Module

RIZAL
 Chapter 1 Understanding the Rizal Law

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected
to:

1. determine the issues and interest at stake in the debate over the Rizal Bill;
and
2. relate the issues to the present-day Philippines.

The mandatory teaching of Jose Rizal’s life with the emphasis on his landmark novels is
inscribed in legislation. Republic Act No. 1425, more popularly known as the Rizal Law,
was passed in 1956 leaving a colorful narrative of debate and contestation.

As an introduction to the life and works of Jose Rizal, this textbook will begin with the
reading of Rizal Law. In this chapter, you will study RA 1425 within its context, look into
the major issues and debates surrounding the bill and its passage into law, and reflect
on the impact and relevance of this legislation across history and the present time.

In the course of deliberation, the process of how a bill becomes a law in the Philippines
will be undertaken so you will have an idea regarding the country’s legislative process.

1.1 The Context of the Rizal Bill

The postwar period saw a Philippines rife with challenges and problems. With a country
torn and tired from stresses of World War II, getting up on their feet was a paramount
concern of the people and the government.

How a Bill Becomes a Law?

The Legislative Process

The Senate and the House of Representatives follow the same legislative procedure.
Legislative proposals emanate from a number of sources. They may be authored by the
members of the Senate or House as part of their advocacies and agenda; produced
through the lobbying from various sectors; or initiated by the executive branch of the
government with the President’s legislative agenda. Once a legislative proposal, like a
bill is ready, it will go through the following steps.
Bill is filed in the Senate Office of the Secretary. It is given a number and calendared for
the first reading.

STEP 1 – First Reading.

The bill’s title, number, and author(s) are read on the floor.

STEP 2 – Afterwards, it is referred to the appropriate committee.

STEP 3 – Committee Hearings. The bill is discussed within the committee and a period of
consultations is held. The committee can approve (approve without revisions, approve
with amendments, or recommend substitution or consolidation with similar bills) or
reject. After the committee report, the bill is calendared for the second reading.

Second Reading.

The bill is read and discussed on the floor. The author delivers a sponsorship speech.

STEP 4 – The other members of the Senate may engage in discussions regarding the bill
and a period of debates will pursue. Amendments may be suggested to the bill.

STEP 5 – Voting on Second Reading. The senators vote on whether to approve or reject
the bill. If approved, the bill is calendared for the third reading.

STEP 6 – Voting on Third Reading. Copies of the final versions of the bill are distributed
to the members of the Senate who will vote for its approval or rejection. Consolidation
of Version from the House. The similar steps above are followed by the House of
Representatives in coming up with the approved bill.

STEP 7 – If there are differences between the Senate and House versions, a bicameral
conference committee is called to reconcile the two. After this, both chambers approve
the consolidated version.

STEP 8 – Transmittal of the Final Version to Malacañang. The bill is then submitted to
the President for signing. The President can either sign the bill into law or veto and
return it to Congress.

As the Philippines grappled with various challenges, particularly the call for nation-
building, prominent individuals who championed nationalism came to action. They
pursued government measures to instill patriotism and love for country in the hearts
and minds of the Filipinos. These people drew inspiration from the Philippine experience

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of the revolution for independence against Spain and from the heroes of that important
period in the country’s history.

One measure sought was the passage of the Republic Act No. 1425 or the Rizal Law,
which was primarily set to address “a need for re-dedication to the ideals of freedom
and nationalism for which our heroes lived and died.” The passage of the law was met
with fierce opposition in both the Senate and the House of Representatives.

1.2 From the Rizal Bill to the Rizal Law

On April 3, 1956, Senate Bill No. 438 was filed by the Senate Committee on Education.
On April 17, 1956, then Senate Committee on Education Chair Jose P. Laurel sponsored
the bill and began delivering speeches for the proposed legislation. Soon after, the bill
became controversial as the powerful Catholic Church began to express opposition
against its passage. As the influence of the Church was felt with members of the Senate
voicing their opposition to the bill, its main author, Claro M. Recto, and his allies in the
Senate entered into a fierce battle arguing for the passage of SB 438. Debates started on
April 23, 1956.

The debates on the Rizal Bill also ensued in the House of Representatives. House Bill No.
5561, an identical version of SB 438, was filed by Representative Jacobo Z. Gonzales on
April 19, 1956. The House Committee on Education approved the bill without
amendments on May 2, 1956 and the debates commenced on May 9, 1956. A major
point of the debates was whether the compulsory reading of the texts Noli Me Tangere
and El Filibusterismo appropriated in the bill was constitutional. The call to read the
unexpurgated versions was also a challenged.

As the country was soon engaged in the debate, it seemed that an impasse was reached.
To move the procedure to the next step, Senator Jose P. Laurel proposed amendments
to the bill on May 9, 1956. In particular, he removed the compulsory reading of Rizal’s
novels and added that Rizal’s other works must also be included in the subject. He,
however, remained adamant in his stand that the unexpurgated versions of the novels
be read. On May 14, 1956, similar amendments were adopted to the House version.

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The amended version of the bills was also subjected to scrutiny but seemed more
palatable to the members of Congress. The passage, however, was almost hijacked by
technicality since the House of Representatives was about to adjourn in a few days and
President Ramon Magsaysay did not certify the bills as priority. The allies in the House
skillfully avoided the insertion of any other amendment to prevent the need to reprint
new copies (which would take time). They also asked the Bureau of Printing to use the
same templates for the Senate version in printing the House version. Thus, on May 17,
1956, the Senate and House versions were approved.

The approved versions were then transmitted to Malacañang and on June 12, 1956,
President Magsaysay signed the bill into law which became Republic Act No. 1425.

Vocabulary

bill – a measure which, if passed through the legislative process, becomes a law.

unexpurgated – basically untouched. In the case of the novels of Rizal, unexpurgated

versions were those that were not changed or censored to remove parts that might
offend people.

bicameral – involving the two chambers of Congress: the Senate and the House of
Representatives.

The Rizal Law

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 1425

AN ACT TO INCLUDE IN THE CURRICULA OF ALL PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS,

COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES COURSES ON THE LIFE, WORKS AND WRITINGS OF JOSE
RIZAL, PARTICULARLY HIS NOVELS NOLI ME TANGERE AND EL FILIBUSTERISMO,
AUTHORIZING THE PRINTING AND DISTRIBUTION THEREOF, AND FOR OTHER
PURPOSES

WHEREAS, today, more than any other period of our history, there is a need for
a re-dedication to the ideals of freedom and nationalism for which our heroes lived and
died;

WHEREAS, it is meet that in honoring them, particularly the national hero and
patriot, Jose Rizal, we remember with special fondness and devotion their lives and
works that have shaped the national character;

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 WHEREAS, the life, works and writings of Jose Rizal, particularly his novels Noli
Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, are constant and inspiring source of patriotism with
which the minds of the youth, especially during their formative and decisive years in
school, should be suffused;

WHEREAS, all educational institutions are under the supervision of, and subject
to regulation by the State, and all schools are enjoined to develop moral character,
personal discipline, civic conscience and to teach the duties of citizenship; Now,
therefore,

SECTION 1. Courses on the life, works and writings of Jose Rizal, particularly his
novels Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, shall be included in the curricula of all
schools, colleges and universities, public or private: Provided, That in the collegiate
courses, the original and unexpurgated editions of the Noli Me Tangere and El
Filibusterismo or their English translation shall be used as basic texts.

The Board of National Education is hereby authorized and directed to adopt forthwith
measures to implement and carry out the provisions of this Section, including the
writing and printing of appropriate primers, readers and textbooks. The Board shall,
within sixty (60) days from the effectivity of this Act, promulgate rules and regulations,
including those of a disciplinary nature, to carry out and enforce the provisions of this
Act. The Board shall promulgate rules and regulations providing for the exemption of
students for reasons of religious belief stated in a sworn written statement, from the
requirement of the provision contained in the second part of the first paragraph of this
section; but not from taking the course provided for in the first part of said paragraph.
Said rules and regulations shall take effect thirty (30) days after their publication in the
Official Gazette.

SECTION 2. It shall be obligatory in all schools, colleges and universities to keep

in their libraries an adequate number of copies of the original and unexpurgated
editions of the Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, as well as of Rizal’s other works
and bibliography. The said unexpurgated editions of the Noli Me Tangere and El
Filibusterismo of their translations in English as well as other writings of Rizal shall be
included in the list of approved books for required reading in all public or private
schools, colleges and

universities.

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The Board of National Education shall determine the adequacy of the number of books,
depending upon the enrollment of the school, college or university.

SECTION 3. The Board of National Education shall cause the translation of the
Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, as well as other writings of Jose Rizal into English,
Tagalog and the principal Philippine dialects; cause them to be printed in cheap, popular
editions; and cause them to be distributed, free of charge, to persons desiring to read
them, through the Purok organizations and Barrio Councils throughout the country.

SECTION 4. Nothing in this Act shall be construed as amendment or repealing

section nine hundred twenty-seven of the Administrative Code, prohibiting the
discussion of religious doctrines by public school teachers and other persons engaged in
any public school.

SECTION 5. The sum of three hundred thousand pesos is hereby authorized to be

appropriated out of the fund not otherwise appropriated in the National Treasury to
carry out the purposes of this Act.

SECTION 6. This Act shall take effect upon its approval.

Approved: June 12, 1956

Published in the Official Gazette, Vol. 52, No. 6, p. 2971 in June 1956.

Summary

The Rizal Law could be considered a landmark legislation in the postwar

Philippines. During this period, the Philippines was trying to get up on its feet from a
devastating war and aiming towards nation-building. As the government sought ways to
unite the people, legislators like Claro M. Recto drew inspiration from the lives of the
heroes of the revolution against Spain. In this frame, the teaching of the life and works
of Jose Rizal, particularly the reading of this novels Noli Me Tangere and El
Filibusterismo, was proposed to be mandated to all private and public educational
institutions. The proposed legislation, however, met opposition particularly from the
Catholic Church. After much debate, the proposed bill was eventually signed into law
and became Republic Act No. 1425.

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 Chapter 2 Nation and Nationalism

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected
to:
1. define nationalism in relation to the concepts of nation, state, and nation-
state;
2. explain the relevance of nationalism and nation-building at present.

The previous chapter stated that one of the major reasons behind the passage of the
Rizal Law was the strong intent to instill nationalism in the hearts and minds of the
Filipino youth. This chapter will now focus on nation and nationalism in the Philippine
context. It will explain the concepts of nation, state, and nation-state as a precursor to
understanding nationalism and the projects that lead to it. Likewise, the discussion will
touch on some of Rizal’s works that deal with nation and nationalism.

The chapter also aims to reflect on nation-building in the Philippines which is a major
force behind the passage of the Rizal Law.

bayan/banua – indigenous Filipino concepts of community and territory that may be

related to nationalism.

nation – a group of people with a shared language, culture, and history.

nation-building – a project undertaken with the goal of strengthening the bond of the
nation.

nation-state – a state ruling over a nation.

patriotism – a feeling of attachment to one’s homeland.

sovereignty – the authority to govern a polity without external interference/incursions.

2.1 Nation, State, Nation-State

To better understand nationalism, one must learn first the concepts of nation and
nationhood as well as state and nation-state. Refer to the following summary:

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 Nation Nation-State State
A group of people that A state governing a nation. A political entity that
shares a common culture, wields sovereignty over a
history, language, and defined territory.
other practices like
religion, affinity to a place,
etc.

Social scientists have fleshed out the nuances of nation, state, and nation-state. A
nation is a community of people that are believed to share a link with one another
based on cultural practices, language, religion or belief system, and historical
experience, to name a few. A state, on the other hand, is a political entity that has
sovereignty over a defined territory. States have laws, taxation, government, and
bureaucracy – basically, the means of regulating life within the territory. This
sovereignty needs diplomatic recognition to be legitimate and acknowledged
internationally. The state’s boundaries and territory are not fixed and change across
time with war, sale, arbitration and negotiation, and even assimilation or secession.

