Topic 1 Notes

1.1: Introduction
What is a Computer
A computer is an electronic machine that accepts information, stores it until the information is
needed, processes the information according to the instructions provided by the user, and finally
returns the results to the user.
A computer is a programmable, multiuse machine that accepts data—raw facts and figures—and
processes, or manipulates, it into information we can use, such as summaries, totals, or reports. Its
purpose is to speed up problem solving and increase productivity.
The computer can store and manipulate large quantities of data at very high speed, but a computer
cannot think. A computer makes decisions based on simple comparisons such as one number
being larger than another. Although the computer can help solve a tremendous variety of
problems, it is simply a machine. It cannot solve problems on its own.

1.2 Computer Tasks

i. Input
ii. Storage
iii. Processing
iv. Output
Input operation: Input is whatever is put in (“input”) to a computer system. Input can be nearly
any kind of data: letters, numbers, symbols, shapes, colors, temperatures, sounds, pressure, light
beams, or whatever raw material that needs processing. When you type some words or numbers
on a keyboard, those words are considered input data.
Processing operation: Processing is the manipulation a computer does to transform data into
information. When the computer adds 2 + 2 to get 4, that is the act of processing. The processing
is done by the central processing unit frequently just called the CPU which is a device consisting
of electronic circuitry that executes instructions to process data.
Storage operation: Storage is of two types temporary storage and permanent storage, or primary
storage and secondary storage.
Primary storage, or memory, is the internal computer circuitry that temporarily holds data waiting
to be processed. Secondary storage, simply called storage, refers to the devices and media that
store data or information permanently. A hard disk or CD/DVD is an example of this kind of
storage. (Storage also holds the software i.e. the computer programs.)
Output operation: Output is whatever is output from (“put out of”) the computer system i.e. the
results of processing, usually information. Examples of output are numbers or pictures displayed
on a screen, words printed out on paper by a printer, or music piped over some loudspeakers.
Communications operation: These days, most (though not all) computers have communications
ability, which offers an extension capability in other words, it extends the power of the computer.
With wired or wireless communications connections, data may be input from afar, processed in a
remote area, stored in several different locations, and output in yet other places. However, you
don’t need communications ability to write letters, do calculations, or perform many other
computer tasks.
Every computer has special parts to do each of the jobs listed above. Whether it is a multimillion
dollar mainframe or a thousand dollar personal computer, it has the following four components,
Input, Memory, Central Processing, and Output.

1.3 Classification of Computers

i. According to size
Supercomputer
Supercomputer is the most powerful and fastest, and also very expensive. It was developed in
1980s. It is used to process large amount of data and to solve the complicated scientific problems.
It can perform more than one trillion calculations per second. It has large number of processors
connected in parallel. So parallel processing is done in this computer. In a single supercomputer
thousands of users can be connected at the same time and the supercomputer handles the work of
each user separately. Supercomputer are mainly used for:
a. Weather forecasting.
b. Nuclear energy research.
c. Aircraft design.
d. Automotive design.
e. Online banking.
f. To control industrial units.
The supercomputers are used in large organizations, research laboratories, aerospace centers, large
industrial units etc. Nuclear scientists use supercomputers to create and analyze models of nuclear
fission and fusions, predicting the actions and reactions of millions of atoms as they interact. The
examples of supercomputers are CRAY-1, CRAY-2, Control Data CYBER 205 and ETA A-10
etc.
Mainframe Computers
Mainframe computers are also large-scale computers but supercomputers are larger than
mainframe. These are also very expensive. The mainframe computer specially requires a very large
clean room with air-conditioner. This makes it very expensive to buy and operate. It can support a
large number of various equipment. It also has multiple processors. Large mainframe systems can
handle the input and output requirements of several thousands of users. For example, IBM, S/390
mainframe can support 50,000 users simultaneously. The users often access the mainframe with
terminals or personal computers. There are basically two types of terminals used with mainframe
systems. These are:
i) Dumb Terminal
Dumb terminal does not have its own CPU and storage devices. This type of terminal uses the
CPU and storage devices of mainframe system. Typically, a dumb terminal consists of monitor
and a keyboard (or mouse).
ii) Intelligent Terminal
Intelligent terminal has its own processor and can perform some processing operations. Usually,
this type of terminal does not have its own storage. Typically, personal computers are used as
intelligent terminals. A personal computer as an intelligent terminal gives facility to access data
and other services from mainframe system. It also enables to store and process data locally.
The mainframe computers are specially used as servers on the World Wide Web. The mainframe
computers are used in large organizations such as Banks, Airlines and Universities etc. where
many people (users) need frequent access to the same data, which is usually organized into one or
more huge databases. IBM is the major manufacturer of mainframe computers. The examples of
mainframes are IBM S/390, Control Data CYBER 176 and Amdahl 580 etc.
Minicomputers
These are smaller in size, have lower processing speed and also have lower cost than mainframe.
These computers are known as minicomputers because of their small size as compared to other
computers at that time. The capabilities of a minicomputer are between mainframe and personal
computer. These computers are also known as midrange computers.
The minicomputers are used in business, education and many other government departments.
Although some minicomputers are designed for a single user but most are designed to handle
multiple terminals. Minicomputers are commonly used as servers in network environment and
hundreds of personal computers can be connected to the network with a minicomputer acting as
server like mainframes, minicomputers are used as web servers. Single user minicomputers are
used for sophisticated design tasks.
The first minicomputer was introduced in the mid-1960s by Digital Equipment Corporation
(DEC). After this IBM Corporation (AS/400 computers) Data General Corporation and Prime
Computer also designed the mini computers.

