Exploring

Science
for the new
Junior Cycle

Michael O’Callaghan
Pat Doyle
Orla Molamphy
Ger Reilly

Edco
The Educational Company of Ireland

JC_SCI_SECX_FM.indd 1 21/01/16 7:02 PM

 Published 2016
The Educational Company of Ireland
Ballymount Road
Walkinstown
Dublin 12
[Link]

A member of the Smurfit Kappa Group PLC

© Michael O’Callaghan, Pat Doyle, Orla Molamphy, Ger Reilly

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either
the prior permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying in Ireland issued by the Irish
Copyright Licensing Agency, 63 Patrick Street, Dún Laoghaire, Co. Dublin

ISBN 978-1-84536-435-9

Editor: Sally Vince

Design: DesignImage
Layout: QBS
Artwork: Michael Philips and QBS
Cover Design: Identikit

Acknowledgements
Acknowledgement is made to the following for supplying photographs and for permission to reproduce
copyright photographs: Alamy, iStock photo, Science Photo Library, Shutterstock

Web references in this book are intended as a guide for teachers. At the time of going to press, all web
addresses were active and contained information relevant to the topics in this book. However, The
Educational Company of Ireland and the authors do not accept responsibility for the views or information
contained on these websites. Content and addresses may change beyond our control and pupils should be
supervised when investigating websites.

While every care has been taken to trace and acknowledge copyright, the publishers tender their apologies
for any accidental infringement where copyright has proved untraceable. They would be pleased to come to a
suitable arrangement with the rightful owner in each case.

JC_SCI_SECX_FM.indd 2 21/01/16 7:02 PM

 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... v

Unit 1: Nature of Science (strand 1) ................................................................ 1

1 The nature of science ....................................................................................................... 2

Unit 2: Biological World (strand 5) ................................................................... 9

2 Living things and cells .................................................................................................... 10
3 Passing on characteristics.............................................................................................. 20
4 The origins of living things............................................................................................. 31
5 The path of food .............................................................................................................. 39
6 Transport in the body ..................................................................................................... 45
7 The breathing system ..................................................................................................... 55
8 The study of a habitat..................................................................................................... 65
9 Factors affecting human health .................................................................................... 79

Contents
10 Respiration and photosynthesis ................................................................................... 94
11 Human reproduction .................................................................................................... 105
12 Maintaining biodiversity, benefits of ecosystems and global food production ...... 119

Unit 3: Chemical World (strand 3) ................................................................ 133

13 The particle theory........................................................................................................ 134
14 Observing change.......................................................................................................... 142
15 Particles in solution ...................................................................................................... 150
16 Building blocks .............................................................................................................. 158
17 Metals and non-metals – properties and uses........................................................... 166
18 The chemist’s compass – the periodic table.............................................................. 174
19 Materials science – fit for purpose .............................................................................. 184
20 Rates of reactions.......................................................................................................... 196
21 Acids and bases.............................................................................................................. 205
22 Energy transfer in chemical reactions........................................................................ 218
23 Environmental impact of materials............................................................................ 225

iii

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 Unit 4: Physical World (strand 4) .................................................................. 237
24 Making accurate measurements ................................................................................. 238
25 What is density and why do some things float?........................................................ 247
26 Measuring speed and acceleration ............................................................................. 255
27 Force, work, power and pressure................................................................................ 263
28 Energy ............................................................................................................................. 277
29 Heat ................................................................................................................................. 285
30 Electricity – current electricity.................................................................................... 293
31 Issues that arise from generation and use of electricity ......................................... 302
32 Electronics...................................................................................................................... 312
33 Impact of modern physics on society ......................................................................... 321

Unit 5: Earth and Space (strand 2) ............................................................... 327

34 The big bang – how our universe began..................................................................... 328
Contents