The nation-state, in a way, is a fusion of the elements of the nation (people/community)

and the state (territory). The development of nation-states started in Europe during the
periods coinciding with the Enlightenment. The “classical” nation-states of Europe
began with the Peace of Westphalia in the seventeenth century. Many paths were taken
towards the formation of the nation-states. In the “classical” nation-states, many
scholars posit that the process was an evolution from being a state into a nation-state
in which the members of the bureaucracy (lawyers, politicians, diplomats, etc.)
eventually moved to unify the people within the state to build the nation-state. A
second path was taken by subsequent nation-states which were formed from nations.
In this process, intellectuals and scholars laid the foundations of a nation and worked
towards the formation of political and eventually diplomatic recognition to create a
nation-state. A third path taken by many Asian and African people involved breaking
off from a colonial relationship, especially after World War II when a series of
decolonization and nation-(re)building occurred. During this time, groups initially
controlled by imperial powers started to assert their identity to form a nation and build

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their own state from the fragments of the broken colonial ties. A fourth path was by
way of (sometimes violent) secessions by people already part of an existing state.
Here, a group of people who refused to or could not identify with the rest of the
population built a nation, asserted their own identity, and demanded recognition. In the
contemporary world, the existing nation-states continuously strive with projects of
nation-building especially since globalization and transnational connections are
progressing.

Nation and Nationalism

As mentioned, one major component of the nation-state is the nation. This

concept assumes that there is a bond that connects a group of people together to form
a community. The origin of the nation, and concomitantly nationalism, has been a
subject of debates among social scientists and scholars. In this section, three theories
about the roots of the nation will be presented.

The first theory traces the root of the nations and national identity to existing and deep-
rooted features of a group of people like race, language, and others. Often called
primordialism, it argues that a national identity has always existed and nations have
“ethnic cores.” In this essentialist stance, one may be led to conclude that divisions of
“us” and “them” are naturally formed based on the assumption that there exists an
unchanging core in everyone. The second theory states that nation, national identity,
and nationalism are products of the modern condition and are shaped by modernity.
This line of thinking suggests that nationalism and national identity are necessary
products of the social structure and culture brought about by the emergence of
capitalism, industrialization, secularization, urbanization, and bureaucratization. This
idea further posts that in pre-modern societies, the rigid social hierarchies could
accommodate diversity in language and culture, in contrast with the present times in
which rapid change pushes statehood to guard the homogeneity in society through
nationalism. Thus, in the modernist explanation, nationalism is a political project.

The third theory – a very influential explanation – about nation and nationalism
maintains that these ideas are discursive. Often referred to as the constructivist
approach to understanding nationalism, this view maintains that nationalism is socially
constructed and imagined by people who identify with a group. Benedict Anderson
argues that nations are “imagined communities” (2003). He traces the history of these
imagined communities to the Enlightenment when European society began challenging

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the supposed divinely – ordained dynastic regimes of the monarchies. This idea was
starkly exemplified by the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution. The nation is
seen as imagined because the people who affiliate with that community have a mental
imprint of the affinity which maintains solidarity; they do not necessarily need to see
and know all the members of the group. With this imagined community comes a “deep,
horizontal comradeship” that maintains harmonious co-existence and even fuels the
willingness of the people to fight and die for that nation. Anderson also puts forward the
important role of mass media in the construction of the nation during that time. He
underscores that the media (1) fostered unified fields of communication which allowed
the millions of people within a territory to “know” each other through printed outputs
and become aware that many others identified with the same community; (2)
standardized languages that enhanced feelings of nationalism and community; and (3)
maintained communication through a few languages widely used in the printing press
which endured through time.

Nation and Bayan

In the Philippines, many argue that the project of nation-building is a

continuing struggle up to the present. Considering the country’s history, historians posit
that the 19th century brought a tremendous change in the lives of the Filipinos,
including the actual articulations of nation and nationhood that culminated in the first
anti-colonial revolution in Asia led by Andres Bonifacio and the Katipunan. Furthermore,
scholars note the important work of the propagandists like Rizal in the sustained efforts
to build nation and enact change in the Spanish colony. As you continue to familiarize
yourselves with the concepts of nation and nationalism, it would be worthwhile to look
at how these ideas have been articulated in the past as well as how scholars locate
these efforts in the indigenous culture.

Many Filipino scholars who endeavored to understand indigenous/local knowledge have

identified concepts that relate to how Filipinos understand the notions of community
and, to an extent, nation and nation-building. The works of Virgilio Enriquez, Prospero
Covar, and Zeus Salazar, among others, attempted to identify and differentiate local
categories for communities and social relations. The indigenous intellectual movements
like Sikolohiyang Pilipino and Bagong Kasaysayan introduced the concepts of kapwa
and bayan that can enrich discussions about nationalism in the context of the
Philippines.

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Kapwa is an important concept in the country’s social relations. Filipino interaction is
mediated by understanding one’s affinity with another as described by the phrases
“ibang tao” and “di ibang tao.” In the formation and strengthening of social relations,
the kapwa concept supports the notion of unity and harmony in a community. From this
central concept arise other notions such as “pakikipagkapwa”, “pakikisama”, and
“pakikipag-ugnay”, as well as the collective orientation of Filipino culture and psyche.

In the field of history, a major movement in the indigenization campaign is led by

Bagong Kasaysayan, founded by Zeus Salazar, which advances the perspective known as
Pantayong Pananaw. Scholars in this movement are among the major researchers that
nuance the notion of bayan or banua. In understanding Filipino concepts of community,
the bayan is an important indigenous concept. Bayan/Banua, which can be traced all the
way to the Austronesian language family, is loosely defined as the territory where the
people live or the actual community they are identifying with. Thus, bayan/banua
encompasses both the spatial community as well as the imagined community. The
concept of bayan clashed with the European notion of nacion during the Spanish
colonialism. The proponents of Pantayong Pananaw maintain the existence of a great
cultural divide that separated the elite (nacion) and the folk/masses (bayan) as a
product of the colonial experience. This issue brings the project of nation-building to a
contested terrain.

Throughout Philippine history, the challenge of building the Filipino nation has
persisted, impacted by colonialism, violent invasion during World War II, a dictatorship,
and the perennial struggle for development.

Summary

As stated in the first chapter, the imperative of instilling nationalism in the

minds of the youth was a major factor behind the passage of the Rizal Law. To have a
basic grasp of nationalism, the concepts of nation, state, and nation-state must be
examined. This chapter explained the basic definitions of nation (a community of
people), state (a political entity), and nation-state (a fusion of the previous two) and
traced the development of the nation-state. It then tackled the various ways by which
social scientists made sense of the concepts of nation and nationalism, their origins, and
development. Discussed were the primordialist, modernist, and social constructionist
approaches as lenses in which nationalism could be viewed. The chapter ended with a
brief discussion about nationalism in the context of the Philippines, particularly how

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indigenous knowledge could be used to examine how Filipinos understand the concepts
of nation and nationalism. As you study the life of Jose Rizal, it is important to remind
yourself of the multiplicity of ideas during his time and beyond that will affect your
understanding of nation and nationalism.

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 Remembering Rizal (Historical Context & Early
Chapter 3
Years of Rizal)
Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected
to:
1. Discuss the genealogy or family tree of Jose Rizal;
2. Identify and discuss the different challenges on Rizal’s intellectual conquest.

A biography narrates how a person has lived during a certain period of time. It presents
not only the life of an individual and how he has influenced the society but also how an
individual and his ideas have been shaped by historical events. Jose Rizal lived in the
19th century, a period in Philippine history when changes in public consciousness were
already being felt and progressive ideas were being realized. Studying Rizal’s biography,
therefore, will lead to a better understanding of how Rizal devoted his life in shaping the
Filipino character.

3.1 Rizal’s Family

Jose Rizal was born on June 19, 1861 in the town of Calamba, province of
Laguna. Calamba, then a town with around three to four thousand inhabitants, is
located 54 kilometers south of Manila. It is found in the heart of a region known for its
agricultural prosperity and is among the major producers of sugar and rice, with an
abundant variety of tropical fruits. On the southern part of the town lies the majestic
Mount Makiling, and on the other side is the lake Laguna de Bay. The wonders of
creation that surrounded Rizal made him love nature from an early age. His student
memoirs show how his love of nature influenced his appreciation of the arts and
sciences (Coates, 1992).
Rizal’s father, Francisco Mercado, was a wealthy farmer who leased lands from
the Dominican friars. Francisco’s earliest ancestors were Siang-co and Zun-nio, who later
gave birth to Lam-co. Lam-co is said to have come from the district of Fujian in Southern
China and migrated to the Philippines in the late 1600s. In 1697, he was baptized in
Binondo, adopting “Domingo” as his first name. He married Ines de la Rosa of a known

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entrepreneurial family in Binondo. Domingo and Ines later settled in the estate of San
Isidro Labrador, owned by the Dominicans. In 1731, they had a son whom they named
Francisco Mercado. The surname “Mercado,” which means “market,” was a common
surname adopted by many Chinese merchants at that time (Reyno, 2012).
Francisco Mercado became one of the richest in Biῆan and owned the largest
herd of carabaos. He was also active in local politics and was elected as capitan del
pueblo in 1783. He had a son named Juan Mercado who was also elected as capitan del
pueblo in 1808, 1831, and 1823 (Reyno, 2012).
Juan Mercado married Cirila Alejandra, a native of Biῆan. They had 13 children,
including Francisco Engracio, the father of Jose Rizal. Following Governor Narciso
Claveria’s decree in 1849 which ordered the Filipinos to adopt Spanish surnames,
Francisco Engracio Mercado added the surname “Rizal,” from the word “ricial” meaning
“green field,” as he later settled in the town of Calamba as a farmer growing sugar cane,
rice, and indigo.
Being in a privileged family, Francisco Engracio (1818-1898) had a good
education that started in a Latin school in Biῆan. Afterwards, he attended the College of
San Jose in Manila. In 1848, Francisco married to Teodora Alonso (1826-1911) who
belonged to one of the wealthiest families in Manila. Teodora, whose father was a
member of the Spanish Cortes, was educated at the College of Sta. Rosa. Rizal described
her as “a woman of more than ordinary culture” and that she is “a mathematician and
has read many books” (Letter to Blumentritt, November 8, 1888). Because of Francisco
and Teodora’s industry and hardwork, their family became a prominent member of the
principalia class in the town of Calamba. Their house was among the first concrete
houses to be built in the town.
Jose Rizal (1861-1896) is the seventh among the eleven children of Francisco
Mercado and Teodora Alonso. The other children were: Saturnina (1850-1913) married
to Manuel T. Hidalgo of Tanawan, Batangas; Paciano (1851-1930) became a
revolutionary general during the Philippine Revolution, retired as farmer in Los Baῆos,
Laguna, who died as bachelor but with two children (boy and girl) by his mistress
Sevirina Decena; Narcisa (1852-1939) whose pet name was Sisa, married to Antonio
Lopez, nephew of Leoncio Lopez, a school teacher of Morong; Olimpia (1855-1887)
married to Silvestre Ubaldo who worked as telegraph operator from Manila; Lucia
(1857-1919) married to Mariano Herbosa (nephew of Fr. Casanas); Maria (1859-1945)
married to Daniel Faustino Cruz of Biῆan, Laguna; Concepcion (1862-1865) who died at

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the age of three, the first sorrow of Rizal; Josefa (1865-1945) died as old maid at the age
of 80; Trinidad (1868-1951) also died at old maid at the age of 83; and Soledad (1870-
1929) married to Pantaleon Quintero of Calamba.

Rizal was affectionate to all his siblings. However, his relation with his only
brother, was more than that of an older brother. Paciano became Rizal’s second father.
Rizal highly respected him and valued all his advice. It was Paciano who accompanied
Rizal when he first went to school in Biῆan. It was also him who convinced Rizal to
pursue his studies in Europe. Like Rizal, Paciano had his college education in Manila but
later decided to join the Katipunan and fight for independence. After the revolution,
Paciano retired to his home in Los Baῆos and led a quiet life until his death in 1930.

3.2 Childhood and Early Education

Rizal had good memories of childhood. In Calamba. As a family, they prayed

together during the Angelus. There were times when they would stay in the garden
exchanging stories. It was in this garden where he learned to appreciate nature. Rizal’s
childhood was full of love and care shown to him by his parents and siblings. Due to his
poor health, Rizal had a personal servant who, after the daily Angelus, would tell him
legends and fairy tales. These stories made him become interested in myths and
folklores.

