of physiographic division of the country it is
estimated that there are in total 6,000 rivers (including rivulets and
tributaries) in Nepal.
Historically the civilization of most of the cities of Nepal started from the
bank of these rivers
• Water plays a very important role socially, culturally and religious
context. ( main source of water- irrigation)
• Rivers are viewed sacred hence temples are mostly built along the
banks of river. The water from rivers used as holy water.
Thapathali Pashupatinath

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Nepalese Landscape Architecture

GHAT : Stairs built at the river banks to give access to the water for
devotees, or for cremation usually around the temples. Connection from
birth to death.
PLINTHS – PLATFORMS- LANDINGS AND EDGES
Sankhamul Ghat

Nepalese Landscape Architecture

• The culture of Nepal encompasses

the various cultures belonging to
the 125 distinct ethnic groups
present in Nepal.
• The culture of Nepal is expressed
through music and dance; art and
craft; folklore; languages and
literature; philosophy and religion;
festivals and celebration; foods and
drinks.
• Most of these cultures of Nepal are
directly and indirectly celebrated in
open spaces or community spaces
IDEOLOGY
NEPALESE LANDSCAPE ARCHITECURE in different forms.
• These activities have shaped the
landscapes of different spaces.

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Nepalese Landscape Architecture

Festivals and celebration
Example: Dashain ( Main festival of Nepal)
Dashain or Bijaya Dashami is one of the most significant and auspicious festivals of
Nepal, celebrated predominantly by the Hindu in which all ethnicities participate
revelry.
Its a 15th day celebration starting form Ghatasthapana to Fulpati. During this
period all the people gather in open spaces (Chaur in villages and parks in town),
sing bhajans, play swing , also called ping etc.

Nepalese Landscape architecture

Celebration of Chhath- River bound connection

They include holy bathing, fasting and abstaining from drinking water (vrata), standing
in water, and offering prasad (prayer offerings) and to the setting and rising sun.
River side spaces are carved out traditionally which doesn’t disturb the riparian edges of
the river and its ecology.
Devotees gather along the Spaces along the rivers, ponds and other water bodies for
the rituals.

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Nepalese Landscape Architecture

Dance and music:
Different dance are performed by different ethnic groups of Nepal. The open
spaces are shaped accordingly in proximity to community buildings for these
activities.
Landscape character:
Central circular field ideal for those kinds of music and dance.
Gentle slopes for the proper viewing angles form a visual character of the
spaces with the Community buildings around for seating spaces and the trees
backdrop.

Nepalese Landscape Architecture

In the west, the trees and plant materials are deemed essential to provide
good environment in design, whereas, in the east the plant materials
culturally and from a religious point of view are worshipped also, so in
places like India, Nepal, Japan, etc. They worship plants and soil which is
not done in the west.

Example:
Most Hindus worshipping Pipal & Tulsi plants at home and worshipping
Pipal Tree and pouring water on it on Saturdays; worship and marriage of
Ber & Pipal Tree; worshipping Tulshi plant during Haribodhani Ekadashi
and Harishayani Ekadashi; tying sacred thread (Kancho Dhago) around
Pipal and Ber tree in various rituals and pujas.

It is not a utilitarian aspect; it is a socio cultural aspect.

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Nepalese Landscape Architecture

SUMMARY
History of Nepalese architecture can be seen in the open spaces used by people
for festivals, cultural gatherings, open spaces for resting, farming etc varied on
rural villages and urban cities.
Open spaces and landscapes of rural areas of Nepal were shaped by daily
activities and cultural activities.
• Aagan in front of houses for family gatherings and festival and also for
household chores
• Chautari in chowks for community gatherings and also resting spaces for
travellers that time.
• Pati for rest house and bhajan
• Temple Complex and its surroundings
• Riverine edges, pokhari (pond)
• Padheras (water storage on rural areas where people used to go for water )
• Meadows for large gatherings
• Grazing lands

Kathmandu Valley : Traditional Nepalese Landscape Architecture

• Kathmandu valley has been the cultural

town of the Newar community from the
Lichchhavi period followed by Malla and
Patan
Shahs, who design the old valley with a rich
tradition, culture, art, and architecture

