Biology

Sylvia S. Mader
Michael Windelspecht

Chapter 3
Cellular Respiration
Lecture Outline
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 Outline

3.1 Overview of Cellular Respiration

3.2 Outside the Mitochondria: Glycolysis
3.3 Outside the Mitochondria: Fermentation
3.4 Inside the Mitochondria
3.5 Metabolism

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 3.1 Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration is a cellular process that breaks down
nutrient molecules produced by photosynthesizers with the
concomitant production of ATP.
It consumes oxygen and produces carbon dioxide (CO2).
• Cellular respiration is an aerobic process.
It usually involves the complete breakdown of glucose to CO2
and H! O.
Energy is extracted from the glucose molecule:
• Released step-wise.
• Allows ATP to be produced efficiently.
Oxidation-reduction enzymes include NAD" and FAD as
coenzymes.

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 Cellular Respiration

Figure 8.1
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 The Breakdown of Glucose

Figure

Electrons are removed from substrates

and received by oxygen, which combines
with H ! to become water.

Glucose is oxidized and O" is reduced.

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 NAD+ and FAD
NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)
As a coenzyme of oxidation-reduction, it is:
• Oxidized when it gives up electrons.
• Reduced when it accepts electrons.
Each NAD# molecule is used over and over again.
FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide)
• Also a coenzyme of oxidation-reduction.
• Sometimes used instead of NAD#.
• Accepts two electrons and two hydrogen ions (H #) to
become FADH2.

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 Phases of Cellular Respiration 1

Cellular respiration includes four phases:

Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose into two
molecules of pyruvate.
• It occurs in the cytoplasm.
• ATP is formed.
• It does not utilize oxygen (anaerobic).
Preparatory (prep) reaction
• Both molecules of pyruvate are oxidized and enter the
matrix of the mitochondria.
• Electron energy is stored in NADH.
• Two carbons are released as CO2 (one from each
pyruvate).

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 Phases of Cellular Respiration 2

Citric acid cycle

• Occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion and produces NADH and
FADH! .
• A series of reactions, releases 4 carbons as CO2.
• Turns twice per glucose molecule (once for each pyruvate).
• Produces two immediate ATP molecules per glucose molecule.

Electron transport chain (ETC)

• A series of carriers on the cristae of the mitochondria.
• Extracts energy from NADH and FADH! .
• Passes electrons from higher to lower energy states.
• Produces 32 or 34 molecules of ATP by chemiosmosis.

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 The Four Phases of Complete
Glucose Breakdown 1

Figure 8.3
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 The Four Phases of Complete
Glucose Breakdown 2

Figure 8.3
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 The Four Phases of Complete
Glucose Breakdown 3

Figure 8.3
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 The Four Phases of Complete
Glucose Breakdown 4

Figure 8.3
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 3.2 Outside the Mitochondria:
Glycolysis
Glycolysis occurs in cytoplasm outside mitochondria.

It consists of a series of 10 reactions, each with its own enzyme.

Energy-Investment Step:
• Two ATP are used to activate glucose.
• Glucose splits into two G3P molecules.

Energy-Harvesting Steps:
Oxidation of G3P occurs by removal of electrons and hydrogen ions.
Two electrons and one hydrogen ion are accepted by NAD" resulting in
two NADH.
Four ATP are produced by substrate-level ATP synthesis.
• An enzyme passes a high-energy phosphate to ADP, making ATP.
There is a net gain of two ATP (4 ATP produced - 2 ATP consumed).
Both G3Ps convert to pyruvates.
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 Inputs and Outputs of Glycolysis

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 Substrate-Level ATP Synthesis

Figure 8.4
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 Glycolysis 1

Figure 8.5

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 Glycolysis 2

Figure 8.5
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 Glycolysis 3

Figure 8.5
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 Glycolysis 4

Figure 8.5
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 Glycolysis 5

Figure 8.5
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 Glycolysis 6

Figure 8.5
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 Glycolysis 7

Figure 8.5
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 Glycolysis 8

Figure 8.5
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 3.3 Outside the Mitochondria:
Fermentation
Pyruvate is a pivotal metabolite in cellular
respiration.
If O" is not available to the cell,
fermentation occurs in the cytoplasm.
If O$ is available to the cell, pyruvate enters
the mitochondria for aerobic respiration.