As a young boy, Rizal demonstrated intelligence and learned easily. His first
teacher was Dona Teodora who taught him how to pray. He was only three years old
when he learned the alphabet. At a very young age, he already showed a great interest
in reading books. He enjoyed staying in their library at home with his mother.
Eventually, Dona Teodora would notice Rizal’s skills in poetry. She would ask him to
write verses. Later, she felt the need for a private tutor for the young Rizal.

Just like other children from the principalia class, Rizal experienced education
under private tutors. His first private tutor was Maestro Celestino followed by Maestro
Lucas Padua. But it was Leon Monroy, his third tutor, who honed his skills in basic Latin,
reading, and writing. This home education from private tutors prepared Rizal to formal
schooling which he first experienced in Binan.

At the age of nine, Rizal left Calamba with his brother study in Binan. After one-
and-a-half hour of travel, they reached the town on board a carromata. They went to
the house of their aunt where Rizal stayed for more than a year. Before leaving his

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brother, Paciano introduced Rizal to the teacher, Justiniano Aquino Cruz, who was also
Paciano’s former teacher.

The class, as described by Rizal (P. Jacinto, 1879), was in a nipa house, about
thirty meters away from his aunt’s house. Every day Rizal would wake up early and
either hear mass at four o’clock in the morning or study his lesson first and go to mass
after. After returning home, he would take breakfast and go to class from which he
would come out at ten o’clock. He would then again go to school at two o’clock and
come out at five. He would pray with his cousins at six and study for a while before
going to sleep.

In Binan, he excelled in Latin and Spanish. He also had painting lessons under
Maestro Cruz’ father-in-law, Juancho, an old painter. Rizal’s leisure hours were mostly
spent in Juancho’s studio where he was given free lessons in painting and drawing.

After receiving a letter from his sister, Saturnina, Rizal returned to Calamba on
December 17, 1870 after one-and-a-half-year schooling in Binan. He went home on
board the steamship Talim and was accompanied by Arturo Camps, a Frenchman and
friend of his father (P. Jacinto, 1879).

3.3 Student of Manila

Rizal was sent by his father to Ateneo Municipal, formerly known as Escuela Pia, for a
six-year program, Bachiller en Artes. He took the entrance exam on June 10, 1872, four
months after the execution of Gomburza. He followed the advice of his brother,
Paciano, to use the name Jose Rizal instead of Jose Mercado. He feared that Rizal might
run into trouble if it was known openly that they were brothers since Paciano was
known to have links to Jose Burgos, one of the leaders of the secularization movement
and one of three priests executed.

During this time, Ateneo Municipal was known to offer the best education for boys. Like
all colleges in Manila, Ateneo was managed by priests, but with an important difference
in the sense that these religious were not friars but Jesuit Fathers. Students in Ateneo
were required to attend masses in the morning before the start of classes. Ateneo was
also known for its rigid discipline and religious instruction that trained students’
character.

Students in Ateneo were divided into two groups, the Romans and the Carthaginians.
The Roman Empire was composed of students boarding at Ateneo while the

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Carthaginian Empire was composed of non-boarding students. This grouping was done
to stimulate the spirit of competition among the students. At the start, Rizal lagged
behind his classmates but because of his perseverance and seriousness in studies, he
became the “emperor,” a title given to the most outstanding student in class, in just a
month’s time (Zaide & Zaide, 1999).

Rizal studied at Ateneo from 1872-1877. In those years, he consistently showed

excellence in his academic performance. He passed the oral examination on March 14,
1877 and graduated with a degree Bachiller en Artes, with the highest honors.

After finishing Bachiller en Artes, Rizal was sent by Don Francisco to the University of
Santo Tomas. Initially, Dona Teodora opposed the idea for fear of what had happened to
Gomburza. Despite this, Rizal still pursued university education and enrolled in UST.
During his freshman year (1877-1878), he attended the course Philosophy and Letters.
Also, in the same year, he took up a vocational course in Ateneo that gave him the title
perito agrimensor (expert surveyor) issued on November 25, 1881.

In his second year at UST, Rizal shifted his course to Medicine. He felt the need to take
up his course after learning about his mother’s failing eyesight.

Rizal’s academic performance in UST was not as impressive as that in Ateneo. He was a
good student in Medicine but not as gifted as he was in Arts and Letters. Despite this, he
was still one of the seven students who remained in the course in his last year at UST
out of the original batch of twenty-four (Jose, 2011).

In 1882, Rizal and Paciano made a secret pact – Rizal would go to Europe to complete
his medical studies there and prepare himself for the great task of liberating the country
from Spanish tyranny.

3.4 Rizal in Europe

On May 3, 1882, Rizal left the Philippines for Spain. In his first trip abroad, Rizal was very
excited to learn new things. He was only twenty years old and as a young man, he was
very observant and eager to interact with foreign nationals. He made sketches of his
fellow passengers and of the things that he saw during his travels.

Rizal reached Barcelona on June 16, 1882. He arrived during the summer vacation so he
was able to meet up with former classmates in Ateneo. These classmates organized a
welcome party for Rizal at a coffee house in Plaza de Cataluna. They toured Rizal around

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the city and brought him to the famous historical sites in Barcelona. In this city, Rizal
found time to write an essay entitled “El Amor Patrio” (Love of Country). This essay was
published on August 20, 1882 in Diarong Tagalog where he used the pen name Laong
Laan.

After the summer vacation, Rizal decided to move to Madrid where he enrolled in
Medicine and Philosophy and Letters at the Universidad Central de Madrid (presently
the Universidad Complutense de Madrid) on November 3, 1882. He also took lessons in
painting and sculpture at the Academia de San Fernando, and classes in French, English,
and German at the Madrid Ateneo. Not content with these activities, he still managed to
enroll in fencing class at the schools of Sanz and Carbonell. In January of 1883, Rizal
wrote to his family and informed them that: “I am now studying Italian and have made a
bet that I shall be able to speak it in two months” (Guerrero, 2010).

Rizal was awarded with the degree and title of Licentiate in Medicine for passing the
medical examinations in June 1884. With this title, Rizal was able to practice medicine.
He continued enrolling in courses that would have led to a Doctorate in Medicine but
the degree was not given to him because he failed to pay the fee required to defend his
thesis. It is important to note that at this time, Rizal was already feeling the effect of the
difficult economic situation in Calamba. His family faced financial problems brought
about by low crop production because of drought and locusts aggravated by the hike in
rentals on the haciendas by the Dominicans. Consequently, there were delays in his
monthly allowance from the Philippines.

Rizal also took examinations in Greek, Latin, and world history. He won the first prize in
Greek and a grade of “excellent” in history. He also obtained the degree Licenciado en
Filosofia y Letras (Licentiate in Philosophy and Letters) from the Universidad Central de
Madrid on June 19, 1885 with a rating of sobresaliente. In one of the Filipino reunions at
the house of Pedro Paterno in Madrid on January 2, 1884, Rizal proposed the writing of
a novel about the Philippine society. The group approved the project but this plan did
not materialize. His fellow Filipinos who agreed to help him did not write anything so he
drafted the novel alone. It was in Madrid that he was able to write the first half of his
novel, Noli Me Tangere.

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Rizal specialized in ophthalmology and trained under the leading ophthalmologists in
Europe like Dr. Louis de Weckert of Paris for whom he worked as an assistant from
October 1885 to March 1886. In Germany, he also worked with expert ophthalmologists
Dr. Javier Galezowsky and Dr. Otto Becker in Heidelberg in 1886 and Dr. R. Schulzer and
Dr. Schwiegger in 1887 (De Viana, 2011).

During his stay in Germany, Rizal befriended different scholars like Fredrich Ratzel, a
German historian. Through his friend, Ferdinand Blumentritt, Rizal was also able to meet
Ecodor Jagor and Hans Virchow, anthropologists who were doing studies on Philippine
culture. Rizal mastered the German language and wrote a paper entitled Tagalische
Verkunst (Tagalog Metrical Art). He also translated Schiller’s William Tell into Tagalog in
1886. It was also in Berlin where he finished Noli Me Tangere which was published on
March 21, 1887 with financial help from his friend Maximo Viola.

After five years in Europe, Rizal went home to Calamba on August 8, 1887. He spent
time with the members of his family who were delighted to see him again. He also kept
himself busy by opening a medical clinic and curing the sick. He came to be known as
Doctor Uliman as he was mistaken for a German. His vacation, however, was cut short
because he was targeted by the friars who were portrayed negatively in his novel Noli
Me Tangere. He left the country for the second time on February 16, 1888.

3.5 Rizal’s Second Trip to Europe

In his second trip, Rizal became more active in the Propaganda Movement with fellow
ilustrados like Marcelo H. del Pilar, Graciano Lopez Jaena, Antonio Luna, Mariano Ponce,
and Trinidad Pardo de Tavera. The Propaganda Movement campaigned for reforms such
as: (1) for the Philippines to be made a province of Spain so that native Filipinos would
have equal rights accorded to Spaniards; (2) representation of the Philippines in the
Spanish Cortes; and (3) secularization of parishes.

Rizal became preoccupied with writing articles and essays which were published in the
Propaganda Movement’s newspaper, La Solidaridad. Among his intellectual works in
Europe in his annotation of Antonio de Morga’s Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (1890) in
which Rizal showed that even before the coming of the Spaniards, the Filipinos already
had a developed culture. He also wrote an essay entitled “Sobre la Indolencia de los
Filipinos” (On the Indolence of the Filipinos) published in 1890 in which he attributed
the Filipinos’ “indolence” to different factors such as climate and social disorders.

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Another essay he wrote strongly called for reforms; it was called “Filipinas Dentro de
Cien Anos” (The Philippines a Century Hence) published in parts from 1889 to 1890.

By July 1891, while in Brussels, Rizal completed his second novel, El Filibusterismo,
which was published on September 18, 1891 through the help of his friend, Valentin
Ventura. Compared with his Noli, Rizal’s El Fili was more radical with its narrative
portrayed of a society on the verge of a revolution.

In 1892, Rizal decided to return to the Philippines thinking that the real struggle was in
his homeland. In spite of warnings and his family’s disapproval, Rizal arrived in the
Philippines on June 26, 1892. Immediately, he visited his friends in Central Luzon and
encouraged them to join the La Liga Filipina, a socio-civic organization that Rizal
established on July 3, 1982. Unfortunately, just a few days after the Liga’s formation,
Rizal was arrested and brought to Fort Santiago on July 6, 1892. He was charged with
bringing with him from Hong Kong leaflets entitled Pobres Frailes (Poor Friars), a satire
against the rich Dominican friars and their accumulation of wealth which was against
their vow of poverty. In spite of his protests and denial of having those materials, Rizal
was exiled to Dapitan in Mindanao.

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 Chapter 4 Remembering Rizal (Historical Context & Early
Years of Rizal)

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected
to:

1. Compare and contrast the different views of Rizal among the Rizalistas.

Rizal’s execution on December 30, 1896 became an important turning point in the
history of Philippine revolution. His death activated the full-scale revolution that
resulted in the declaration of Philippine independence by 1898. Under the American
colonial government, Rizal was considered as one of the most important Filipino heroes
of the revolution and was even declared as the National Hero by the Taft Commission,
also called the Philippine Commission of 1901. A Rizal monument was built in every
town and December 30 was declared as a national holiday to commemorate his death
and heroism.

Influenced by both the Roman Catholic Church and the pre-Hispanic spiritual culture,
some Filipino masses likewise founded organizations that recognize Rizal not just as an
important hero but also as their savior from all the social ills that plague the country.
These groups, which can be linked to the long history of millenarian movements in the
country, are widely known as the Rizalistas.

4.1 Rizal as the Tagalog Christ

In late 1898 and early 1899, revolutionary newspapers La Independencia and El Heraldo
de la Revolucion reported about Filipinos commemorating Rizal’s death in various towns
in the country. In Batangas, for example, people were said to have gathered “tearfully
wailing before a portrait of Rizal” (Ileto, 1998) while remembering how Christ went
through the same struggles. After Rizal’s execution, peasants in Laguna were also
reported to have regarded him as “the lord of a kind of paradise in the heart of Mount
Makiling” (Ileto, 1998). Similar stories continued to spread after Rizal’s death towards
the end of the 19th century. The early decades Chapter 4 Remembering Rizal (Historical

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Context & Early Years of Rizal) Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of the chapter,
the students are expected to: 1. Compare and contrast the different views of Rizal
among the Rizalistas. of 1900s then witnessed the founding of different religious
organizations honoring Rizal as the “Filipino Jesus Christ” (Ocampo, 2011).