Microcomputer
The microcomputers are also known as personal computers or simply PCs. Microprocessor is used
in this type of computer. These are very small in size and cost. The IBM’s first microcomputer
was designed in 1981 and was named as IBM-PC. After this many computer hardware companies
copied the design of IBM-PC. The term “PC-compatible” refers any personal computer based on
the original IBM personal computer design.
The most popular types of personal computers are the PC and the Apple. PC and PC-compatible
computers have processors with different architectures than processors in Apple computers. These
two types of computers also use different operating systems. PC and PC-compatible computers
use the Windows operating system while Apple computers use the Macintosh operating system
(MacOS). The majority of microcomputers sold today are part of IBM-compatible. However, the
Apple computer is neither an IBM nor a compatible. It is another family of computers made by
Apple computer.
Personal computers are available in two models. These are:
a. Desktop PCs
b. Tower PCs
A desktop personal computer is most popular model of personal computer. The system unit of the
desktop personal computer can lie flat on the desk or table. In desktop personal computer, the
monitor is usually placed on the system unit.
Another model of the personal computer is known as tower personal computer. The system unit
of the tower PC is vertically placed on the desk of table. Usually the system unit of the tower model
is placed on the floor to make desk space free and user can place other devices such as printer,
scanner etc. on the desktop. Today computer tables are available which are specially designed for
this purpose. The tower models are mostly used at homes and offices.
Microcomputers are further divided into following categories.
 i. Laptop computer
ii. Workstation
iii. Network computer
iv. Handheld computer

Laptop computer
Laptop computer is also known as notebook computer. It is small size (85-by-11-inch) notebook
computer and can fit inside a briefcase. The laptop computer is operated on a special battery and
it does not have to be plugged in like desktop computer. The laptop computer is portable and fully
functional microcomputer. It is mostly used during journey. It can be used on your lap in an
airplane. It is because it is referred to as laptop computer.
The memory and storage capacity of laptop computer is almost equivalent to the PC or desktop
computer. It also has the hard dist, floppy disk drive, Zip disk drive, CD-ROM drive, CD-writer
etc. it has built-in keyboard and built-in trackball as pointing device. Laptop computer is also
available with the same processing speed as the most powerful personal computer. It means that
laptop computer has same features as personal computer. Laptop computers are more expensive
than desktop computers. Normally these computers are frequently used in business travelers.
Workstations
Workstations are special single user computers having the same features as personal computer but
have the processing speed equivalent to minicomputer or mainframe computer. A workstation
computer can be fitted on a desktop. Scientists, engineers, architects and graphic designers mostly
use these computers.
Workstation computers are expensive and powerful computers. These have advanced processors,
more RAM and storage capacity than personal computers. These are usually used as single-user
applications but these are used as servers on computer network and web servers as well.

Network computers
Network computers are also version of personal computers having less processing power, memory
and storage. These are specially designed as terminals for network environment. Some types of
network computers have no storage. The network computers are designed for network, Internet or
Intranet for data entry or to access data on the network. The network computers depend upon the
network’s server for data storage and to use software. These computers also use the network’s
server to perform some processing tasks.
In the mid-1990s the concept of network computers became popular among some PC
manufacturers. As a result, several variations of the network computers quickly became available.
In business, variations of the network computer are Windows terminals, NetPCs and diskless
workstations. Some network computers are designed to access only the Internet or to an Intranet.
These devices are sometimes called Internet PCs, Internet boxes etc. In home some network
computers do not include monitor. These are connected to home television, which serves as the
output devices. A popular example of a home-based network computer is Web TV, which enables
the user to connect a television to the Internet. The Web TV has a special set-top box used to
connect to the Internet and also provides a set of simple controls which enable the user to navigate
the Internet, send and receive e-mails and to perform other tasks on the network while watching
television.
Handheld computer
In the mid-1990s, many new types of small personal computing devices have been introduced and
these are referred to as handheld computers. These computers are also referred to as Palmtop
Computers. The handheld computers sometimes called Mini-Notebook Computers. The type of
computer is named as handheld computer because it can fit in one hand while you can operate it
with the other hand. Because of its reduced size, the screen of handheld computer is quite small.
Similarly, it also has small keyboard. The handheld computers are preferred by business traveler.
Some handheld computers have a specialized keyboard. These computers are used by mobile
employees, such as meter readers and parcel delivery people, whose jobs require them to move
from place to place.
The examples of handheld computers are:
i. Personal Digital Assistance
ii. Cellular telephones
iii. H/PC Pro devices