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 Fermentation Process
Fermentation is an anaerobic process that reduces
pyruvate to either lactate or alcohol and CO2.
NADH transfers its electrons to pyruvate.
Alcoholic fermentation, carried out by yeasts,
produces carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol.
• Used in the production of alcoholic spirits and breads.

Lactic acid fermentation, carried out by certain

bacteria and fungi, produces lactic acid (lactate).
• Used commercially in the production of cheese, yogurt,
and sauerkraut.

Other bacteria produce chemicals anaerobically,

including isopropanol, butyric acid, propionic acid,
and acetic acid.
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 Fermentation

Figure 8.6
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 Advantages and Disadvantages
of Fermentation
Advantages:
Provides a quick burst of ATP energy for muscular activity.
• When muscles are working vigorously for a short period of time, lactic acid
fermentation provides ATP.

Disadvantages:
Lactate and alcohol are toxic to cells.
Lactate changes pH and causes muscles to fatigue.
• Oxygen debt.
Yeast die from the alcohol they produce by fermentation.
Efficiency of Fermentation:
Two ATP produced per glucose of molecule during fermentation is
equivalent to 14.6 kilocalories.
Complete oxidation of glucose can yield 686 kilocalories.
• Efficiency is 2.1% of total possible for glucose breakdown.
Only 2 ATP per glucose are produced, compared to 36 or 38 ATP
molecules per glucose produced by cellular respiration.
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 Inputs and Outputs of
Fermentation

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 3.4 Inside the Mitochondria
The preparatory (prep) reaction connects
glycolysis to the citric acid cycle.
End product of glycolysis, pyruvate, enters the
mitochondrial matrix.
Pyruvate is converted to a 2-carbon acetyl group.
• Attached to Coenzyme A to form acetyl-CoA.
• Electrons picked up (as hydrogen atom) by NAD# ,
producing NADH.
• CO2 is released and transported out of mitochondria
into the cytoplasm.
• Occurs twice per glucose molecule.

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 Preparatory Reaction

Figure 8.8
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 Mitochondrion Structure and
Function

Figure 8.7
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 Citric Acid Cycle Process
• Also called the Krebs cycle.
• Occurs in the matrix of mitochondria.
• Begins with the addition of a C2 acetyl group (from acetyl-
CoA) to a C4 molecule (oxaloacetate), forming a C6
molecule (citric acid).
• NADH and FADH! capture energy-rich electrons.
• ATP formed by substrate-level phosphorylation.
• Turns twice for one glucose molecule (once for each
pyruvate).
• Produces 4 CO2, 2 ATP, 6 NADH, and 2 FADH! per glucose
molecule.

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 Citric Acid Cycle 1

Figure 8.9
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 Citric Acid Cycle 2

Figure 8.9

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 Citric Acid Cycle 3

Figure 8.9

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 Citric Acid Cycle 4

Figure 8.9

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 Citric Acid Cycle 5

Figure 8.9

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 Citric Acid Cycle 6

Figure 8.9
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 Inputs and Outputs of
Citric Acid Cycle

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 Electron Transport Chain
Location:
• Cristae – mitochondria.
• Aerobic prokaryotes – plasma membrane.
Series of carrier molecules:
Pass energy-rich electrons successively from one to another.
• Complex arrays of protein and cytochrome.
• Proteins with heme groups with central iron atoms.

The electron transport chain:

• Receives electrons from NADH and FADH$ .
• Produces ATP by oxidative phosphorylation.
Oxygen final electron acceptor:
• Combines with hydrogen ions to form water.