In 1907, Spanish writer and philosopher Miguel de Unamuno gave Rizal the title
“Tagalog Christ” as religious organizations venerating him had been formed in different
parts of the Philippines (Iya, 2012). The titles given to some earlier Filipino revolutionary
leaders reveal that associating religious beliefs in the social movement is part of the
country’s history. Teachings and traditions of political movements that were organized
to fight the Spanish and American colonial powers were rooted in religious beliefs and
practices. These socio-religious movements known as the millenarian groups which aim
to transform the society are often symbolized or represented by a hero or prophet.

The same can also be said with the Rizalista groups which, as mentioned, have risen in
some parts of the country after Rizal’s death in 1896. Each group has its own teachings,
practices, and celebrations, but one common belief among them is the veneration of
Jose Rizal as the reincarnation of Jesus Christ. These groups likened the travails of Jose
Rizal to that of Jesus Christ as narrated in the Pasyon, an epic poem which became
popular among the Tagalogs during the Spanish period (Ileto, 1998). Rizalistas believe
that Rizal, just like Jesus Christ, would eventually return to life and will save mankind.

People saw the parallel between the two lives being sent into the world to fulfill a
purpose. As Trillana (2006, p. 39) puts it, “For both Jesus and Rizal, life on earth was a
summon and submission to a call. From the beginning, both knew or had intimations of
a mission they had to fulfill, the redemption of mankind from sin in the case of Jesus and
the redemption of his people from oppression in the case of Rizal.”

Reincarnation in the context of Rizalistas means that both Rizal and Jesus led parallel
lives. “Both believed in the Golden Rule, cured the sick, were rabid reformers, believed
in the universal brotherhood of men, and were closely associated with a small group of
followers. Both died young (Christ at 33 and Rizal at 35) at the hands of their enemies.
Their lives changed the course of history” (Mercado, 1982, p. 38).

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4.2 Groups Venerating Jose Rizal

Adarnista or the Iglesiang Pilipina

In 1901, a woman in her thirties, Candida Balantac of Ilocos Norte, was said to
have started preaching in Bangar, La Union. Balantac, now known as the founder of
Adarnista or the Iglesiang Pilipina, won the hearts of her followers from La Union,
Pangasinan, and Tarlac. This preaching eventually led her to establish the organization in
Bongabon, Nueva Ecija where she resided until the 1960s (Ocampo, 2011).

Like the Catholic Church, the Adarnista also conducts sacraments such as baptism,
confirmation, marriage, confession, and rites of the dead. Masses are held every
Wednesday and Sunday, at 7:00 in the morning and lasts up to two hours. Special
religious ceremonies are conducted on Rizal’s birthday and his death anniversary which
start with the raising of the Filipino flag. In a typical Adarnista chapel, one can see
images of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, the Immaculate Heart of Mary, Our Lady of
Perpetual Help, and in the center is the picture of Jose Rizal. Beside the latter are
pictures of other Philippine heroes like Luna, Burgos, del Pilar, Mabini, Bonifacio, etc.
(Foronda, 2001).

The Adarnista has more than 10,000 followers in La Union, Isabela, Pangasinan,
Zambales, Nueva Ecija, Tarlac, and Nueva Vizcaya, and some in Baguio City and Manila.

Sambahang Rizal

Literally the “Rizal Church,” the Sambahang Rizal was founded by the late
Basilio Aromin, a lawyer in Cuyapo, Nueva Ecija in 1918. Aromin was able to attract
followers with his claim that Sambahang Rizal was established to honor Rizal who was
sent by Bathala to redeem the Filipino race, like Jesus Christ who offered His life to save
mankind (Foronda, 2001). Bathala is the term used by early Filipinos to refer to “God” or
“Creator.” Aromin’s group believes that Rizal is the “son of Bathala” in the same way
that Jesus Christ is the “Son of God.” Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo serve as
their “bible” that shows the doctrines and teachings of Rizal. Their churches have altars
displaying the Philippine flag and a statue of Rizal.

Similar to the Catholic Church, the Sambahang Rizal also conducts sacraments like
baptism, confirmation, marriage, and ceremonies for the dead. It assigns preachers,
called lalawigan guru, who are expected to preach Rizal’s teachings in different
provinces. Aromin, the founder, held the title Pangulu guru (chief preacher). At the

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height of its popularity, the organization had about 7,000 followers found in Nueva Ecija
and Pangasinan (Foronda, 2001).

4.3 Iglesia Watawat ng Lahi

Samahan ng Watawat ng Lahi (Association of the Banner of the Race) is said to have
been established by the Philippine national heroes and Arsenio de Guzman in 1911. It
was in this year that de Guzman started to preach to the Filipino people that Rizal was
the “Christ” and the “Messenger of God.” He claimed that God has chosen the
Philippines to replace Israel as his “New Kingdom.” Some believe that it was the spirit of
Rizal which was working with de Guzman telling people to live in accordance with
Christ’s and Rizal’s teachings (Iya, 2012).

According to stories, sometime in 1936, a banal na tinig (holy voice) instructed Mateo
Alcuran and Alfredo Benedicto to go to Lecheria, Calamba in the province of Laguna to
look for Jovito Salgado and Gaudioso Parabuac. Alcuran and Benedicto followed the
banal na tinig and met with Salgado and Parabuac in Lecheria on December 24, 1936.
Every Saturday from then on, the four listened to the teachings of the banal na tinig. In
1938, the banal na tinig informed them that their guide was the spirit of Jose Rizal
which instructed them to organize a movement called the Samahan ng Watawat ng Lahi.
However, the word samahan was changed to iglesia to avoid suspicion by the Japanese
soldiers during World War II, making it as the Iglesia Watawat ng Lahi (Iya, 2012).

The aims of the organization are as follows (Foronda, 2001):

1. To love God above all things

2. To love one’s fellowman as one love himself
3. To love the motherland and to respect and venerate the heroes of the race
especially the martyr of Bagumbayan, Dr. Rizal, to follow, to spread, and to
support their right teachings; and to serve the country with one’s whole heart
towards its order, progress, and peace.

Foronda (2011) also enumerated the beliefs of the sect gathered from his interviews in
1960-1961:

1. The teachings of the sect are based on the commands of the Holy Moses, Our
Lord Jesus Christ, and the teachings of Dr. Jose Rizal culled from his writings.

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 2. Christians believe in the Trinity; the power of the Father was given to Moses; the
power of the Son, given to Jesus Christ; and this sect believes that the power of
the Holy Ghost was given to Dr. Jose Rizal.
3. Jesus Christ is embodied in Dr. Jose Rizal and hence, Dr. Rizal is at once a god and
a man.
4. Rizal is not dead; he is alive and is physically and materially present in the New
Jerusalem which is presently hidden in the site extending from Mt. Makiling to
Mt. Banahaw.
5. It is the voice of Rizal which commands the officials and the members what to do;
this voice is heard in the weekly meetings. However, an invoker in the person of
Gaudioso Parabuac is needed to ask Rizal to come and talk to members.
6. If World War III breaks out, numberless peoples will be killed by atomic weapons.
But after the war, Dr. Rizal will make an appearance to the new world, and he
will lead the army of God.
7. Man has a soul, but a soul is different from the soul of Dr. Rizal, for Rizal is god.
Three days after his death and if he was holy in life (i.e., if he followed the
commandments of God), man will rise again and his soul will proceed to the New
Jerusalem. If he did not fulfill the commandments of God, the soul is not to be
punished in hell (for there is no hell) but will be made to work in a place opposite
the New Jerusalem.
8. There is a particular judgment (the soul is judged three days after death) and the
last judgment (when all the creatures will be judged).

Iglesia Watawat ng Lahi is one the biggest Rizalista groups with more than 100,000
members found in different parts of the country. However, in 1987, it was divided into
three factions: (1) the Watawat ng Lahi, also known as the Samahan ng Watawat ng
Lahi Presiding Elders; (2) the Iglesia Watawat ng Lahi, Inc.; (3) the Iglesia ng Lipi ni Gat
Dr. Jose P. Rizal, Inc. (Iya, 2012). The first group now teaches that Rizal is not Christ but
only a human while the last two groups claim that they hold the original teachings and
doctrines of the old Iglesia Watawat ng Lahi – Rizal is God/Christ himself, the Jove Rex
Al (God, King of All).

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 Vocabulary

Millenarian groups – socio-political movements who generally believe in the coming of

a major social transformation with the establishment of the Kingdom of God.

Rizalista – a religious movement that believes in the divinity of Jose Rizal.

Jove Rex Al – the Latin name of Jose Rizal according to Rizalistas; Jove means God; Rex
means King; and Al means All (thus, God, King of All).

colorum – a term used to refer to secret societies that fought against the colonial
government in the Philippines.

canonization – the act of declaring a dead person as a saint.

Summary

This chapter showed that Rizal is not only regarded as the national hero but
also venerated as the “Filipino Jesus Christ” or the Jove Rex Al (God, King of All) by most
Rizalista groups. The canonization of Rizal by La Iglesia Filipina Independiente and the
eventual emergence of Rizalista groups in different parts of the country could be
associated with the long struggle of the Filipinos for freedom and independence.
Syncretism is also evident among the Rizalista groups as the nationalist visions are
included in their religious beliefs and texts.

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 Chapter 5 The Nineteenth Century

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected
to:

1. explain the important role of the Chinese mestizos and their ranks within
the changing Philippine economy and society; and
2. discuss the interplay of several factors that contributed to the changing
landscape of the Philippine society and economy.

5.1 The Changing Landscape of Philippine Economy and Society

Many scholars consider the 19th century as an era of profound change in the
Philippines. During this period, vast economic, political, social, and cultural currents
were felt. Change, however, had its initial ripples in the previous century. By the late
eighteenth century, the monarchy in Spain experienced a dynastic shift from the
Habsburgs to the Bourbons. Under the new leadership, Spain recalibrated colonial
policies that would have an effect on the Philippines. With the goal of invigorating the
profitability of the colonies like the Philippines, Bourbon policies and reforms were
carried out. The first governor-general to the Philippines under the Bourbon mandate
was Jose de Basco y Vargas who arrived in the Philippines in 1778.

By the time Basco arrived, the Galleon Trade, the main economic institution existing in
the Philippines, was already a losing enterprise. As Spain sought ways to salvage the
dwindling economy of the empire, the global wave of industrialization became silver
lining. As many imperial powers in Europe and the West were undergoing
industrialization, an increased demand for raw materials resented an opportunity to
look into the agricultural potential of the Philippines. Thus, it was viewed that the
transformation of the economy towards being export-oriented, harnessing the
agricultural products that could be yielded from the archipelago, was the way to go.

To better facilitate the envisioned reorientation of the economy, Basco established the
Royal Philippine Company in 1785 to finance agricultural projects and manage the new
trade being established between the Philippines and Spain (and Europe) as well as other

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Asian markets. These changes, however, were met lukewarm reception. Resistance also
came from various sectors like the Catholic Church that was not receptive of the labor
realignments entailed by the planned reforms, and traders that were still holding on to
the Galleon Trade. It also did not help that the Royal Philippine Company was fraught
with issues of mismanagement and corruption. As Basco pushed for the reforms, he
lifted a ban on Chinese merchants that reinvigorated internal trade; initialized the
development of cash crop farms; relaxed certain policies that allowed the gradual
opening of Manila to foreign markets; and established the Tobacco Monopoly to
maximize the production of this export good.

Global events continued to affect the Philippines at the beginning of the 19th century.
By 1810, the Mexican War of Independence rattled the Spanish empire, as it would
eventually lead to the loss of the precious Latin American colonies. With this came the
eventual end of the Galleon Trade which became a concern in the Philippines. As the
Philippine economy hung in the balance, policies were recalibrated and with eventual
closing of the Royal Philippine Company, Manila was opened to world trade by 1834. As
a result, foreign merchants and traders came and eventually resided in Manila and took
over the role of financial and facilitating the burgeoning agricultural cash crop, export-
oriented, economy. Some of the major investments came from British and American
traders that set up merchant houses in Manila.