35 Galaxies, stars and the Solar System ......................................................................... 334

36 Comets, asteroids and meteors................................................................................... 344
37 To the Moon and beyond .............................................................................................. 352
38 Earth, Sun and Moon – it’s all relative........................................................................ 360
39 The water and carbon cycles – what goes around comes around .......................... 369
40 Energy – our use and our need .................................................................................... 378
41 Climate change – what is making us so hot under the collar? ................................ 387
42 Space exploration – ‘To infinity and beyond!’........................................................... 397
Index ............................................................................................................................... 409
Periodic table ................................................................................................................ 414

iv

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 Introduction
For the student
Welcome to secondary school and your new science textbook, Exploring Science. Your textbook
comes with a Student Portfolio Book, a Glossary of Terms and a range of digital resources. This
book will build on your learning of science from primary school by helping you to understand the
world around you and the wider universe. It aims to develop your learning skills in science. You will
develop these skills yourself while also learning from your teacher and your fellow students.

For the teacher

Written for the new Junior Cycle, Exploring Science aims to give students a sense of enjoyment
and an interest in the learning of science. The book is based on the Statements of learning from
the NCCA specification (see [Link]). It develops students’ knowledge of and about science
through the unifying strand called the Nature of Science, and the four contextual strands (or units):
Biological World, Chemical World, Physical World and Earth and Space.

Features of Exploring Science

● The Nature of Science strand is explored in the opening chapter and highlighted throughout the
text using four different logos (understanding science, investigating in science, communicating
in science, and science and society).

de
rstandi vestigatin mm
unicat
i Society
n

i2 S9
Un

ng

C6
Co
g

U1
ng
I

● The rest of the book is divided into the four contextual strands or units, which are highlighted
by different coloured tabs on the side of each page.
● Learning outcomes are stated at the beginning of each chapter in student-friendly language.
● Keywords are listed at the start of each chapter to allow students to become familiar with
important new terms.
● Activities allow students to build on their knowledge by completing research.
● Diagrams have been fully labelled and are drawn in a simple style so that students can replicate
them easily.
● Questions are interspersed within the text to offer teachers the opportunity to use different
teaching strategies. In particular, there are chances for group work and pair work.
● Did you know? boxes feature interesting facts to stimulate students’ interest in science.

JC_SCI_SECX_FM.indd 5 03/03/2016 12:49

 ● The language used is clear and simple to allow for use by students of varying reading levels.
● Simple and helpful logos are used throughout to enhance student understanding.

Activity
Group work

Question
Key fact

rtfolio
Po Corresponding page
Research
68 in Student Portfolio

Student Portfolio
The Student Portfolio book provides additional material, activities and Name
____________________________
Class
____________
sChool
_______________________

tasks. The portfolio book enables students to maintain a record of specific Exploring
activities and reflect on their learning, as well as focusing on key words
for the new Junior Cycle
and key facts, through mind maps and comprehension and recall activities. StudEnt portfolio
It also contains templates for self-assessment and peer assessment. This
book works in conjunction with the textbook.
Michael O’Callaghan · Pat Doyle
Orla Molamphy · Ger Reilly

Glossary of Terms Booklet

A comprehensive Glossary of Terms cross-referenced to the Textbook and
Student Portfolio Book.
NAME CLASS SCHOOL
____________________________ ____________ _______________________

EXPLORING
Teacher’s Resource Book
The teacher’s book works in conjunction with the textbook and the Student for the new Junior Cycle
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Portfolio book by providing:
● An outline of the new specification and NCCA guidelines
● Learning outcomes for each chapter with explanations of how they are Michael O’Callaghan · Pat Doyle
Orla Molamphy · Ger Reilly

incorporated into lessons

● Information on topics, questions and research ideas that can be used
Teacher’s
to enhance the students’ learning Resource Book
● Answers to all student questions in the textbook and student portfolio
book
● Outlines of digital resources for each chapter and suggestions for
integrating them into classroom work
● Suggestions of ways to assess student activities with assessment
templates
The Educational Company of Ireland

vi

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 ● A range of other information and suggestions to support teachers in the delivery of the new
course
● Key skills, statements of learning and literacy and numeracy linked to relevant chapters
● Guidance for the teacher through the chapter and a suggested yearly schedule
● Additional activities and research activities.