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 Cycling of Carriers 1

The fate of the hydrogens:

• Hydrogens from NADH deliver enough energy to
make 3 ATPs.
• Those from FADH' have only enough for 2 ATPs.
• “Spent” hydrogens combine with oxygen.
Recycling of coenzymes increases efficiency.
• Once NADH delivers hydrogens, it returns (as NAD#)
to pick up more hydrogens.
• However, hydrogens must be combined with oxygen
to make water.
• If O' is not present, NADH cannot release H #.
• It is no longer recycled back to NAD#.
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 Cycling of Carriers 2

The electron transport chain complexes pump H " from the matrix
into the intermembrane space of the mitochondrion.
H " therefore becomes more concentrated in the intermembrane
space, creating an electrochemical gradient.
ATP synthase allows H " to flow down its gradient.
The flow of H " drives the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic
phosphate by ATP synthase.
Process is called chemiosmosis:
• ATP production is linked to the establishment of the H " gradient.

ATP moves out of mitochondria and is used for cellular work.

• It can be broken down to ADP and inorganic phosphate.
• These molecules are returned to the mitochondria for more ATP
production.

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 Organization and Function of the
Electron Transport Chain

Figure 8.10
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 Energy Yield from Glucose
Metabolism
Net yield per glucose
• From glycolysis – 2 ATP.
• From citric acid cycle – 2 ATP.
• From electron transport chain – 32 or 34 ATP.
Energy content
• Reactant (glucose) 686 kilocalories.
• Energy yield (36 ATP) 263 kilocalories.
• Efficiency is 39%.
• Rest of energy from glucose is lost as heat.

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 Accounting Energy Yield per
Glucose Molecule Breakdown 1

Figure 8.11
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 Accounting Energy Yield per
Glucose Molecule Breakdown 2

Figure 8.11
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 Accounting Energy Yield per
Glucose Molecule Breakdown 3

Figure 8.11
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 Accounting Energy Yield per
Glucose Molecule Breakdown 4

Figure 8.11
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 3.5 Metabolism
Foods
• Sources of energy-rich molecules.
• Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
Degradative reactions (catabolism) break
down molecules.
• Tend to be exergonic (release energy).
Synthetic reactions (anabolism) build
molecules.
• Tend to be endergonic (consume energy).

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 The Metabolic Pool Concept

Figure 8.12
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 Catabolism
Glucose is broken down in cellular respiration.
Fat breaks down into glycerol and three fatty
acids.
Amino acids break down into carbon chains and
amino groups.
Deamination (NH' removed) occurs in the liver.
• Results in poisonous ammonia (NH% ).
• Quickly converted to urea.
Different R groups from amino acids are processed
differently.
Fragments enter respiratory pathways at many different
points.
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 Anabolism
All metabolic compounds are part of the metabolic
pool.
Intermediates from respiratory pathways can be
used for anabolism.
Anabolism (synthetic reactions of metabolism):
Carbohydrates
• Start with acetyl-CoA.
• Basically reverses glycolysis (but different pathway).
Fats
• G3P converted to glycerol.
• Acetyl groups are connected in pairs to form fatty acids.

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 Anabolism: Proteins
They are made up of combinations of 20 different
amino acids.
Some amino acids (11) can be synthesized by adult
humans.
However, other amino acids (9) cannot be
synthesized by humans.
• Essential amino acids.
• Must be present in the diet.

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 The Energy Organelles Revisited
Similarities between photosynthesis and cellular
respiration:
Use of membrane
• Chloroplasts’ inner membrane forms thylakoids.
• Mitochondria’s inner membranes form cristae.
Electron transport chain
• ETC is located on thylakoid membranes and cristae.
• In photosynthesis, electrons passed to ETC were energized by the sun.
• In mitochondria electrons, energized electrons were removed from glucose.
• In both, ETC establishes an electrochemical gradient of H " with
ATP production by chemiosmosis.
Enzymes
• In chloroplast, stroma has Calvin cycle enzymes.
• In mitochondria, matrix contains enzymes of citric acid cycle.
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 Flow of Energy
Energy flows from the sun, through chloroplasts to
carbohydrates, and then through mitochondria to ATP
molecules.
This flow of energy maintains biological organization at all
levels, from molecules to organisms to the biosphere.
Some energy is lost with each chemical transformation.
• Eventually all solar energy captured is lost.
• All life depends on solar energy input.

Chemicals cycle within natural systems.

• Chloroplasts produce oxygen and carbohydrates, which are
used by mitochondria to generate energy for life.

Chloroplasts and mitochondria allow energy flow

through organisms and permit chemical cycling.