The rapid development of the economy began to flow in the Philippines through cash
crops. By the first-half of the 19th century, majority of the exports of the Philippines
came from cash crops like tobacco, sugar, cotton, indigo, abaca, and coffee.

The importance of land became more evident as cash crops became the major source of
revenue in the colony. As the provinces shifted to cultivating, cash crops, land
ownership and management began to be a concern. The farmers felt the pressure of the
economy while the hacenderos grabbed the opportunity. For example, when a small
landowner needed capital and money, he would engage in a pacto de retroventa, an
agreement of sale guaranteeing that he could buy the land back at the same price at
which it was sold. However, it became difficult to buy back land given the continuously
increasing demand of the economy and the renewals of the sale, which further buried
the farmers to be forced to become tenant farmers, or kasama. Aside from this mode,
land acquisition also came in the form of land-grabbing. As the growing economy

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required better management of the lands, inquilinos emerged, renting land to sublet it
to smaller farmers.

5.2 The Chinese and Chinese Mestizos

The sectors that greatly benefited from the changing economy were the Chinese and
the Chinese mestizos. Since pre-colonial times, the natives of the Philippines had trade
relations with the Chinese. During the height of the Galleon Trade, it was also Chinese
products that comprised most the goods being traded. The influx of Chinese settlements
in the Philippines made the Spaniards suspicious of the Chinese. These feelings led to
stringent state policies towards the sangley ranging from higher taxes, the restriction of
movement with the establishment of the Chinese enclave (the Parian), to actual policies
of expulsion.

The Chinese, however, proved to be “necessary outsiders” in Philippine colonial

economy and society. Although the Spaniards were wary of the Chinese, they realized
the importance that the latter played in sustaining the economy. From the goods loaded
on the galleons to the development of retail trade, the Chinese enlivened the economy.
Eventually and gradually, they became integrated into colonial society, giving, rise to
intermarriages with indios that gave birth to Chinese mestizos. The Chinese mestizos
assumed an important role in the economy all throughout the Spanish colonial period.
They influenced the changing economy in the 19th century by purchasing land,
accumulating wealth and influence.

5.3 Impact on Life in the Colony

The economic developments, as mentioned, precipitated social, political, and cultural

developments as well. For example, the new economy demanded a more literature
population to address the rising need for a more professionalized workforce to man the
trading activities in Manila and other centers. This demand compelled the issuance of
the colonial government order in 1836 that required all towns to set up primary schools
to teach the population how to read and write. It eventually led to the passage of an

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education decree in 1863 that mandated free primary education. Eventually, the 19th
century also gave birth to many schools that addressed the growing demand for more
professionals. Schools like Ateneo Municipal were established during this time. The
complex nature of the developing economy also allowed the government to intensify
bureaucratization and to streamline colonial government.

As Manila became a trading center, it became a viable destination for people seeking
better opportunities or those wanting to escape the worsening conditions in the
farmlands. The increased rate of internal migration raised several concerns. One, people
flocked the centers of trade like Manila. Overcrowding implied issues in living quarters,
sanitation and public health, and increase in criminality. Two, the continuous movement
of people made tax collection extra difficult. In order to mitigate these concerns, one
measure implemented was the 1849 decree of Governor-General Narciso Claveria that
urged the people in the colony to adopt surnames. With the catalogo de apellidos
drawn up, the colonial government assigned surnames to people and forbade changing
names at will. Together with more policies like the registration and possession of a
cedula personal bearing one’s name and residence, the colonial government south to
have a better surveillance mechanism. To help carry out policies better, the guardia civil
was eventually established. As the new economy afforded the colonial state new
opportunities, it also prompted the state to be more regulatory and to assert its
authority.

5.4 Renegotiating Social Stratification

The Philippine society felt the impact of the developing economy. As a result, social
relations underwent redefinitions and the changing dynamics brought about a
renegotiation of social stratification. With the growing relevance of the mestizo
population, new lines were drawn with the following social strata:

Peninsular: pure-blooded Spaniard born in the Iberian Peninsula (i.e., Spain)

Insular: pure-blooded Spaniard born in the Philippines.

Mestizo: born of mixed parentage, a mestizo can be:

Spanish mestizo – one parent is Spanish, the other is a native; or

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 Chinese mestizo – one parent is Chinese, the other is a native.

Principalia: wealthy pure-blooded native supposedly descended from the

kadatoan class.

Indio: pure-blooded native of the Philippines.

Chino infiel: non-Catholic pure-blooded Chinese.

As the Spaniards lost economic power in the 19th century, they asserted dominance by
virtue of their race. This issue brought complications with the rising principalia and
mestizo populations who realized their indispensable position in society as movers and
facilitators of the economy. The renegotiation continued throughout the century as the
mestizos and principalia elite eventually demanded social recognition that the pure-
blooded Spaniards had consistently denied them.

These wealthy mestizos and members of the principalia continued to amass economic
and cultural capital. They also availed themselves of the opportunity to obtain higher
degrees of education not only in the Philippines but also in Europe. These activities
augmented their relevance in society as it was from these ranks that articulations of
nationalism would emerge.

Vocabulary

Cash crop – crops cultivated for export

Decree – an order issued by a legal authority; a policy pronouncement

Galleon trade – from 1565-1815, this was the form of trade between the Philippines
and Mexico. The galleons would sail to Mexico loaded with goods and return to the
Philippines carrying the payment in silver.

Merchant houses – firms established in Manila and other cities by foreign traders.

Pacto de retroventa – an agreement that allowed a landowner to sell his/her land with
the guarantee that he/she could buy the land back at the same price.

Parian – Chinese enclave established in 1581 outside the walls of Intramuros. The
Chinese were forced to live in the Parian.

Sangley – a term that proliferated in the Spanish Philippines to refer to people of pure
Chinese descent, came from the Hokkien word “seng-li” meaning business.

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Social stratification – a way by which people in a society are categorized based on socio-
economic as well as political standards.

Summary

This chapter aimed to situate Rizal’s life within the larger context of the
nineteenth century. It focused on the economic and social developments in the century
that shaped the world in which Rizal lived. The Philippines, being part of the wider
Spanish empire, underwent changes when the Spanish Crown also had a dynastic shift in
the eighteenth century. With this came the Bourbon reforms that brought new policies
of economic reorientation for the colonies. With the development of the cash crop
economy and the opening of Manila and other cities to world trade, the economy
boomed in the nineteenth century. This development in the economy also had a
profound impact on the social and political landscapes. The new economy resulted in
changes in policies about education and heightened the surveillance and regulatory
mechanisms of the state. Furthermore, the 19th century saw the ascendance of the
mestizo and principalia classes that would assert their relevance in society. Thus, it is
not wholly surprising that men like Jose Rizal flourished in the 19th century. Born in the
1860s, Rizal grew up in a society in transitions. By the time he matured, he could reap
the benefits of the changes that were happening. As he was exposed to higher
education, he would realize that as much as economic development was a reality, so
was the rising inequality and worsening conditions for the majority of the population.

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 Chapter 6 Agrarian Disputes

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected
to:

1. explain how the Hacienda de Calamba issue serves as an exemplary

illustration of agrarian conflicts in the late nineteenth century; and

In 1891, Jose Rizal was in Hong Kong when he received distressing news about his family
who were, at that time, embroiled in a litigation case concerning the Hacienda de
Calamba. He heard that the Spanish authorities were summoning his mother, Dona
Teodora, and two younger sisters, Josefa and Trinidad, for further investigation. In a
show of support, he wrote to his family, “I am following your cavalry step by step. Do
not be afraid, I am doing all I can… Patience, a little patience. Courage!”

Scholars and students of history agree that the conflict between his family and the
Dominicans over the hacienda greatly affected Rizal.

6.1 Brief History of Friar Estates in the Philippines

The origin of the friar estates can be traced back to land grants awarded to the early
Spanish conquistadores who arrived in the Philippines during the late sixteenth and
early seventeenth centuries. Approximately 120 Spaniards were given grants that were
often composed of a large tract of land known as sitio de ganado mayor (measuring
1,742 hectares) and smaller tracts of land known as caballerias (measuring 42.5
hectares).

In time, the Spanish hacenderos failed to develop their lands for three reasons. First, the
Spanish population in the Philippines was transient. It was a common practice for
Spanish administrators to return to Spain after having served in the country. Second, the
market for livestock products, which haciendas offered, remained relatively small until

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the latter part of the Spanish colonial period. Third, the Galleon Trade that was based in
Manila offered bigger economic rewards and attracted more Spaniards. Because the
Spanish hacenderos lacked the interest and inclination to develop their lands, the
religious orders soon took over the task.

Land was acquired by the religious orders through various means. Often, the lands were
donated by Spaniards seeking spiritual benefits. There were cases, too, in which estates
that had been heavily mortgaged to the ecclesiastics were eventually purchased by the
religious orders themselves. Records reveal that a number of Filipino principales also
contributed to the formation of the friar estates through donations and sales. Despite
these methods, there persisted a commonly held belief among the Filipinos that the
religious orders had no titles to their lands and that they had acquired these lands
through usurpation or other dubious means. Nevertheless, religious estates in the
Tagalog region continued to grow that by the 19th century, they constituted
approximately 40 percent of the provinces of Bulacan, Tondo (presently Rizal), Cavite,
and Laguna.

The preoccupation in the estates was varied during the early centuries of Spanish
colonial rule. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the estates primarily served as cattle
ranches as well as farms of subsistence crops. Rice and sugar later served as main
commodities produced in the haciendas and became important sources of income for
the religious orders especially during the 19th century.

Agrarian relations in the haciendas developed in the time. In the 16th and 17th
centuries, the social structure bound in the haciendas was primarily composed of lay
brother administrators at the top and cultivating tenants below. Although the lay
brother administrators were under the direct authority of the heads of their religious
orders, they were relatively free to make their own decisions or administrative affairs.
The tenants of the other hand, were expected to work the land and pay an annual rent,
which was usually a fixed amount of harvest and in later centuries, money.

By the mid-eighteenth century, an expanding economy based on exporting agricultural

crops ushered in change and gradually put into place an inquilinato system. Under this
system, an individual rented land for a fixed annual amount, known as canon. Aside
from the rent, the inquilino or lessee was also expected to render personal services to
his landlords. If the inquilino failed to satisfy these requirements, he could face
expulsion from the land. Usually, the inquilino, in turn, would sub-lease the land to a

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kasama or sharecropper who would then take on the task of cultivating the soil. Thus, a
three-tiered system emerged with the landlords at the top, the inquilinos at the middle,
and the sharecroppers at the bottom.

By leasing the land to an inquilino, the religious hacenderos freed themselves from the
social responsibilities borne from a direct interaction with the sharecroppers since it was
now the inquilinos who dealt directly with the kasama. The sharecroppers, on the other
hand, benefitted from the arrangement because their labor organizations to the
religious estates allowed them to be exempted from the responsibilities of forced labor
demanded by the Spanish government. The downside of this type of arrangement,
however, was that two non-cultivating groups further diminished the income of the
sharecroppers. After the inquilino paid his rent to the hacenderos and deducted his own
share, the remaining amount of income would then be divided among all the
sharecroppers.

The change in the social structure and land tenure practices would eventually render
the haciendas as sites of contestation among the Spanish religious hacenderos, the
inquilinos, and the sharecroppers. It is not surprising, then, when the Philippine
revolution broke out in 1896, the abuse in the friar estates were often identifies as one
of the main causes that investigated the revolt.

6.2 Hacienda de Calamba Conflict

Not much is known about the Hacienda de Calamba prior to 1759 other than it was
owned by several Spanish laymen. In 1759, a destitute Spanish layman, Don Manuel
Jauregui, donated the lands to the Jesuits on the condition that he would be allowed to
live in the Jesuit monastery for the rest of his life. The Jesuits would claim ownership to
the land for a mere eight years before they were expelled from the Philippines through
a decree issued by King Charles III on February 27, 1767. As a result of the expulsion,
Hacienda de Calamba, along with other Jesuit properties, were confiscated by the
government and put under the management of the Office of Jesuit Temporalities.

In 1803, the government sold the property to a Spanish layman, Don Clemente de
Azansa, for 44,507 pesos. When he died in 1833, the Hacienda de Calamba, which
measured 16,424 hectares, was purchased by the Dominicans for 52,000 pesos. By this

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time, many families from neighboring towns have migrated to the hacienda in search of
economic opportunities. Among the families that arrived at the hacienda were Rizal’s
ancestors, who eventually became one of the principal inquilinos in the hacienda.