Personal Digital Assistance (PDAs)

The PDA is one of the more popular lightweight mobile devices in use today. A PDA provides
special functions such as taking notes, organizing telephone numbers and addresses. Most PDAs
also offer a variety of other application software such as word processing, spreadsheet and games
etc. Some PDAs include electronic books that enable users to read a book on the PDA’s screen.
Many PDAs are web-based and users can send/receive e-mails and access the Internet. Similarly,
some PDAs also provide telephone capabilities.
The primary input device of a PDA is the stylus. A stylus is an electronic pen and looks like a
small ballpoint pen. This input device is used to write notes and store in the PDA by touching the
screen. Some PDAs also support voice input.
Cellular phones
A cellular phone is a web-based telephone having features of analog and digital devices. It is also
referred to as Smart Phone. In addition to basic phone capabilities, a cellular phone also provides
the functions to receive and send e-mails & faxes and to access the Internet.
H/PC Pro Devices
H/PC Pro dive is new development in handheld technology. These systems are larger than PDAs
but they are not quite as large as typical notebook PCs. These devices have features between PDAs
and notebook PCs. The H/PC Pro device includes a full-size keyboard but it does not include disk.
These systems also have RAM with very low storage capacity and slow speed of processor.

ii. According to Technology

Analog Computers: - These computers recognize data as a continuous measurement of a physical
property (voltage, pressure, speed and temperature).
Example: Automobile speedometer
Computations are often performed, in analog computers, by using properties of electrical
resistance, voltages and so on. For example, a simple two variable adder can be created by two
current sources in parallel. The first value is set by adjusting the first current source (to say x
milliamperes), and the second value is set by adjusting the second current source (say y milliamps).
Measuring the current across the two at their junction to signal ground will give the sum as a
current resistance x+y milliamps. Other calculations are performed similarly, using operational
amplifiers and other circuits for other tasks.
The use of electrical properties in analog computers means that certain calculations on a computer
are performed in real time, without calculation delays as on digital computers. This property allows
certain useful calculations that are comparatively "difficult" for digital computers to perform - for
example numerical integration. These computers can integrate - essentially calculating the sum of
a voltage waveform, usually by means of a capacitor, which accumulates charge over time.
Nonlinear functions and calculations can be constructed to a given amount of accuracy by creating
a diode function generator: a set of diodes and resistors of varying values. As voltage increases,
the total resistance summed changes as the diodes successively permit current to flow.
Any physical process which models some computation can be interpreted as an analog computer.
Some examples, invented for the purpose of illustrating the concept of analog computation, include
using a bundle of spaghetti as a model of sorting numbers, a board, a set of nails, and a rubber
band as a model of finding the convex hull of a set of points, and strings tied together as a model
of finding the shortest path in a network.

Digital Computers: - These are high speed programmable electronic devices that perform
mathematical calculations, compare values and store results. They recognize data by counting
discrete signal representing either a high or low voltage state of electricity. The input is discrete
rather than continuous, consisting of combinations of numbers, letters, and other characters written
in an appropriate programming language and represented internally in binary notation.
Hybrid Computers: -A computer that processes both analog and digital data.

iii. According to Purpose

General Purpose Computers
General-purpose computers are designed to solve a large variety of problems. That is, they can
be given different programs to solve different types of problems. General-purpose computers can
process business data as readily as they process complex mathematical formulas. General-
purpose computers can store large amount of data and the programs necessary to process them.
Because general-purpose computers are so versatile, most businesses today use them. Most
digital computers are general computers and it is mainly such computers that are used in business
and commercial data processing.

Special Purpose Computers

Special purpose computers are designed to solve a specific problem; the computer program for
solving the problem is built right into the computer. Special purpose computers have many
features of general-purpose computers but are designed to handle specific problems and are not
applied to other computerized activities. For example, special purpose computers may be
designed to process only numeric data or to completely control automated manufacturing
processes. Most analogue computers are special purpose computers.
Special purpose computers are often used as training simulators. A simulator is a computer-
controlled device for training people under simulated, or artificially created, conditions. The
computer creates test conditions the trainee must respond to. It then records and evaluates the
responses, providing these results to both trainee and supervisor.

Revision questions
1. Define a computer system
2. What are the functions of a computer system?
3. What are the input devices of a computer system?
4. Describe the classes of computers