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 Photosynthesis Versus
Cellular Respiration

Figure 8.13
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 Cellular Respiration - Text Alternative
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Oxygen from air and glucose from food enter the cells into the mitochondria (intermembrane
space and cristae; that use energy from glucose to form ATP from ADP plus phosphate) finally
releasing water and Carbon Dioxide.

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 The Four Phases of Complete Glucose
Breakdown - Text Alternative 1
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In glycolysis, glucose converts to pyruvate. From cytoplasm, glucose from glycolysis carries
4 ADP converts to 4 molecules of ATP total on conversion of 2 molecules of ATP to 2 molecules
of ATP, with a net gain of 2 molecules of ATP.
The NADH released glycolysis is transported to mitochondria through electron transport chain
and chemiosis.

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 The Four Phases of Complete Glucose
Breakdown - Text Alternative 2
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Glycolysis: The conversion of glucose into pyruvate and creation of reduced form of nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide, with 4 ADP converted to 4 ATP total by conversion of 2 ATP and 2 ADP in
the process with a net gain of 2 ATP net gain.
Preparatory reaction creates reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide ( with 2 ADP
converting into 2 ATP).

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 The Four Phases of Complete Glucose
Breakdown - Text Alternative 3
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Glycolysis: The conversion of glucose into pyruvate and creation of reduced form of nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide, with 4 ADP converted to 4 ATP total by conversion of 2 ATP and 2 ADP in
the process with a net gain of 2 ATP net gain.
Preparatory reaction creates reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide ( with 2 ADP
converting into 2 ATP).
Citric acid cycle creates reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide and flavin adenine
dinucleotide.

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 The Four Phases of Complete Glucose
Breakdown - Text Alternative 4
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Glycolysis: The conversion of glucose into pyruvate and creation of reduced form of nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide, with 4 ADP converted to 4 ATP total by conversion of 2 ATP and 2 ADP in
the process with a net gain of 2 ATP net gain.
Preparatory reaction creates reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide ( with 2 ADP
converting into 2 ATP).
Citric acid cycle creates reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide and flavin adenine
dinucleotide.
Electron transport chain and chemiosmosis converts 32 or 34 ADP and 32 or 34 ATP.

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 Inputs and Outputs of Glycolysis - Text
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The data for glycolysis Inputs are:

6 carbon glucose and 2 molecules of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide plus
2 ATP; and
4 ADP plus 4 phosphates.
The data for glycolysis outputs:
2 (3 carbon) pyruvate
2 molecules of reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide.
2 ADP; and
4 ATP.
The process of glycolysis shows a net gain of 2 ATP.

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 Substrate-Level ATP Synthesis - Text
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Substrates participating in the reaction are oriented on the enzyme. A phosphate group is
transferred to ADP, producing one ATP molecule. During glycolysis (see Fig. 8.5), BPG is a C3
substrate (each gray ball is a carbon atom) that gives up a phosphate group to ADP. This reaction
occurs twice per glucose molecule.

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 Glycolysis - Text Alternative2

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This first step of glycolysis is an energy-investment step; one molecule of 6-carbon glucose
becomes one 6-carbon molecule with a phosphate on carbon one and another phosphate on
carbon six. This reaction requires two molecules of ATP; one phosphate from each ATP molecule
is added to the 6-carbon molecule, and two molecules of ADP are formed.

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 Glycolysis - Text Alternative
4

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Each of these three carbon molecules has a phosphate bonded to an end carbon.

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 Glycolysis - Text Alternative5

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At the beginning of the energy harvesting steps of glycolysis, the two G3P molecules formed
during the energy-investment steps are oxidized to two molecules of BPG, or 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate. During this process, two molecules of NAD+ are reduced to form two
molecules of NADH, and two phosphate groups are required; one phosphate is added to each
three-carbon molecule. Thus, each three-carbon BPG molecule has two phosphate groups
attached, one on each end carbon. This step is catalyzed by its own specific enzyme.