Although the lands in Calamba were leased to several families, it was Rizal’s family that
rented one of the largest leased lands, measuring approximately 380 hectares. Sugar
was a main commodity planted in the hacienda as there was a demand for the crop in
the world market. Much of the wealth of Rizal’s family came from these lands; hence, it
is but natural that when the conflict began to manifest itself as early as 1881, there was
much for the family to be concerned about.

In 1883, Paciano Rizal wrote that the friars were collecting rents without issuing the
usual receipts. Two years later, the tenants failed to pay their rents because the rent
had supposedly increased while sugar prices had remained low. To punish the tenants
for not paying the rent, the Dominicans declared the lands vacant and invited residents
of other towns to take over the tenancies. Because only a few outsiders responded to
the Dominican’s invitation, the friars weakened their position. Most tenants, except for
four or five, were spared from eviction.

The charges against the friars continued with Rizal’s brother in-law, Mariano Herboso,
specifically complaining about the yearly increase in rentals, faulty irrigation systems,
and failure to issue receipts. Coupled with these problems was the fact that at this time,
the price of sugar continued to decline in the world market. The situation became so
dire that Paciano, at one point, considered giving back his lands to the friars and clearing
land elsewhere.

Problems continued to escalate when in 1887, the colonial government demanded from
the tenants of the hacienda a report on the income and production of the estate
because they suspected that the Dominicans were evading payment of their taxes. The
tenants complied and submitted a report, but they also attached a petition authored by
Jose Rizal. The petition presented a list of grievances against the hacienda owners
including, a complaint on the increasing amount of rent. To show resistance, some of
the tenants began to withhold rents.

As a form of retaliation, the friars began to evict tenants who refused to pay rent in
1891. Those who persisted still in resisting the friars were eventually expelled. Among
those who were exiled to remote areas in the country were Rizal’s parents, brother, and

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sisters. Although Rizal had worked on reversing the decision on the Philippine courts, his
family’s exile would only be lifted upon issuance of a decree from another governor
general. The experience affected Rizal deeply and the increasing despair he felt from the
event would be reflected in his second novel, El Filibusterismo.

Vocabulary

conquistador – a Spanish conqueror

caballeria – a small tract of land included in a land grant

canon – annual rent paid by the inquilino

cavan – a measure equal to 75 liters

hacienda – large estates that were used for raising livestock and agricultural production
inquilino – a tenant who rented land from the friars and subleased the land to
sharecroppers

principales – ruling elite class

sharecropper (kasama) – an individual who rented the land from an inquilino and
worked the land

sitio de ganado mayor – a large tract of land included in a land grant

Summary

This chapter presented a brief history of the hacienda from its beginnings as a
royal land grant rewarded to Spaniards who had rendered exemplary service to the
Spanish Crown. Later, these lands came into the possession of the friars by way of
purchase or donation. Also pointed out in this chapter was the change in landlord-
tenant relationships from a two-tiered relationship between a religious administrator
and a tenant to a three-tiered one with landlords, inquilinos, and sharecroppers.

Rizal’s family served as inquilinos in the Dominican’s Hacienda de Calamba. By 1883, the
family began to notice in the manner through which the Dominicans collected rent. The
conflict reached its height towards the end of the 1880s when the farmers wrote a
petition to the government detailing their grievances against the Dominicans and with
the priests retaliating as a result. The conflict affected Rizal deeply and reflected
particularly in his second novel, El Filibusterismo

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 Chapter 7 Exile, Arrest and Execution

Inended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected
to:

1. Discuss the details and reasons of the exile, arrest and execution of Dr.
Jose Rizal.

7.1 Exile in Dapitan

Rizal arrived in Dapitan on board the streamer Cebu on July 17, 1892. Dapitan (now
Zamboanga del Norte) was a remote town in Mindanao which served as a politico-
military outpost of the Spaniards in the Philippines. It was headed by Captain Ricardo
Carnicero, who became a friend of Rizal during his exile. He gave Rizal a permission to
explore the place and required him to report once a week in his office.

The quiet place of Dapitan became Rizal’s home from 1892 to 1896. Here, he practiced
medicine, pursued scientific studies, and continued his artistic pursuits in sculpture,
painting, sketching, and writing poetry. He established a school for boys and promoted
community development projects. He also found time to study the Malayan language
and other Philippine languages. He engaged himself in farming and commerce and even
invented a wooden machine for making bricks.

On September 21, 1892, Rizal won the second prize in a lottery together with Ricardo
Carnicero and another Spaniard. His share amounted to 6,200 pesos. A portion of Rizal’s
winnings was used in purchasing land approximately one kilometer away from Dapitan
in a place known as Talisay. He built his house on the seashore of Talisay as well as a
school and a hospital within the area.

Relative to Rizal’s project to improve and beautify Dapitan, he made a big relief map of
Mindanao in the plaza and used it to teach geography. With this map, which still exists
today, he discussed to the town people the position of Dapitan in relation to other
places in Mindanao. Assisted by his pupils, Rizal also constructed a water system to
supply the town with water for drinking and irrigation. He also helped the people in
putting up lampposts at every corner of the town.

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Having heard of Rizal’s fame as an ophthalmologist, George Taufer who was suffering
from eye ailment traveled from Hong Kong to Dapitan. He was accompanied by his
adopted daughter, Josephine Bracken, who eventually fell in love with Rizal. They lived
as husband and wife in Rizal’s octagonal house after being denied the sacrament of
marriage by Father Obach, the parish priest of Dapitan, due to Rizal’s refusal to retract
his statements against the Church and to accept other conditions.

On the eve of June 21, 1896, Dr. Pio Valenzuela visited Rizal in Dapitan and informed
him about the founding of Katipunan and the planned revolution. Rizal objected to it,
citing the importance of a well-planned movement with sufficient arms.

Meanwhile, Rizal had been sending letter to then Gov. General Ramon Blanco. Twice he
sent letters, one in 1894 and another in 1895. He asked for a review of his case. He said
that if his request would not be granted, he would volunteer to serve as a surgeon
under the Spanish army fighting in the Cuban revolution.

On July 30, 1986, Rizal’s request to go to Cuba was approved. The next day, he left for
Manila on board the streamer Espana. And on September 3, 1896, he boarded the
streamer Isla de Panay which would bring him to Barcelona. Upon arriving the port,
however, Gov. General Despujol told him that there was an order to ship him back to
Manila. On November 3, 1896, Rizal arrived in Manila and was immediately brought to
Fort Bonifacio.

7.2 Trial and Execution

The preliminary investigation of Rizal’s case began on November 20, 1896. He was
accused of being the main organizer of the revolution by having proliferated the ideas if
rebellion and of founding illegal organizations. Rizal pleaded not guilty and even wrote a
manifesto appealing to the revolutionaries to discontinue the uprising. Rizal’s lawyer, Lt.
Luis Taviel de Andrade, tried his best to save Rizal. However, on December 26, 1896, the
trial ended and the sentence was read. Rizal was found guilty and sentenced to death by
firing squad.

On December 28, 1896, Gov. General Camilo de Polavieja signed the court decision. He
later decreed that Rizal be executed by firing squad at 7:00 a.m. of December 30.

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Rizal, on his last remaining days, composed his longest poem, Mi Ultimo Adios, which
was about his farewell to the Filipino people. When his mother and sisters visited him
on December 29, 1896, Rizal give away his remaining possessions. He handed his gas
lamp to his sister Trinidad and murmured softly in English, “There is something inside.”
Eventually Trining and her sister Maria would extract from the lamp the copy of Rizal’s
last poem.

At 6:30 in the morning of December 30, 1896, Rizal, in black suit with his arms tied
behind his back, walked to Bagumbayan. The orders were given and shots were fired.
Consummatum est! (“It is finished!”) Rizal died offering his life for his country and its
freedom.

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 Chapter 8 Noli Me Tangere

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected
to:

1. describe the context of the publication of the Noli Me Tangere; and

2. discuss the major elements of the Noli Me Tangere.

Jose Rizal’s first novel, Noli Me Tangere, is considered one of the most important
written outputs by the national hero at the height of his intellectual endeavors in
Europe. In this novel, Rizal mustered his academic acumens as he tapped his knowledge
of various fields and wove a narrative that aimed to represent, if not expose, the
realities of 19th century colonial life in the Philippines. Many appreciate the Noli for its
narrative that takes the readers, through the eyes of its characters, on a journey of love
and deception, struggles and triumphs; and in the process, presents pressing questions
about power and social inequalities.

8.1 The Publication of the Noli

As a sojourner in Europe, Rizal participated in the movement of the ilustrados to utilize

propaganda to campaign for reforms in the Philippines. Utilizing their intellectual
prowess, the ilustrados released various written outputs from news bits, to feature
articles, and commentaries. They also produced creative outputs from satirical pieces to
world-class paintings. Within this artistic and literary collection, Rizal’s exemplary of
words was clearly evident in one of his most celebrated works, his first novel, Noli Me
Tangere.

The idea of publishing a book was not alien to Rizal. In a meeting of the ilustrados in
1884, he proposed to write a book project to be done collaboratively with his fellow
writers. Unfortunately, the project did not materialize. He eventually decided to write a
novel on his own. He started work on the project in 1884 and completed it in 1887.

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Many of his biographies cite several works that influenced Rizal in writing of the Noli.
One of these is Juan Luna’s painting, Spoliarium, which depicted the sufferings faced by
humanity in the face of inequalities. Another is Uncle Tom’s Cabin, a novel by Harriet
Beecher Stowe that dealt with slavery in America. Rizal finished the first half of the
novel in Spain, supposedly the other half in France, then completed the draft in 1886.
The novel was published the following year in Germany. Lack of funds delayed the
book’s publication until a fellow ilustrado, Maximo Viola, insisted on lending him 300
pesos for the printing of the first 2,000 copies. By 1887, Rizal was already sending out
copies of the Noli to his friends and the book began to take flight.

8.2 Motivations Behind Writing the Noli

The title, Noli Me Tangere, had Biblical reference to the gospel of John in which Jesus
appeared to Mary Magdalene and uttered these words: “Touch me not, for I am not yet
ascended to my Father. “The choice of title according to Rizal was fitting because he
intended to write about themes that were taboo in the Philippines for centuries; things
that people dared not touch.

According to his biographies, Rizal first planned to write his novel in French, considered
to be the language of the intellectuals in Europe that time. He, however, shifted to
Spanish because he intended to reach out to his countrymen in the Philippines. Rizal
explained: “I must wake from its slumber the spirit of my country… I must first propose
to my countrymen an example with which they can struggle against their bad qualities,
and afterwards, when they have reformed, many writers would rise up to present my
country to proud Europe” (qtd. In Schumacher, 1991, p. 93).

The project of writing the Noli, as stated, was geared towards exposing the ills of
Philippine colonial society under Spain. Thus, through the passages within the Noli,
readers also get glimpses of how Rizal saw his country.

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8.3 Plot

The story of the Noli Me Tangere followed the life of Juan Crisostomo Ibarra after he
returned to the Philippines from studying in Europe. The novel opened with Capitan
Tiago preparing a homecoming gathering for the young ilustrado. Throughout the pages
of the novel, the characters could be seen navigating the complex realities of colonial
Philippines. Ibarra was shown to be rekindling links with his betrothed Maria Clara. But
not everything was fine and dandy for Ibarra. Upon his return, he learned about the ills
that plagued his town as well as the abuses of the friars to which his late father fell
victim to. Ibarra found an antagonist in Padre Damaso, the former curate of San Diego
who ordered that the corpse of his father be exhumed and reburied in the Chinese
cemetery.

Despite these personal travails, Ibarra persevered to fulfill the plan of building a school
in San Diego, staying true to his belief that education was crucial for his nation’s
progress. Ibarra almost got killed had it not for Elias, a boatman, who saved him. Elias
also previously cautioned Ibarra about his actions that could anger the friars. After the
incident, Ibarra organized a luncheon. Here, another confrontation occurred between
Ibarra and Damaso who attended the luncheon uninvited. In a fit of anger, Ibarra took a
knife against Damaso’s and threatened to slit his throat as he told everyone of the
abuses committed by Damaso and the desecration he did to Ibarra’s father. Maria Clara
calmed Ibarra and prevented him from killing the friar. Damaso, in an act of revenge,
persuaded Capitan Tiago, the father of Maria Clara, to not allow his daughter to marry
Ibarra.

