WIRE ROPE
Construction, Characteristics and Details of Steel Wire Rope (SWR)
Construction.
A wire rope is constructed of a number of small wires which extend continuously throughout
the entire length; these wires are laid up into strands, and the strands themselves are laid up
to form the rope. With the exception of certain special types described later, all wire rope
used at sea is preformed, has a galvanized finish, and consists of six strands. The wires
forming a strand are laid up left-handed round a fibre or wire core and the strands forming
the rope are laid up right-handed round a fibre main core.
During manufacture the individual strands are preformed (explained later) to give the exact
spiral they take up in the completed rope. Therefore, the wires and strands lie in their true
positions free from internal stress and will not spring out of place should the rope break or be
cut.
The main fibre coir of a wire rope has two main functions:
(1) It acts as a cushion into which the strands bed, allowing them to take up their natural
positions as the rope is bent or subjected to strain.
(2) It absorbs lubricant with which the rope should be periodically dressed, so that as the
rope is stretched or flexed the lubricant is squeezed between the wires, thus lubricating
them and reducing the friction between them.
A wire rope can be made flexible in one of two ways:
(1) By replacing the center wires of each strand with a large fibre core, in which case
strength is sacrificed for flexibility,
(2) By making up each strand with a large number of small-gauge wires round a wire
core, in which case the full strength is retained.
The full description of steel wire rope states the diameter and construction of the rope
followed by the construction of each strand, in brackets,
eg 24mm 6X26 (15/9/Fibre) fibre-core steel wire rope.
This indicates a diameter of 24mm, a construction of 6 strands around a central fibre main-
core, each strand constructed from 26 wires, 15 of which are laid up around 9 which in turn
are laid up around a fibre core.
In practice a steel wire rope is identified simply by quoting the size and rope construction
only and omitting the strand construction, eg 24mm 6X26 SWR.
Ropes supplied on ships are normally manufactured on the foregoing principles and fall into
the following groups: 6X12, 6X19, 6X24, 6X26, 6X36, 6X37, 6X41, etc.
The degree of flexibility improves as the number of wires in the strands increases. The Figs
below show the constructions of these groups.
. Construction of 6 Stranded Wire Rope .
. Construction of 6x36 and 6x41 Steel Wire Rope .
Uses.
(1) Steel wire rope, 6X12 construction is suitable for lashings, or temporary guardrails on
a ship in refit. To make it flexible necessitates sacrificing a certain proportion of its
strength and each strand consists of a certain number of medium-gauge wires wound
round a large fibre core, the strands themselves being made up around a fibre main
core.
(2) Steel wire rope, 6X19, 6X24, 6X26, 6X36 and 6X41 construction. This range of ropes
has greater strength and flexibility, and is used for running rigging, mooring, slinging,
and towing in certain auxiliary craft. The strands are constructed of a number of small-
gauge wires made up around a fibre core.
Types of Lay
- Ordinary Lay: A rope of ordinary lay is one where the direction of lay of the outer
layer of wires in the strands is opposite to the direction of lay of the strands in the
rope. Most wire ropes are laid right-handed, but left-handed ropes may be obtained.
Variations in the length of lay will alter the elastic properties of the rope. For example,
shortening the length of lay will increase a rope’s elastic stretch properties but will
reduce its breaking strain.
- Equal Lay: In this type of construction the wires of a strand all have an equal length
of lay. Consequently contact between wires is of a linear nature.
- Lang’s Lay: This construction is one where the outer layer of wires in a strand is the
same direction as the lay of the strands of the rope. Like ordinary lay, Lang’s lay is
generally found as a right-handed laid rope, but may be manufactured as a left-handed
as well. It offers a greater wearing surface and can be expected to last longer than an
ordinary laid rope, especially when used in work where resistance to wear is important
However, a rope of Lang’s lay construction has a low resistance to unlaying, and it is
usually restricted to applications where both ends of the wire are secured against
rotation.
- Cross Lay: A cross lay construction is one in which the wires in successive layers of
the strand are spun at approximately the same angle of lay. It follows that the wires in
successive layers make point contact. Where ropes are operating over sheaves and
drums, nicking of wires together with secondary bending at these points of contact
occur, and failure of the wires due to early fatigue may result.