Digital resources FR
EE digital

re
An

sou
The Exploring Science digital resources will further

i m a ti o n s

rces
enhance classroom learning. These resources have been

.
vi

re
de o

,
os and m
designed to integrate with the student textbook and to
complement lessons suggested in the Teacher’s Resource Book. Following the Principles for Junior
Cycle Education, material is provided to suit a range of learner types and to encourage participation
and engagement on the part of the student.

A series of videos and animated diagrams allows students to observe science in action across
all units. These videos reinforce the topic at hand and allow for other perspectives, which may be
discussed in class. Similarly, a series of animated scientist biographies presents a lively gateway to
develop students’ interest in science and initiate student-led research.

Further classroom discussion and participation is opened up through PowerPoint presentations,

including a thematic presentation of information from the student textbook. Experiment videos
allow for a visual review of activities carried out in the classroom.

A set of useful report and template documents geared towards the new curriculum is also
available for teachers online. These documents can be used across the course for any year group.
Guidance for integration of digital resources in the classroom is provided by the digital resource
unicat estigatin Society
mm i nv

symbols ( C6 i 2 S9 ) used throughout the student textbook, as well as the provision of detailed
Co

g
ng

notes and suggestions in the Teacher’s Resource Book.

vii

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JC_SCI_SECX_FM.indd 8 21/01/16 7:03 PM
 Laboratory equipment

Beaker Conical flask Test tube

Round-bottomed flask

Burette Pipette Graduated cylinder

Tap funnel

Evaporation dish
Filter funnel

Bunsen burner

Gauze Stand

Tripod Spatula

Tongs

Test tube holder

Thermometer
Test tube rack Balance

Crucible

Pipe clay triangle Petri dish

ix

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 Laboratory safety rules for pupils
The following rules are enforced to keep you and your classmates safe while in a school laboratory.
1 Do not enter the laboratory without permission.
2 Do not use any equipment unless permitted to do so by your teacher.
3 Make sure you know exactly what you are supposed to do. If in doubt, ask your teacher.
4 Make sure you know the position of all safety equipment in the laboratory, e.g. the fire
extinguishers, first aid equipment etc.
5 Always wear eye protection or gloves when instructed to do so.
6 Long hair must be tied back during practical classes.
7 Place your bag and other personal items safely out of the way.
8 Never handle any chemicals with bare hands.
9 Nothing must be eaten, tasted or drunk in the laboratory.
10 Any cut, burn or other accident must be reported at once to your teacher.
11 Always check that the label on the bottle is exactly the same as the material you require. If in doubt, ask
your teacher.
12 Any chemical spilled on the skin or clothing must be washed at once with plenty of water and reported to
your teacher.
13 Test tubes should never be overfilled. When heating a test tube ensure that the mouth of the test tube is
pointed away from you and everyone else.
14 All equipment should be cleaned and put back in its correct place after use.
15 Always wash your hands after practical work.
16 Students should behave in a responsible manner at all times in the laboratory.

Safety labels
The following labels appear on bottles in the laboratory. They also appear on many everyday
chemicals such as cleaning products and solvents. These labels indicate chemicals that could be
dangerous if not used or handled properly. We use these warning symbols on activities in this book.
Substances which can cause death if they are swallowed, breathed in or
Toxic
absorbed through the skin. Example: weedkiller.
Substances which should not be eaten, breathed in or handled without
Harmful or
gloves. Though not as dangerous as toxic substances they may cause a
irritant
rash, sickness or an allergic reaction.
Substances which provide oxygen, allowing other materials to burn more
Oxidising
intensely. Example: hair bleach.
Highly
Substances which easily catch fire. Example: petrol.
flammable
Substances which attack and destroy living tissue, including skin and eyes.
Corrosive
Example: oven cleaner.
Warning This sign is used to draw attention to a warning of danger, hazards and the
sign unexpected.
Safety
Wear safety glasses to protect your eyes.
glasses

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JC_SCI_SECX_CH01.indd 1 21/01/16 5:16 PM
 UNIT 1
The nature of science

What is science?
Science comes from a Latin word scientia, meaning knowledge. Science is the study and
knowledge of the (physical and natural) world around us. Science can be divided into
different subject areas. In this book we will examine:
● The biological world, by investigating living things
● The chemical world, by investigating substances and how they react
● The physical world, by investigating matter and energy and how they interact
● Earth and space, by investigating the planet Earth and the universe.