Lumbini
masterplan by
Kenzo Tange Start of Bagmati
Ends of Malla rule Narayanhiti cleaning
Start of Shah Rule in Nepal Central zoo palace campaign
Malla Rule
Introduction of neo
classical style by Rana
Prime Ministers –
development in
infrastructure

5th 10th 13-18th

1850 1920 1956 1960 1978 1990 2012 2021
Century Century Century

River – • Durbar squares Redefining • Ratna park Construction of Large scale

ghat system- • Palace courtyards of Tudikhel • Godawari botanical UN park, large architecture
Pashupatinath • Pokhari scale institutions projects
Garden of
temple • Dhunge dhara
dreams
• Pati

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Nepalese Landscape architecture

COURTYARDS / CHOWKS
• In ancient times, traditional houses
and palaces followed the same
basic principles.
• The symmetry of the residence,
while the courtyard is centrally
placed either by constructing rows Durbar squares: Contains the main public square-
connecting temples and palaces. Palaces designed with
of the house in rectangle or courtyards
quadrangle style.

ESTABLISH RELATION BETWEEN A

OPEN AND BUILT

Nepalese Landscape architecture

COURTYARDS / CHOWKS
• Technique for creating an open space within tightly woven mesh
while simultaneously providing structural stability. Equal area - shared
open space.
• The courtyards were designed to carry out various domestic activities.
• A social place for interaction.
• The courtyard design ensured proper lighting and ventilation provision
to all the row houses.
• The courtyard plots are planned in a manner giving uniform plot size
and frontage to dwellings around the courtyard. The narrowness of
the corner plot is a result of predetermined plan; it is a functional
requirement and is a planning feature related to the structure of
courtyard system of settlement block. (Pant & Funo, 2004)

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Nepalese Landscape architecture

COURTYARDS / CHOWKS

For example :
Nagbahal in Patan :
mixture of
hardscape and
softscapes.

Typical small scale

courtyard in a
residential area

Nepalese Landscape Architecture

Traditional Streetscape
• The streets built prior to 18th
century were intended for
pedestrians.
• There is a raised platform known
as a phalcha where locals interact
socially with their neighbours and
travellers can rest .
• The streets are made of bricks and
mortar and have a stone edge with Phalcha
different patterns of brick paving.
Drain channel
• There is a distinct drainage on
both sides. These drainages carry
the surface runoff, which is then
collected in pukhu or pokhari .

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Nepalese Landscape architecture

POKHARI (POND)
• Ponds are extraordinary artifacts that provide unique values and
purposes.
• Ponds in Kathmandu Valley lie inside or outside settlements that
are sources of surface water and are used for domestic purposes,
irrigation, running water mills and even for dumping sewerage and
garbage(Antony and G., 1985).
• Among the few ancient remaining ponds Taudaha, Nagdaha,
Siddha Pokhari, Pim Bahal Pokhari, Rani Pokhari, Nag Pokhari,
Kamal Pokhari and Gahana Pokhari are some of the better known
ones carrying cultural significances
• Ponds in Kathmandu were basically constructed to feed the sub
surface aquifers of stone spouts ( to recharge the water table ) and
supply water to wells at all seasons
• They are also very important to recharge the ground water.

Nepalese Landscape architecture

POKHARI (POND)

Pimbahal Patan Durbar Square

Rani Pokhari Siddha Pokhari, Bhaktapur

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Nepalese Landscape architecture

POKHARI (POND)
• The knowledge and skill of recharging ground water to serve
wells and stone spouts was well established in Malla time. Some
of the ponds also served as waste water management especially
grey water (example Rani Pokhari).
• Maintaining ponds in its original state not only preserve the
environment but also conserve cultural heritage.
• Ponds, network of canals and stone spouts ( dhunge dhara) have
a close relationship and used to serve water for the population
of Kathmandu both in quality and quantity before piped water
system was introduced.

Nepalese Landscape architecture

DHUNGE DHARA- WATER SPOUTS

Detailings in Dhunge Dhara

Manga Hiti Patan Durbar Square- Locals

Designed as royal baths. enjoying the water from Dhunge Dhara

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Nepalese Landscape architecture

DHUNGE DHARA- WATER SPOUTS
• A hiti or a dhunge dhara is a traditional stone drinking
fountain found in Nepal. It is an intricately carved stone
waterway through which water flows uninterrupted from
underground sources.
• Dhunge dharas are part of a comprehensive drinking water
supply system, commissioned by various rulers of Ancient and
Medieval Nepal.
• The system is supported by numerous ponds and canals that
form an elaborate network of water bodies, created as a water
resource during the dry season and to help alleviate the water
pressure caused by the monsoon rains.