Preforming
This is a manufacturing process which gives the strands and the wires the helical
shape they will assume in the finished rope. Preformed rope has certain advantages
over non-preformed:
1. It does not tend to unravel and is less liable to form itself into loops and kinks, making
stowage considerably easier.
2. It’s slightly more flexible & conforms better with the curvature of sheaves and drums.
3. It provides reduced internal stresses & possesses greater resistance to bending fatigue.
When cutting preformed wire rope, it is not essential to whip the bight either side of
the intended cut, though it is good practice to do so. Whippings should be applied to
all non-preformed wires when they are to be cut.
How to Measure the Size of a Rope. The size of a wire rope is the diameter in millimetres of
a true circle which will just enclose all the strands. Measure at each of three places at least
2m apart. The average of these measurements is to be taken as the
diameter of the rope.
Factors of Safety, Safe Working Loads and Proof Loads
a. All lifting equipment fitted in, and carried by, ships is of a proven and tested design
and has a designated safe working load, which is the maximum load the equipment is
designed to bear in practice. The required size and strength of all the components of
the equipment has been calculated by the design authority, and the seaman will rarely
be called upon to exercise his judgement on the subject. However, a knowledge of the
principles involved will give a greater understanding of equipment limitations, and
assist in making accurate calculations should extempore rigging of lifting equipment
be necessary. To determine the size of cordage or wire rope to be used for any
working load a factor of safety is laid down for different conditions of working; it
applies to the rope only, as other components within the rig, such as shackles, hooks
and blocks are unlikely to be subjected to the same stresses as the rope, and in any
case such items are marked with their safe working load and this information can be
taken as reliable regardless of the application of the equipment. For SWR, MMFC and
NFC the following formula is employed:
The following factors of safety for rope are used generally on the ships:
Lifts and hoists 12
Running rigging and slings 8
Other purposes 6
b. Proof Load. The proof load of lifting equipment is normally twice its safe working
load and this information is required when equipment is tested. For example, a shackle
with a safe working load of 2 tons is tested to a proof load of 4 tons. In the past it was
usual to mark equipment with details of the proof load, but current practice is for the
safe working load to be shown.
Handling of Wire Rope
Wire rope is much less resilient, and therefore much less tractable, than cordage. It
resists being bent, does not absorb turns readily, and is therefore much more liable to
kinking and snarling, and tends to spring out of a coil, or off a drum or bollard. If
handled correctly however, it can be used for most of the purposes to which cordage is
put, but bends and hitches should not be made in it.
a. Kinking and Crippling. Because of its construction and comparative lack of
flexibility, wire rope requires more care in handling than cordage; if carelessly
handled it may suffer serious damage through kinking and crippling.
(1) Kinking. Any loop or turn in a wire rope can all too easily be pulled into a kink which
permanently damages it. If a kink is seen to be about to develop it should be removed
as indicated in Fig and no attempt should be made to pull it out in the manner shown.
. Right Way to Remove a Kink in Wire Rope .
. Wrong Way to Remove a Kink in Wire Rope .
(2) Crippling. If a wire rope is bent at too acute an angle, or led over a sharp edge, it
will be seriously damaged by distortion of its strands, which may result in a
permanent kink or even in the rope parting. A rope so led is said to form a bad nip,
and this results in it being crippled. (To freshen the nip is to veer or heave in a short
length of rope that is under strain so as to bring a fresh portion of the rope to take
the chafe where it passes through fairleads or around bollards). To prevent
crippling, a wire rope which will come under strain should never be led through a
shackle or eye plate to alter the direction of its lead. In addition, it should not be
round a bollard or drum of a diameter less than 13 times the diameter of the rope;
and if it has to run through a block, the diameter of the sheaves should be at least
20 times the diameter of the rope.
Handling New Steel Wire Rope
(1) To Unreel or Uncoil a New Rope. New wire ropes
are supplied either in machine wound coils or on
cable drums (reels). They must be taken off the coils
or drums in the correct manner, or kinks will quickly
develop. A small coil can be rolled along the deck,
but if space does not permit, or the rope is heavy,
place the coil on a turntable and lash down two
strong battens crosswise on the top of the coil. This
will prevent the rope springing up over the top of the
coil and kinking. Then cut the stops, and haul the
rope off the coil as it rotates on the turntable.