Ebola viruses bursting out Oxygen relights a The heat given off The lights of Europe
of a cell glowing splint by an old-fashioned from the International
(incandescent) bulb, Space Station (London
a light emitting diode is the brightest city
(LED) and a compact shown)
fluorescent bulb

Figure 1.1 Topics in science

The nature of science means how scientific knowledge is developed. This mainly involves
understanding how science works, carrying out investigations, communicating scientific
ideas and considering the role and value of science and scientists to society.

The nature of science will be outlined in this chapter. However, it is not really intended that
you should learn all this material in isolation. The nature of science is included in every
chapter of this book. It forms the basis of all the content and activities in each chapter. This
chapter is included to allow you to understand how science works.

Understanding about science

Curiosity and questions
Science works initially by people being curious. Asking questions and being curious is a key
part of being a good scientist. Very often important knowledge has been gained because
someone was curious and asked a simple question.
2

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 CHAPTER 1 The NaTure of ScieNce

How science answers questions

It is very difficult to answer big questions in science. However, we can ask smaller questions.
These questions may be more suited to scientific investigations or experiments and so we

NATURE OF SCIENCE
might be able to find answers to them.

Question
For example, we could ask the question: ‘Is the boiling point of water affected by adding salt?’
In answering this question we start by finding out as much as we can about the problem and
then suggesting what we think might happen. Such a suggestion is called a prediction.

Prediction
We could predict that: adding salt will change the boiling point of water. If a prediction can be
tested it is called a hypothesis.

Hypothesis
A hypothesis is often written as an If ... then ... statement. For example: If salt is added to
water then the boiling point of the water will change.

A hypothesis is a suggested explanation for something we observe or notice. Examples of

hypotheses are:
● If we study then our exam results will improve.
● If drivers use a mobile phone while driving then they are more likely to crash.
● If we practise sprinting then we will get faster.

Having formed a possible explanation or hypothesis, the next step is to design a way to
investigate the hypothesis.

Investigating in science
Investigating a hypothesis
A hypothesis is tested by carrying out an investigation or an experiment. Normally two sets of
apparatus are set up:
● One set of apparatus is the investigation.
● The second set of apparatus is a comparison or control. Both sets of apparatus should be
identical, except for one difference.

For example, returning to our hypothesis above, we could boil some tap water in a beaker
and use a thermometer to record the temperature at which it boils. We could then add salt
to some tap water and record the temperature at which the salt water boils. When we look at
the results:
● If both water samples boil at the same temperature then our hypothesis is incorrect.
● If the salt water boils at a higher temperature than the tap water then our hypothesis is
supported.

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 CHAPTER 1 The NaTure of ScieNce

Thermometer

Beaker
NATURE OF SCIENCE

Tap water Tap water

(with salt added)

Tripod

Bunsen burner


Figure 1.2 Nature of science – investigating whether adding salt to tap water will
change the boiling point of water

The result(s) of an experiment often causes us to change our hypothesis. So, if the salt water
is found to boil at a higher temperature than the tap water, we would revise the original
hypothesis by saying: If salt is added to water then the boiling point of the water will increase.

Different types of investigations

Some investigations are laboratory based. However, many investigations take place outside
laboratories. Scientists work in all sorts of exciting places, such as outdoors in forest parks
and boglands, under the sea, in rainforests, close to volcanoes, near glaciers; or designing
spacecraft, cars, computers, phones and a broad range of new technologies.

Some scientists work alone. But many scientists work in groups. That is why it is important
for students to be able to work to a high standard alone, but also to be able to co-operate and
work as part of a team.