After some time, a revolt was blamed on Ibarra, which caused his incarceration. With
the help of Elias, he escaped and went to see Maria Clara who was soon marrying the
man her father chose for her. In a heartbreaking confrontation, Ibarra and Maria Clara
exchanged accusations in the process, it was revealed that Damaso was the true father
of Maria Clara.

A turmoil and confusion engulfed the town, Maria Clara thought Ibarra had been killed.
This caused her endless grief. She asked to be confined to a nunnery lest she take her
own life. It was later revealed that Ibarra was not dead and that Elias was the one fatally
shot. In the latter passages, the dying Elias was waiting for Ibarra but instead, met and

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talked to the young Basilio. He instructed the orphaned boy (his mother Sisa, who
became insane looking for her young sons, had died) to find the treasure of Ibarra
buried in the cemetery and use it to get an education. He reminded Basilio to never lose
hope and if one day, freedom and progress would come to his country, to not forget to
who labored in the night.

Within this general contour of the narrative, Rizal wove a complex story and subplots.
Reading through the novel, different characters and their corresponding stories
unfolded as told through the voice of an unseen narrator. Truly, the pages of the Noli
reflected the lives of people living in the complicated world of colonial Philippines.

Vocabulary

Novel – a long written story most often about fictional events and characters

Setting (in a novel) – the context in which the events take place; covers geographical
areas in particular periods of time

Plot – the flow of the narrative in a story

Summary

This chapter discussed Noli Me Tangere, tracing its publication and Rizal’s
motivation behind its writing. Noli Me Tangere was part of a publication agenda
conceived by Rizal in the hopes of awakening countrymen and the world about the
colonial conditions in the Philippines. On the pages of the Noli, Rizal’s genius shone
through as he assembled and harnesses his intellect to paint a picture of 19th century
Philippines. The plot provided a story of hope and struggle against the backdrop of an
elaborate setting filled with equally complex characters. Through the novel’s characters,
varied points of view were gleaned from colonial life and through its plot, an allegory of
colonial society was created.

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 Chapter 9 Noli Me Tangere,
Continuing Relevance

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected
to:

1. appreciate the importance of Rizal as a thinker; and

2. relate the issues raised in the novel to the changing landscape of the
contemporary world.

While the Noli Me Tangere triggered social conversations in the late 19th century
Philippines, it is important to note how the novel continues to resonate beyond its time.
The success of Rizal’s novel also rests on its timeliness in terms of present-day social
issues and political/economic realities.

9.1 Noli After Its First Publication

At present, Noli Me Tangere is considered by many as a landmark piece of literature. In

his account of the literary history of the Philippines, scholar Resil Mojares even went to
the extent naming Rizal as the father of the Filipino novel (Testa-De Ocampo, 2011). The
themes of the novel revolved around societal issues experienced in the Philippines
under the Spanish colonial rule.

In the immediate months and years after its release in 1887, the Noli generated
reactions from readers, Filipinos and foreigners alike. Responses ranged from praise to
outright ridicule. One sector that espoused utmost disdain for the novel was the Spanish
clergy as well as some Spanish colonial officials. It is thus understandable that Spanish
friars vehemently prohibited the circulation of the novel in 1887 when Fray Salvador
Font, chair of the censorship commission, outlawed the reading and possession of
Rizal’s novel. Many other friars assessed and judged the book as pernicious. They
enjoined devout Catholics not to read the novel to avoid committing capital sins. Not
only confined in the Philippines, critiques of the novel coming from Spanish officials and
academics also circulated in Spain. One staunch critic of the novel was the Spanish

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academic Vicente Barrantes who wrote several articles in Spanish newspapers ridiculing
Rizal as a “man of contradictions.” Barrantes lamented that Rizal’s lambasting of the
friars and the Spaniards was reflective of the author and telling more about the
Filipinos.

As much as Rizal’s critics came from various sectors, his novel also found ardent
defenders among his peers. Many of his colleagues in the Propaganda Movement
praised his novel. One example is Marcelo H. del Pilar who even wrote essays in
response to critics of the Noli. Rizal’s friend, Ferdinand Blumentritt, also an academic,
also expressed support for the novel.

As the Noli stirred controversy in social circles in 19th century Philippines, it is

remarkable to realize that even beyond its time, the novel continued to be a subject of
debate and discussion. In the immediate years after its publication, the Noli was
translated into several languages. One of the earliest translations of the novel was done
in French. Many scholars posit that there were early attempts to translate the novel into
German (by Blumentritt) and even Tagalog (by Rizal’s brother, Paciano) but these plans
never came to fruition. At the turn of the 20th century, during the American colonial
period, several translations and editions of the novel came out. Arguably the most
circulated versions were the English translations of Charles Derbyshire. By the 1930s,
Rizal’s Noli had several Spanish editions, translations into English, French, Japanese, and
also into several languages in the Philippines including Tagalog, Waray, Iloko, and Bikol
(Testa De Ocampo, 2011).

The very controversy that surrounded the passage of the Rizal Law indicated the
relevance of the next 1950s and even beyond. In academia, many scholars have also
made it a point to discuss the politics of translation and the nuances of transforming the
text in several forms. As Testa-De Ocampo points out, as much as the novel is elevated
in the highest echelons of Philippine literary history, seldom do we find Filipinos reading
it in the original Spanish. Versions and translations of the Noli also did not go without
scrutiny from academics like Benedict Anderson. Truly, be it about its content, context,
or the way it is read or used, the value of Rizal’s novel is definitely felt in the Philippines.

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9.2 Noli and the Study of a Colonial Society

A remarkable aspect of Rizal’s Noli lies in its text which espoused the national hero’s
articulations of a social-scientific view of the 19th century Philippines he was describing.
Sociologist Syed Fareed Alatas went as far as describing Rizal as “probably the first
systematic social thinker in Southeast Asia.”

Taken together with Rizal’s other writings, the Noli makes an important contribution to
the understanding of a colonial society and of the workings of the Spanish empire in the
Philippines. The novel portrayed the lives of the characters of diverse positions from
which people in the 19th century Philippines thought and acted in relation to others.
Many scholars interpret the Noli as Rizal’s diagnosis of the ills of colonial society as he
assessed the role played by the church, the state, and the people. In the Noli, Rizal
highlighted some of his ideas on how the Philippine society could be emancipated from
the bondage of colonial rule. He underscored the importance of education as a powerful
tool to achieve progress. However, he also exposed the complexities and constraints
wrought by the colonial condition not only on foreigners, but also on some misguided
Filipinos that contributed to the ills of society. As Rizal exposed the vile realities of the
context he wrote about, he also emphasized the good qualities of the Filipinos, which
needed to be harnessed in order to succeed in the struggle for emancipation.

Vocabulary

Censorship – the suppression of the release or publication of material deemed

inappropriate, obscene, politically unacceptable, or a threat to security

Critique – an evaluation, analysis, or assessment of a literary, philosophical, or scientific

work

Sociology – the social science dealing with the study of the development, structures,
and functioning of human society

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 Summary

In this chapter, the “afterlife” of Noli Me Tangere was discussed, highlighting

its impact on Philippine society a well as on disciplines such as literature, history, and
the social sciences. This way, the relevance of Rizal and his first novel was underscored.
The Noli, in the end, is not just a literary piece; it is a political, historical, and social
scientific treatise about the conditions in the Philippines during the late 19th century. As
such, the novel continues to stimulate discussions up to the present and its themes
remain worth of debate.

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 Chapter 10 El Filibuterismo,
Content and Context

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected
to:

1. trace the meaning of the term filibustero across time;

2. explain the historical context in which El Filibusterismo was written;
3. examine current events through the eyes of the characters; and
4. evaluate Rizal as a novelist.

Rizal’s second novel, El Filibusterismo, is a story set in twilight years of the Spanish
colonial government of the Philippines. It was first translated into English by Charles
Derbyshire in 1912 under the title, The Reign of Greed. The book according to the
translator “represents Rizal’s more mature judgment on political and social conditions in
the islands, and in its graver and less hopeful tone reflects the disappointments and
discouragements which he had encountered in his efforts to lead the way to reform.”

10.1 Filibusterismo: History and Context

Rizal started writing El Filibusterismo as a sequel to the Noli Me Tangere after he

returned to Europe in February 1888 (Lacson-Locsin, 2004). The novel, therefore, was
written in the midst of threats and oppressions he and his family were experiencing
because of the Noli and the Calamba incident.

Rizal continued working on his novel and made some revisions while he was in London
in 1888. He was able to complete the novel after three years when he was in Biarritz,
France on March 29, 1891. However, because of financial constraints, it was not until
September of the same year that the book was published with the help of his friend,
Valentin Ventura.

In March 1887, after reading the Noli Me Tangere, Blumentritt asked Rizal the meaning
of the word “filibustero” which he did not find in the Spanish Language (Aguilar, 2011).
To recall, Rizal replied: The word filibustero is still very little known in the Philippines; the
common people as yet do not know it. I heard it for the first time in 1872 when the tragic

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execution took place. I still remember the terror it aroused. Our father forbade us ever to
utter it, as well as the words Cavite, Burgos, etc. The Manila newspapers and the
Spaniards apply this word to one whom they want to render suspect of revolutionary
activities. The educated fear the reach of the word. It does not have the meaning of
freebooter; it rather means a dangerous patriot who will soon be hanged, or a
presumptuous fellow.

In 1890, Wenceslao Retana wrote about the “filibustero” and described in the term as
“the one who, eager for the independence of the country, resorts to various extralegal
proceedings in order to reach the objective that he pursues” (Aguilar, 2011). By the end
of the 19th century, the Spanish colonial government defined “filibuster” as “someone
who works for the separation of our overseas provinces.” With these definitions, one
will have an idea about the plot of Rizal’s second novel. It deals with subversion. It
pictures the lives of people under an oppressive regime. It narrates the struggles of
every Filipino in fighting for independence.

El Fili is dedicated to Gomburza, the three priests who were accused of being filibusters
in 1872. In his dedication, Rizal expressed his high regard for the priests who became
victims of “the evil that I am trying to fight.”

To the Memory of the priests:

Don Mariano Gomez (85 years old)

Don Jose Burgos (30 years old) and

Don Jacinto Zamora (35 years old)

Executed on the scaffold at Bagumbayan

on February 28, 1872

The Church, in refusing to degrade you, has placed in doubt the crime imputed to you;
the Government, in shrouding your cause with mystery and obscurities, creates belief in
some error committed in critical moments, and the whole Philippines, in venerating your
memory and calling you martyrs, in no way acknowledges your guilt.

As long therefore as your participation in the Cavite uprising is not clearly shown,
whether or not you were patriots, whether or not you nourished sentiments of justice
and liberty, I have the right to dedicate my work to you, as to victims of the evil that I am
trying to fight. And while we wait for Spain to reinstate you and make herself jointly

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culpable for your death, let these pages serve as belated wreath of dried leaves laid on
your unknown graves; and may your blood be upon the hands of those who, without
sufficient proof, assail your memory!

Rizal, however, made mistakes in indicating the age of the three priests and the date
they were executed. Gomburza were publicly executed by garrote on the early morning
of February 17, 1872. Gomez was then 73, Burgos was 35, and Zamora was 37.

In her translation of the novel, Soledad Lacson-Locsin described the book based on the
themes that can be seen in the story: “El Fili begins where Noli leaves off, where love,
romance, heroism, idealism and tragedy turn to hate, bitterness, anger, disillusionment
and vengeance” (Lacson-Locsin, 2004). Unlike Noli, El Fili burns with passion and
ideology. Rizal’s biographers opined that El Fili showed his maturity as a novelist.

10.2 Synopsis

The story of El Filibusterismo revolved around the main character, Simoun, who was a
rich jeweler. Simoun was actually Crisostomo Ibarra of the Noli whom everyone thought
was killed by the guardia civil at the Laguna de Bay thirteen years ago. He was able to
escape and fled to Cuba. He became wealthy and was able to establish connections with
prominent Spanish officials. Upon his return to the Philippines, Simoun became very
influential being the consultant of the governor-general.