Nepalese Landscape architecture

DHUNGE DHARA- WATER SPOUTS
• Rainwater is absorbed from the ground to form natural sources
that provide water to dhungedharas.
• In order not to depend entirely on rainwater, channels called
RAJKULO were built to supply water from rivers to the sources of
dhungedhara. Also, several ponds were built around the
dhungedhara so that water can seep through the land around it.
• The speciality of dhungedharas is in their use of gravity in
channelling the water; systematic flow-control to regulate the
amount, advanced drainage to avoid blockages, water-
purification.

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Nepalese Landscape architecture

Public Squares / Dabali

• ‘Dabali’ is a Newari term for a stage. It is used especially for religious

performances .And one such religious dance performed on Dabali is
Kartik Nach. This form of ‘Nach’ originated during King Siddhi Narsingh
Malla’s reign in 16th century

Nepalese Landscape architecture

Public Squares / Dabali

• These squares even now play an important role in as a public space

where various cultural processions and social activities are conducted.
• Use of locally available material such as brick and stone
• Use of bricks– herringbone pattern and stone.
• No soft landscape elements present apart from few planters.

Herringbone pattern

Kathmandu durbar square:

Dabali ( stage) now used as
commercial – tourist attraction.

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Nepalese Landscape architecture

Dabali -a multi-functional market area for mass gathering, cultural

processions such as Indra Jatra, and also leisure space. The square is
generally connected via numerous street and contain a place of worship.

Nepalese Landscape architecture

PATI

• Pati are rest stops made along the

traditional main road for travellers. It
also serves as a meeting place for
social or religious gatherings.
• Built in historic age these stand at
present to mark and showcase the
traditional landscape material used
in Nepali architecture as well.
• The front of pati is always an open construction of posts and lintel
• The pati is a partially enclosed roofed platform, erected on a rectangular
plan (occasionally square, L-shaped or even hexagonal), constructed
either as freestanding structure with a double-pitched roof, incorporated
into a residential house or attached to an existing building.

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Nepalese Landscape architecture

CHAUTARI

• Chautari are mostly common in

both rural and urban settings where
the community gathers for
discussion.
• These serve as a shaded space for
any passer by or act as a marking of
social gatherings. Often found with
children and older age group
spending time here.
• They are usually made by piling stones to create a platform and usually
have Banyan or Peepal (Ficus religiosa) tree (or both) planted on to
provide shade.

Nepalese Landscape architecture

OPEN FIELDS
• Kathmandu Valley had been
transformed from solitary
settlement, to a metropolitan
area. This happened without
proper monitoring, leading to a
dense urban core with little
open space left.
• Most parks within the city have
an entry fee such as Ratna Park
which makes it inaccessible to
most.
• Tudikhel, Narayan Chaur

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Nepalese Landscape architecture

Open fields

Open field - Tudikhel

Morphology of Tudikhel

Nepalese Landscape architecture

Open fields
• Tudikhel is a multifunctional public space has a great importance
for public, socially, culturally and environmentally.

• Since ancient times, various communities of have used this public

space for celebrations of festivals and activities, as well as for
public assemblies and processions such as Ghode jatra, Lhosar,
etc.

• Apart from socio- cultural importance, this large public open

space also fulfils ecological purposes for ground water recharge.

• Act as green lung to the city

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Nepalese Landscape architecture

Various celebration in Tudikhel

• Open spaces in the city act as disaster refuge area, where people can
flee and seek refuse away from the buildings during an earthquake.
Even during natural disaster this area has been used as refuse area -
setting during 2015 earthquake.