 
 Figure 1.4 Scientists Figure 1.5 Scientist
Figure 1.3 A team of scientists working in a laboratory taking lava samples
collecting animals in a forest near a volcano

The results of investigations

Scientists report on how they carried out their experiments and the results they got in scientific
journals. These are special types of publications that are read by science experts, e.g. journals
such as Science or Nature. In this way other scientists can read them, think about them and
repeat the research if necessary.

If experiments are repeated (or replicated) and the same results are obtained, then they are likely
to be valid and reliable. In other words, if investigations are checked by other experts it is more
4 likely that they are genuine and not just made up by the original author or fluke results obtained.

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 CHAPTER 1 The NaTure of ScieNce

The idea of other scientists reading and checking on investigations is called peer review. This acts
as a quality control system, i.e. the work and findings are reliable and can be trusted to be true.

Investigations (or experiments)

NATURE OF SCIENCE
When investigating a hypothesis the experiments have to be carefully planned. This means:
● Thinking about the problem
● Deciding what methods and equipment are to be used
● Carrying out the investigation so that it is safe, fair and will give reliable results.

Variables
In investigations scientists design an experiment so that the change in one item causes
something else to change. These changing quantities are called variables.

There are three kinds of variable:

● Independent variable, where one thing is changed (for example when salt is added to the
investigation on the previous page) and the results of the one change are observed.
● Dependent variable, which is the factor that changes as a result of our investigation. The
scientist will focus on the dependent variable (for example the temperature at which the
water boils) to see if it responds to the change (the addition of salt).
● Controlled variable, where all other factors are the same. For example, this might include
using the same amount of tap water and the same size beaker in each case. This makes it
a fair test.

Accuracy and precision

In any experiment it is vital that our measurements and readings are as accurate and precise
as possible. We should not guess or estimate the volume of water added to each beaker; we
should carefully measure the same volume of water using a suitable measuring device.

Data
Data is the information, measurements or observations collected in an experiment. Data can be:
● Quantitative, where the data involves the use of numbers. For example, the temperature
is 20°C, or the distance is 100 metres.
● Qualitative, which describes something without the use of numbers. Very often
qualitative data is obtained by using our senses. For example, we say something feels
soft, or an object looks green, or a gas smells terrible.
For example, ‘We breathe out more carbon dioxide than we breathe in’ is a qualitative
observation. However, if we say, ‘We breathe out 4% carbon dioxide but we breathe in only
0.04% carbon dioxide’, this is a quantitative observation or measurement.

The data obtained in any investigation should be analysed to reach a suitable conclusion.

The analysis should:

● Try to explain any unusual or strange observations that may have arisen.
● Include consideration of anything that was hard to do or caused difficulty during the
investigation.
● Give rise to a discussion of how the investigation could be improved or altered if it was to
be repeated, so that more information could be obtained on the topic under investigation. 5

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 CHAPTER 1 The NaTure of ScieNce

The conclusion is a summary of the findings in the investigation. The conclusion should
either support or contradict the hypothesis.
NATURE OF SCIENCE

Research topic
Prediction
Question

Suggested explanation
Curiosity (Starting point) (hypothesis)

Investigation
Supports hypothesis or
contradicts hypothesis
(new hypothesis) Results
Conclusion


Figure 1.6 Summary of how science works

Reviewing and reflecting on investigations

By thinking back over the skills, methods and ideas used to carry out a series of investigations
you should become better at applying scientific learning and skills in new and varied ways.

In particular you should be able to think and act like a scientist. This means you should be
able to identify questions that are suited to scientific investigations. You should then be able
to form a prediction, make a hypothesis that can be tested by investigation and carry out a
proper scientific investigation of a new, unfamiliar problem.

Scientific ideas change over time

Science is not a fixed, unchanging set of ideas. It changes all the time. As a result of carrying
out investigations our hypothesis is supported or contradicted. Over time a new hypothesis
may arise to replace an old, unsupported hypothesis. This means that scientific thinking is
constantly changing in line with new investigations that are carried out.

Communicating in science
How to communicate research
An important aspect of science is the ability to tell others what you did, how you did it and
what you have discovered. This often involves writing a report of your investigation. In your
report it is important that you present your information in a form that is clear, accurate and
easy for others to understand.