Simoun came back with his grand plan to exact revenge on Spanish officials and to
rescue Maria Clara who entered the convent after learning the news of Ibarra’s death.
He planned to launch a revolution which he started by smuggling arms and recruiting
followers, mainly from the exploited and abused natives. One of his recruits was Basilio,
the son of Sisa. With the help of Capitan Tiago, Basilio was able to study medicine in
Manila. Simoun also began to establish an alliance with Kabesang Tales and his
revolutionary group. Kabesang Tales was a former cabeza de barangay who was
maltreated by the friars. Using his position, Simoun encouraged corruption and more
oppressive government policies to enrage the people and thus, provoke them to revolt.

Simoun’s plans of revolution failed twice. In his first attempt, he decided not to give the
signal for the outbreak of the uprising upon hearing the news of Maria Clara’s death.

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Basilio and other students were then arrested for allegedly forming a seditious
organization. Simoun arranged the release of Basilio who became bitter and vengeful.
However, he was very grateful to Simoun and offered his full support for the revolution.
The second attempt at starting a revolution entailed the planting of a bomb at the
wedding reception of Paulita Gomez and Juanito Pelaez. Illustrious guests at the
mansion (formerly the house of Capitan Tiago) included Padre Salvi and the governor-
general. In Simoun’s plan, the revolution would be triggered by his gift to the couple – a
kerosene lamp with an explosive. When the lamp starts flickering and some turns the
wick, there would be an explosion, signaling the revolutionaries to attack all
government buildings in Manila.

As planned, Simoun gave the lamp during the reception. Before leaving the venue, he
left a note with a message: “You will die tonight,” signed by Crisostomo Ibarra.

Meanwhile, when Basilio saw all the people at the venue, his conscience bothered him.
He saw his friend, Isagani, who was secretly watching his love, Paulita, celebrating her
wedding. Basilio told Isagani about the explosive and asked him to leave the place.

When Padre Salvi confirmed Ibarra’s handwriting, the guests began to panic. The lamp
flickered and Padre Irene tried to turn the wick. But Isagani, wanting to save Paulita, ran
into the house, grabbed the lamp, and threw it into the river where it exploded.

Simoun took refuge in the house of a kind Filipino priest, Padre Florentino. The guardias
civiles, however, learned about the whereabouts of the fugitive, and informed the priest
that they would come in the evening to arrest Simoun.

Instead of surrendering to the authorities, Simoun poisoned himself. As the poison

started to take effect on his body, he confessed to Padre Florentino his true identity and
his plans for revenge. After the long and tedious confession, the priest told Simoun that
his plans might have failed because of the unjust means that were used. He assured
Simoun that there was still hope for the freedom of the country.

The story ended with Padre Florentino throwing Simoun’s jewels into the sea so that
they would not be used by the greedy. He also prayed that when the right time comes,
the treasure would be recovered and used for a noble purpose.

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 Vocabulary

Filibustero (19th century context) – translated as “subversive;” a patriot who was

usually associated with revolutionary activities.

Guardia civil – police/military force assigned by the colonial government to maintain

peace and order.

Cabeza de barangay – head of the barangay.

Summary

This chapter traced the history of the term filibustero and how the Filipinos
defined the concept during Rizal’s time. For the Spaniards, a filibustero was someone
who rebelled against the government while for the indios, he was a patriot who fought
for the country’s freedom. Compared to Noli Me Tangere, El Filibusterismo showed how
Rizal matured as a writer. This transformation could be seen in the main character
Simoun who changed from being a moderate ilustrado to a revolutionary jeweler and
planned to launch a revolution against the colonial government. Through this novel, one
could see how a victim of oppression and injustice could turn into an influential
revolutionary.

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 Chapter 11 El Filibuterismo,
Continuing Relevance

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected
to:

1. discuss the summary and the important themes in El Filibusterismo;

2. explain why a knowledge of history is important in reading a historical
novel; and
3. examine the conditions of the Philippine society through Rizal’s El
Filibusterismo.

After tracing the historical background of Rizal’s El Filibusterismo in the previous

chapter, it is now time to look into its content and review its social significance as a
novel. Rizal clearly stated that he wrote the novel to describe the Philippine society and
expose the injustices that he and his fellow Filipinos were experiencing. The novel may
be written more than a hundred years ago, but it cannot be denied that the social ills
that Rizal depicted in his novel are still present today. One hundred twenty years after
Rizal’s execution, his writings remain socially relevant. The ills that he rallied against –
inept leadership, corruption, abuse of women, and the influence of the Catholic Church
over political and social affairs – are still persisting in the Philippine society today. A
thorough understanding of the historicity of his novels is important as it serves as the
background of the story. In reading historical novels like El Filibusterismo, one must be
knowledgeable about the social milieu of the period when it was written. In this way,
history can be used as a tool for interpreting a literary work like El Fili (Nuncio, 2014).

As with Noli Me Tangere, Rizal’s main objective in writing El Filibusterismo is to expose

the Philippine situation as he witnessed during his time. In reading this novel, one can
see the nation’s past and present situations which can make this literary work
enduringly significant. Renato Constantino (1971, p. 137) wrote about the relevance of
Rizal’s teachings where he said:

The importance of Rizal’s ideas for our generation has a twofold basis –
first, the applicability to present-day problems, and second, their inspirational
value. Rizal holds a mirror to our faces and we see ourselves, our vices, our
defects, our meanness. Because the conditions he describes are the very
conditions we see around us, and the characters he portrays are people we

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 continue to meet, we readily respond to his earnest desire for basic changes in
our society and in ourselves. One hand holds a mirror to shame us and the other
points to way to our regeneration. Yet, the truth is that the mirror was not meant
to reveal our image, but the image of the people and the society of Rizal’s time.

By going back to the themes that Rizal tackled in El Fili, one can see the importance of
the novel at present. Themes are the main ideas that flow through the narrative which
can be used to evaluate Rizal’s views and ideas on different social issues.

11.1 Revolution as a Means of Social Change

In the novel, Simoun is the filibustero who encourages the principalia class to abuse the
poor so that the latter would be driven to revolt against the government. His character
may be interpreted as someone who represents the Filipino revolutionaries that
supported the idea of a bloody revolution against the Spanish colonial government.
Simoun’s death in the story made some readers conclude that Rizal was against the idea
of a revolution. Simoun’s failed uprisings in the narrative, were interpreted as Rizal’s
abhorrence of violence and bloodshed. They failed to see that Rizal, together with other
reformists like Marcelo H. del Pilar, regarded reform and assimilation as the first step
towards Philippine independence. In his letter to Blumentritt on June 19, 1887, he said:

“I assure you that I have no desire to take part in conspiracies which seem
to me very premature and risky. But if the government drives us to the brink, that
is to say when no other hope remains but seek our destruction in war, when the
Filipinos would prefer to die rather than endure their misery any longer, then I
will also become a partisan of violent means. The choice of peace or destruction
is in the hands of Spain, because it is a clear fact, known to all, that we are
patient and peaceful, mild, unfeeling, etc. But everything ends in this life, there is
nothing eternal in the world and that refers also to our patience” (Ocampo,
2012).

Rizal’s words in the aforementioned letter are significant because they proved that he
was not against the idea of violence if necessary. Historian Ambeth Ocampo (2012)
wrote: “Simoun failed – not because Rizal was against the revolution, but because he

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reflected on the anger and bitterness in his heart following the agrarian dispute in
Calamba, and realized that one must start with a good intention to succeed.”

11.2 On Leadership and Governance

El Fili’s message is very clear – the inept leaders, corrupt officials, and system of
government in the Philippines could lead to Spain’s downfall. When Simoun said: “What
is a man to do when he is denied justice? Take the law into his own hands or wait for
Spain to give rights…?” he stressed that if the demands of the people would not be
granted, they would be driven to oppose the system and organize movements to fight
for their rights.

Rizal himself was admired as a good leader. His colleagues in the Propaganda
Movement respected him because he showed a kind of leadership that was not
motivated by personnel interest. The call for a good leadership could be gleaned from El
Fili when he stressed the importance of national sentiment to guard the society against
all kinds of injustices and oppression.

Rizal condemned the friar-led officials for their greed, corruption, and exploitation of
the natives. On the other hand, he also criticized his fellow Filipinos who did not
respond to the challenges under the abusive leadership of the Spaniards. The character
of Basilio, for example, who, despite the extreme sufferings that he and his family
experienced, did not support Simoun’s plan of overthrowing the government. He only
joined the revolutionary group after being arrested and imprisoned, followed by the
death of his sweetheart, Juli. There was also one character, Senor Pasta, who
abandoned his noble ideas to serve only the interest of those who hired him.

While Rizal exposed the injustices done by the colonial government, he also challenged
the Filipinos to guard their rights as one of their main responsibilities. Good leadership
and governance bring about social, economic, and political reforms in the country. All
this can be achieved if the leaders have moral fiber, and ready to give up their personal
interests for the welfare of the constituents.

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11.3 On Education and Language

At the time that Simoun was planning to launch the revolution, students including
Basilio were also fighting for the establishment of a school that would allow natives to
learn the Spanish language. Simoun strongly reacted against the project advocated by
the students. For him, it would mean the death of national identity and the
institutionalization of tyranny. Simoun expressed his disapproval of the students’
program, convincing Basilio to join him in his plan of revolution instead. He questioned
the students’ advocacy and said:

What will you be in the future? A people without character, a nation

without liberty. Everything in you will be borrowed, even your very defects. You
are asking to be Hispanized and you do not blanch with shame when it is denied
you! Even if it is conceded what would you want? What would you gain? At best,
to become a republic of the rapacious and the discontented, like some republics
of South America. Why do you come with your teaching of Spanish, a pretension
that would be ridiculous were it not for its deplorable consequences? Do you wish
to add another idiom to the more than forty already spoken in the islands so that
you may understand each other, each time, less…?

Still about the language issue, Simoun added:

You allow yourselves to be misled by big words and you never get to the
bottom of things to examine the effects in their ultimate manifestations. Spanish
will never be the common language in the country; the people will never speak it
because for the ideas of its mind and the sentiments of its heart there are no
words in that idiom. Each country has its own, as it has its manner of feeling.
What will you gain with Spanish? The few who speak it? To stamp out your
originality, subordinate your thoughts to other minds and instead of making
yourselves free, make yourselves truly slaves! Nine out of ten of those among you
who presume to be enlightened, are renegades to your motherland. Those
among you who speak that language are indifferent to their own tongue, so
much so that they neither write nor understand it. How many have I seen who
pretend not to know a single word of it.

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Basilio, on the other hand, believed that through education, he would be able alleviate
the lives of his fellow Filipinos. He did not believe that revolution could be an effective
means to achieve freedom. For him, education and science would save the country from
its present situation.

On the Filipino Youth

Where are the youth who will consecrate their golden hours, their
illusions, and their enthusiasm for the welfare of their country? Where are they
who would generously shed their blood to wash away so much shame, so much
crime, so much abomination? Pure and spotless the victim has to be for the
holocaust to be acceptable!... Where are you, youth who will incarnate in
yourselves the vigor of life that has fled from our veins, the purity of ideas that
have been soiled in our minds, and the fire of enthusiasm that has been
extinguished in our hearts?... We wait for you, O youth! Come, for we await you!

Such were the words of Jose Rizal through the character of Padre Florentino, a patriotic
Filipino priest in El Fili.

Rizal saw the youth as the future of the country because this generation would one day
lead the nation. Their actions today would shape the path of tomorrow.

Rizal stressed the important role of the youth in challenging the government as seen in
the efforts of students like Basilio and Isagani to organize themselves and unite to call
the reforms. For Simoun, it was a way of embracing the Hispanization of the country. On
the other hand, it could also be seen as Rizal’s way of showing what the youth could do
if they wanted reforms from the government.

Vocabulary

reform – improvement or change to a better state (social, economic, and political

institutions)

revolution – a violent attempt to overthrow a government

principalia class – the ruling and usually educated upper class in the 19th century
Philippines

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 Summary

This chapter showed how El Filibusterismo could be used in examining the

Philippine conditions during Rizal’s time. Through his novel, readers got a glimpse of the
kind of society where Rizal had lived. The characters might be fictional but most of the
situations in the story were actual events or portrayals of similar events that happened
in the past.

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