Nepalese Landscape architecture

Introduction of Formal garden style – Neo classical style

Garden of Dreams – Keshar Mahal

• During Rana regime many western style palaces and gardens were built.
Inspired by French gardens, Kesher Mahal or Garden of Dreams, Classical
garden in Singha Durbar are few of its examples.(in 1920)

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Nepalese Landscape architecture

National Botanical Garden Central zoo - Entrance

Godavari , Lalitpur Jawalakhel Lalitpur

• Exposure and western influences had shaped the way architecture was
perceived in main cities of the country.. Many large-scale institutions,
government buildings, public spaces were developed.
• Some examples are The Godavari botanical gardens and the Central zoo that
were established in the 1960s.

LUMBINI MASTERPLAN
Designed by: Kenjo Tanze 1978 AD

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Lumbini Masterplan

In 1970, the International

Committee for the
Development of Lumbini was
set up.
This committee initiated the
preparation of the Master
Plan for Lumbini, which was
conceptualized by Kenzo
Tange.
The Kenzo Tange Master Plan
was finalized and approved in
1978.

The Kenzo Tange Master Plan

covers an area of 5 x 5 square
mile with the central square
mile being the Sacred
Garden within which is the
designated UNESCO World
Heritage property.

Lumbini Masterplan

• The Kenzo Tange Master Plan covers an area of 5 x 5 square mile with the
central square mile being the Sacred Garden within which is the designated
UNESCO World Heritage property.
• 1 x 3 square mile area which includes the following three zones:
➢ the New Lumbini Village,
➢ the Monastic Zone and
➢ the Sacred Garden .

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Lumbini Masterplan

• The design of the 1 x 3 mile Lumbini Project Area is based on geometric

shapes and the notion of the path to enlightenment.
• The entrance is placed in the North in the New Lumbini Village, from where
the visitor enters the site to begin the journey from a location of “worldly”
activities. Then the visitor proceeds to the Monastic Zone for knowledge and
spiritual purification, before reaching the Sacred Garden for enlightenment.
The three zones are connected by a 12 m wide canal which is part of the
central link.

Lumbini Masterplan

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Lumbini Masterplan

New Lumbini Village

• This area in the North of the 1 x 3 mile
Lumbini Project Area is the zone that
represents “worldly” activities from which
pilgrims enter the site to begin their spiritual
journey.
• This zone contains facilities for visitors
including hotels, a tourist and administration
centre, a museum and a research institute.

Lumbini Masterplan

EAST / WEST MONASTIC SITE

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Lumbini Masterplan
Monastic Zone
• This zone in the middle of the 1 x 3 mile
Lumbini Project Area is designed to enable
visitors to attain knowledge and undergo
spiritual purification before they proceed to
the sacred birthplace of the Lord Buddha.
• The Monastic Zone consists of 42 plots for
the construction of Buddhist monasteries
from around the world. This zone has been
divided into the West Monastic Zone and the
East Monastic Zone with the central canal in
the middle dividing the West from the East.
• The West Monastic Zone represents the
Mahayana (and Vajrayana) schools of
Buddhism with 29 plots, and the East
Monastic Zone represents the Theravada
school of Buddhism with 13 plots.
EAST / WEST MONASTIC SITE • There are also meditation centres for
pilgrims and visitors.

Lumbini Masterplan

Central Link
• The Central Link consists of a canal, with
pedestrian paths on both sides and symbolic
pavilions that connect the three zones of the
1 x 3 mile Lumbini Project Area including the
New Lumbini Village, the Monastic Zone and
the Sacred Garden.
• It is planned that visitors will travel by boats
without combustion engines on the canal.
The 12 metre wide canal signifies transition
from worldly life to enlightenment.

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Lumbini Masterplan

Lumbini Masterplan

Sacred Garden
• The focal point of Lumbini is the Sacred
Garden with the UNESCO World Heritage
property at its centre.
• It consists of important archaeological
remains including the Marker Stone inside the
Mayadevi Temple which marks the birthplace
of Lord Buddha, the Asoka Pillar which
Emperor Asoka erected in 249 BC to pay
homage to Lord Buddha’s birthplace, and the
Nativity Sculpture which depicts Lord Buddha’s
mother Queen Mayadevi giving birth.
• A circular levee has been built around the
excavated area to protect it from flooding.
• The Sacred Garden symbolizes enlightenment.

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Lumbini Masterplan

• The area outside the 1 x 3 mile

Lumbini Project Area within the 5
x 5 mile zone is the Buffer Zone,
which protects the three zones.

An embankment built to
prevent the overflow of a river.

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