This may involve a written report, the use of diagrams and photographs, tables to show any
numerical data you obtained, or the use of graphs, pie charts or bar charts. Sometimes it
involves preparing a poster to outline your work or telling others about your work using a
PowerPoint presentation or other multimedia resources.

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 CHAPTER 1 The NaTure of ScieNce

You will have to adapt your presentation to suit the people to whom you are reporting.
For example, a report to your class who shared the investigation with you might be different
from reporting to another class or a group of parents.

NATURE OF SCIENCE
Conduct research
When carrying out an investigation it is important to find out as much as you can about the
topic before you start. This involves researching it using books, libraries, internet and media
(such as newspapers, scientific magazines or TV programmes), or any other relevant sources.

Evaluating media-based arguments

Of course you cannot always believe all you see or read. It is important that you make
judgements as to how reliable or accurate a source is. A properly conducted scientific report
is much more valid than a newspaper report giving a person’s (or a group’s) point of view. It is
very important to be able to detect that a source may be unfair or show bias.

Very often media reports on a scientific issue are based on information given to the media
by groups who want to promote their own ideas and plans. It is important to be aware of the
source of the information and of the reasons for releasing the information. This is true for all
media sources, but is especially true for the internet.

Some of the main features to look for in an internet source you can trust are:
● The name of the author is given.
● The date is given for any research findings that are
listed.
● Reliable sources are given (or is the information just
personal opinion?)
● In general, websites from universities, governments
and organisations such as the BBC or NASA are more

reliable. Figure 1.7 Students studying
● Good site design can indicate a more reliable source. in a library

● Good grammar and spelling indicate a more credible site.

● If the information is similar across three different sites it is more likely to be true.

Science in society
Contribution and impact of scientists
on society
The nature of science means that it is important to
be aware of the role scientists have played in making
the world a better place. Through their discoveries
and inventions they have expanded our knowledge
and understanding of how things work. They have 
Figure 1.8 Engines are good
allowed more food to be produced, more diseases for transport but bad for the
to be controlled, new materials to be designed, environment
7

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 CHAPTER 1 The NaTure of ScieNce

new technologies to be available and new understandings to be made about our own planet
and the rest of the known universe.

You should be able to research and present information on what exactly different scientists
NATURE OF SCIENCE

have achieved. Some of these scientists are now legends of history. However, many major
discoveries are being made by scientists who are still living.

Most of these effects have been for the better but, sadly, sometimes scientific discoveries
may be used for negative reasons or have negative results. For example, the invention of
engines that could burn petrol has given rise to cars, buses and fast means of transport.
However, it has also resulted in carbon dioxide levels rising, which are contributing to global
warming and climate change.

Role and importance of science in society

Science and society are deeply interlinked. It is obvious that science affects society by
developing new discoveries, processes and materials. Science does not exist simply for
itself. It should try to provide solutions that help make the world a better place for everyone.
This has been done by developments such as electricity, electronics, digital technologies,
communications, disease control, improved healthcare, new materials and drugs, discoveries
about our Solar System (and beyond it) and new methods to supply our energy needs as oil
and other fuel supplies run out.

However, the link between science and society is a two-way process. Society also relates
to science and scientists. Society often guides or encourages scientific research in different
areas. This can happen due to laws being passed, public money being made available to fund
science and the general interests, values and public opinion as to what science needs to do
next. In addition scientists are influenced by the culture in which they grew up. For example,
scientists may not want to carry out certain types of research because it goes against what
they believe in.

Science has had a huge role in making the world

a better place. The role of science will be even
more important in the future as we try to come
to terms with our growing human population
numbers, the need for new forms of energy, our
desire to improve our health, our attempts to
control disorders such as cancer and Alzheimer’s
disease, and the need to limit the effects of 
global warming. Figure 1.9 Scientist Stephen Hawking

These are all huge and complex problems. Remember, however, that science starts in a very
simple way: by being curious and asking questions. As Stephen Hawking said:

‘Look up at the stars and not down at your feet. Try to make sense of what you see and
wonder about what makes the universe exist. Be curious.’
8

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