To unreel the rope from a drum, pass a shaft through the drum and support the
shaft at either end, thus allowing the drum to revolve; then cut the outer stops and
unreel the rope off the drum .
To coil down a small rope from a drum, up-end the drum as shown in Fig, and lap the rope
off the top of the drum, lapping off each turn anti-clockwise. The twist put in the rope as
each turn is lapped off is cancelled automatically by coiling the rope down clockwise.
(2) To Cut Off a Length of Wire Rope. The rope should be very firmly whipped
about 25mm on each side of the position at which it is to be cut, then placed on the
top of a bollard or similar hard surface. The strands should then be cut with a
hammer and cold chisel or with a wire-cutter. Whenever a length of rope is cut
off a coil or a drum, the coil or drum should be clearly marked, indicating either
the length cut off or the length remaining.
Care and Maintenance of Steel Wire Rope.
Wire ropes have a lubricant incorporated during manufacture. This serves a dual purpose; it
provides corrosion protection and also minimizes internal friction. The protection provided
by this manufacturing lubricant is normally adequate to prevent deterioration due to
corrosion during the early part of a rope’s life. However, the lubricant applied during
manufacture must be supplemented by lubrication in service. This service lubricant is termed
the ‘dressing’. The kind of dressing used and the frequency of application varies with the
type of rope and its usage. Wire hawsers should be stowed on reels under a fitted cover
whenever possible. When being reeled in or otherwise stowed, the surface of a wire hawser
should be washed with fresh water to free it from salt, then dried with cloths and lightly
smeared with the appropriate lubricant.
Inspecting Steel Wire Rope.
Steel wires ropes carried or fitted in ships must be inspected periodically. When inspecting,
the indications described below should be sought:
(1) Distortion of Strands. This is the result of damage by kinking, crushing, serious
crippling round a bad nip, or other mistreatment. If likely to cause the strands to bear
unequal stresses they must be considered as reducing the strength of the rope by 30%;
and should they be sufficiently serious to cause the heart to protrude, the rope must be
discarded. A crushed rope may be restored to some extent by careful use of a mallet.
(2) Flattening of Some of the Outer Wires by Abrasion. These flats are easily seen
because the abrasion gives the flattened wires a bright and polished appearance, but
they do not affect the strength of the rope unless they are very pronounced. Flats
which extend to three-quarters of the diameter of the wires will reduce their cross-
sections - and therefore their individual strengths - by 10%, and as only a limited
number of wires will be affected the loss in strength of the whole rope will be very
small. (These flats must not be confused with flattening of the whole rope, which
indicates distortion of the strands and is therefore much more serious).
(3) Broken Wires. These are usually the result of fatigue and wear, and mostly occur in
crane wires. It is generally accepted that a wire rope is coming to the end of its useful
life when one wire of any strand breaks. To deal with a broken wire, grip with a pair
of pliers the broken end and bend the wire backwards and forwards until the wire
breaks inside the rope between the strands, where it can do no harm. A rope should be
discarded if more than 5% of its wires are broken in a length equal to 10 times the
diameter of the rope; for example, a 24mm diameter, 6X24 wire rope should be
discarded if seven broken wires are found in a length of 240mm. Because of the
danger to handlers, berthing wires should be discarded if any broken wires are
discovered.
(4) Corrosion. Wire rope can be corroded by:
(a) The action of damp on the wires from which the galvanising has worn off; if this
occurs to the inner wires first it causes rust to fall out of the rope and is therefore
easily detected;
(b) The action of fumes and funnel gases, which attack the outside wires, the effect
then becomes visible on inspection;
(c) Contact with acid, which soaks into the heart and attacks the inside wires; this is
not necessarily noticeable on the outside of the rope, and can be the cause of parting
without warning.
Lack of lubrication is a frequent cause of corrosion. When a wire rope is under tension
it stretches and becomes thinner, and during this process the individual wires are
compressed and friction is set up; the fibre heart and cores are also compressed,
releasing oil to overcome the friction. A wire rope of outwardly good appearance, but
with a dry powdery heart or core, has not been properly maintained and should be
treated with caution.
(5) Effect of Extreme Cold. When subjected to extreme cold a wire rope may become
brittle and lose its flexibility, and an apparently sound rope may part without warning.
The brittleness is not permanent and the rope will regain its resilience in a normal
temperature, but the potential danger should be remembered when working wires in
very cold climates.