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 Glycolysis - Text Alternative6

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In this second energy-harvesting step, substrate-level ATP synthesis occurs, in which a phosphate
group from each BPG molecule is removed and added to two molecules of ADP, forming two
molecules of ATP and two molecules of 3PG, also called 3-phosphoglycerate. Each 3PG molecule
has one phosphate group bound to an end carbon. This step is catalyzed by its own specific
enzyme.

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 Glycolysis - Text Alternative7

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In this next step, the oxidation of the two 3PG molecules produced in the last step occurs by the
removal of one water molecule per 3PG molecule. This forms two molecules of PEP, which are
three-carbon molecules each with a phosphate group attached to an end carbon. This step is
catalyzed by its own specific enzyme.

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 Glycolysis - Text Alternative 3

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In the initial energy-investment step of glycolysis, two A T P molecules are used to get the pathway
started. Six-carbon glucose converts to six carbon compound with two phosphates on conversion
of ATP to ADP. A chart on the right shows full form of three products as: G3P: Glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate; BPG: 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate; and 3PG, 3-phosphoglycerate.

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 Glycolysis - Text Alternative8

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Energy-investment step:
Glucose with two ATP are used to get started, which on splitting produces two 3-carbon molecules.
Energy-harvesting steps:
Oxidation of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate occurs as NAD plus receives high-energy electrons, with
substrate-level ATP synthesis. Oxidation of 3-phosphoglycerate occurs by removal of water, with
substrate-level ATP synthesis. Two molecules of pyruvate are the end products of glycolysis with a
net gain of 2 net ATP.

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 Fermentation - Text Alternative
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Glucose converts into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate releasing 2 ATP and 2 ADP with net loss of 2
ATP.
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate with 2 phosphates and 2 molecules of NAD plus forms 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate releasing NADH (forming 2 molecules of NAD plus for the same step).
1,3-bisphosphoglycerate with release of 4 ADP and 4 ATP (with net gain of 4 ATP) forming
pyruvate.
Pyruvate forms lactate (animals and bacteria), alcohol (plants and animals) and carbon dioxide.

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 Inputs and Outputs of Fermentation - Text
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The data for fermentation inputs are:

Glucose; and
2 ADP plus 2 phosphate groups.
The data for fermentation outputs:
2 lactate or 2 alcohol and 2 molecules of Carbon Dioxide with net gain of 2 ATP.

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 Preparatory Reaction - Text Alternative
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Two molecules of pyruvate plus 2 molecules of coenzyme A (with conversion of 2 molecules of

nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide plus into 2 molecules of reduced form of nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide) gives out 2 molecules of acetyl linked to coenzyme A plus 2 molecules of Carbon
Dioxide.

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Mitochondrion Structure and Function - Text
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The lateral cutaway diagram of ovular mitochondrion structure shows the following parts:
Outer and inner membrane;
Cristae: location of the electron transport chain (ETC).
Matrix: location of the prep reaction and the citric acid cycle; and
Intermembrane space.
Micrograph of ovular mitochondrion shows longitudinal cristae and open spaces of matrix.

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 Citric Acid Cycle - Text Alternative 1

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Glycolysis: The conversion of glucose into pyruvate and creation of reduced form of nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide, with 4 ADP converted to 4 ATP total by conversion of 2 ATP and 2 ADP in
the process with a net gain of 2 ATP net gain.
Preparatory reaction creates reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide ( with 2 ADP
converting into 2 ATP).
Citric acid cycle creates reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide and flavin adenine
dinucleotide.
Electron transport chain and chemiosmosis converts 32 or 34 ADP and 32 or 34 ATP.

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 Citric Acid Cycle - Text Alternative 6

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The citric acid cycle is broken down into the following steps: 1. The C2 acetyl group of acetyl CoA
combines with a C4 molecule to produce citrate, a C6 molecule. 2. Oxidation reactions produce
two NADH + H+. 3. The loss of two CO2 results in a new C4 molecule. 4. One ATP is produced by
substrate-level ATP synthesis. 5. Additional oxidation reactions produce an FADH2 and another
NADH + H+ and regenerate original C4 molecule.

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 Organization and Function of the Electron
Transport Chain - Text Alternative
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Inside matrix:
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide converts to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide plus with release
of high energy electron.
Flavin adenine dinucleotide converts to flavin adenine dinucleotide with release of 2 hydrogen
atoms.
Half molecule of oxygen with hydrogen atom forms water.
ADP plus phosphates are converted to ATP with release of Hydrogen atoms (where ATP passes
from matrix to intermembrane
space through channel protein).
Intermembrane space:
The process of chemiosmosis takes place within ATP synthase complex.
Along the plasma membrane Hydrogen atoms move out from the matrix as nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide Q reductase, cytochrome reductase and cytochrome oxidase.
Ovular coenzyme Q and cytochrome c are visible with and along the plasma membrane.

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 Accounting Energy Yield per Glucose
Molecule Breakdown - Text Alternative 3
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1. During glycolysis, conversion of glucose to pyruvate yields 2 ATP from glycolysis and 2 NADH
which then yields 4 or 6 ATP through electron transport.
2. Conversion of 2 molecules of pyruvate to 2 molecules of acetyl CoA yields 2 NADH which then
yields 6 ATP through electron transport.
3. Two molecules of acetyl co-A gives out 2 molecules of carbon dioxide yielding 2 NADH which
then yields 18 ATP through electron transport.
4. During citric acid cycle, release of four molecules of carbon dioxide yields 2 ATP and 2 FADH2
which then yields 4 ATP through electron transport on conversion of six molecules of oxygen to six
molecules of water.

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 Accounting Energy Yield per Glucose
Molecule Breakdown - Text Alternative 4
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Cytoplasm:
Glucose converts into 2 molecules of pyruvate (with process of glycolysis) and a net gain of 2 net
ATP, giving out 2 NADH through electron transport chain (4 or 6 ATP).
Mitochondrion:
2 pyruvate converts into 2 acetyl coenzyme A (releasing 2 molecules of Carbon Dioxide), giving
out 2 NADH through electron transport chain (6 ATP).
Citric acid cycle gives out 6 NADH through electron transport chain (18 ATP).
Citric acid cycle (releasing 4 molecules of Carbon Dioxide), giving out 2 flavin adenine dinucleotide
through electron transport chain (4 ATP).
6 molecules of Carbon Dioxide convert to 6 molecules of water.
Subtotal of 4 ATP with subtotal of 32 or 34 ATP (electron transport chain) gives out theoretical yield
of 36 to 38 ATP per glucose.

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 The Metabolic Pool Concept - Text
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Proteins : They reversibly convert to amino acids, leading to citric acid cycle (releasing ATP) and
finally leading to electron transport chain (releasing ATP).
Carbohydrates: They reversibly convert to glucose, carrying out glycolysis (releasing ATP), leading
to acetyl coenzyme A, further leading citric acid cycle (releasing ATP) and finally leading to
electron transport chain (releasing ATP).
Fats: They branch into glycerol, carrying out glycolysis (releasing ATP) and fatty acids, leading to
acetyl coenzyme A, further leading citric acid cycle (releasing ATP) and finally leading to electron
transport chain (releasing ATP).

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Photosynthesis Versus Cellular Respiration
- Text Alternative
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Cellular Respiration:
Glycolysis: The conversion of glucose into pyruvate and creation of reduced form of nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide ( with 4 ADP converted to 4 ATP total; creating 2 ATP and 2 ADP in the
process with a net gain of 2 ATP net gain.
Preparatory reaction: Creates reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide ( with 2 ADP and
2 ATP).
Citric acid cycle: Creates reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide and flavin adenine
dinucleotide.
Electron transport chain and chemiosmosis: Creates 32 or 34 ADP and 32 or 34 ATP.
Cristae: Oxygen converts to water (with ADP converting to ATP)
Matrix: Glucose converts to Carbon Dioxide (with NAD plus converting to NADH)
Solar energy is absorbed by thylakoid membrane, and in presence of water gives out NADPH and
ATP (light reactions). The NADPH and ATP with Calvin cycle reactions (involving Carbon Dioxide
and glucose) gives out ADP with a phosphate and NADP plus which again helps in light reactions.
Thylakoid membrane: Water converts into Oxygen (with ADP converting to ATP).
Stroma: Carbon Dioxide converts to glucose (with NADH converting to NAD plus ).

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