Chapter II

Man as a Person

Knowing man as an individual and as a member of society is fundamental in the study at

values and ethics. To understand the nature of man is a courageous task owing to his
complexity. To study and judge his actions is an even more challenging function.
It is observed that everybody is presumed to understand what man is. But because man
is different from others, it is assumed that everybody else has a different view of a man.
Man is a complex organism, for he is composed of a physical body, intellect and
emotions. He has needs and wants to be satisfied in order to live a successful and happy life.
He has needs and appetites that are physiological, intellectual, psychological or emotional,
social, economic, political, moral, and spiritual in nature. All his efforts are geared towards the
fulfillment of these needs as he strives to live a full life. He has to work for the satisfaction of
these varied needs. These needs should be fulfilled to avoid frustrations.
Man is scientifically named Homo sapiens. He has distinct characteristics that make him
different from the other creatures on earth.
Every man is born inimitable, each one different from others. An individual‘s nature is
manifested and fashioned by heredity, culture. and environment
The word ―person‖ comes from the Greek word prosophon. meaning ―mask‖--that
which is used by stage actors. Its Latin equivalent personae refers to the mask through which an
actor forcefully projects his voice. We may, therefore, speak of a person as a human being,
hidden by the mask. (that’s why we cannot judge a person wd his/her physical being/self)
As Agapay (1991) concludes, a person exists distinctly and independently from others
and is capable of knowing and loving in an intellectual way, and of deciding for himself the
purpose or end of his actions. He has his own set' of values and work ethics. (we act differently
from each other)
Hence, man, says Palispis (1995), has to be respected as a being who can think and act
as a person. Every values teacher must address himself to the processes of thinking (cognitive
or acquiring knowledge), feeling (affective or forming attitudes and values) and acting
(psychomotor or acquiring skills).

General Objectives:
1. Discuss the philosophies of man
 2. Distinguish personality from character
3. Explain moral habits and its moral significance
4. Differentiate virtues and vices

Lesson I. Philosophies of Man (study of ideas about knowledge, truth, the nature and
meaning of life, etc.)

The method that we use in studying the nature of man and the meaning or condition of
being human is basically Christian. But this requires a lot of analytic presentation of various
views about man. Some of these views are pagan _ while others are atheist. Only after
presenting these views will we engage into a synthetic Inquiry of man.
All men have the same anatomical and physiological structure. Several philosophers and
scholars present different views on how to understand man as a person.

Specific Objectives:
1. Describe man based on different philosophical views
2. Compare the different philosophical views of man
3. Express ones philosophy on the nature of man.

Lesson Outline

Philosophy of man is an open ended-cerebral empirical activity. It is a basic course for

college students which are both extensive and comprehensive in scope. This implies that
philosophy of man is an endeavor which is not an end in itself but a means to an end. This is
why the course has a close linkage to Metaphysics, Ethics, Sociology, Psychology, Theology,
Epistemology, and Theodicy. It is connected with Metaphysics since it studies the being of man;
with Ethics since it treats of man as a being of action; with Sociology since it considers the
horizontal ‗or social dimension of man; with psychology since it studies the nature of man as a
being endowed with reason; with Theology since it inquires the avenue of man‘s relatedness to
God in the context of faith; with Epistemology since it investigates the true notion of the human
substance; and with Theodicy since it provides an arena of questions about human nature and
human condition from the standpoint of the nature, essence, and activity of God.
In general, philosophy of man is a course that deals, with man; man is "the superstar in
philosophy of man. If philosophy is a love or an intense desire for wisdom then philosophy of
man is one‘s desire to know who and what man is. In coming to grips with the question ―who
he is? ‖ Man posits the question and answers the question himself. No other being except man
can know himself. Thus, in philosophy of man, man asks a crucial question about himself and
gradually answers the question himself. I
As a whole, philosophy of man is a course that delves into the origin of human life, the
nature of human life, and the reality of human existence. Thus, philosophy of man leads the
students to look at the wholeness of their being since the course guides them to see themselves
and their fellowmen as persons, subjects, and center of values.

Different Philosophical Views of a Man

Biological
Man is a complex being who behaves uniquely as a result of his hereditary
(genetic/innate traits acquired from parents), environmental, and cultural influences. He is
curious; he imitates others and has his own interests. Man reasons and improves the adaptive
nature of his behavior in rational ways. He makes and uses tools in a variety of ways. He is self-
conscious, reflecting on his past and future and on life and death. He makes mental
abstractions, develops symbols and communicates his ideas and knowledge through sign or
oral language. Man has a sense of appreciation for arts and beauty.
Man has his religion. He believes in a Divine Being, and has superstitions and beliefs in
animistic, supernatural, or spiritual things. A human being is a moral animal and has developed
himself through the influence of heredity, environment, and cultural factors. Thus, man becomes
an integral human being Created in the likeness of God.

Classical View

For the classical philosophers, man is a creature endowed with hierarchical virtues
whose nature is designed to serve as building blocks of society. Man is distinct from animals as
he is the sole being who possesses a physical body and a soul. Man‘s soul is composed of
intellect and will. From the point of view of Aristotle, man is a rational and a social being. To him,
man is not the center of the universe. He is only a part of it. He is born to be a part of society.
He is a political animal in the sense that outside the political organization or the organized
society, he is nothing.
He is a beast who recognizes neither law nor social structures.

Christian View

The Judaeo-Christian philosophers considered man as the ―image‖ of God."

Genesis 1:27 (Holy Bible) states, ―God created man in mi own minim; in the image of God He
created him; male and female He created them.‖ This centers on the notion that man is
endowed with divine attributes. These divine characteristics bring all men to a common bond
forming essentially one family. We share the same basis features that make us human and
enable us to know and to love one another. As is pointed out, biblical prophecy speaks of the
peaceful unity of all men.

Existentialist View

Teilhard de Chardin (1970) says that man is a being who knows what he knows. Martin
Heideger (cited by Palispis, 1995) believes that man is responsible not only for himself but for all
men. In his book Introduction to Philosophy, Engelber Van Crooverburg (1963), as cited by
Palispis (1995), mentions the following thoughts about man:

1. Man is raised above the abyss of nothingness.

2. He lives on the dividing line between the past, the present and the future.
3. He is embodied.
4. He is above all and subhuman.
5. He uses reason above the lower levels of his existence and teaches consciously beyond
himself into a being of which he partakes and becomes more than he is. '

Msgr. Fulton Sheen (1948)7describes man on a three-level structure: body, soul and
spirit. His body, through his senses, makes him aware of the material universe. His soul, which
Msgr. Sheen also calls mind or psyche, makes him responsive to other people and to the arts,
sciences, philosophy and law. Man‘s spirit facilitates having a communion with God.
Karl Marx (cited by Palispis, 1995), suggests that human nature has given potentials, the
nature of which cannot be changed. Yet, man does change as a result of developing his
potentials which God has given him when he was born. This is certified true by several studies.
Van der Poel (1971) found that values have their own ―historicity‖. And for Andres (1980), he
believes in the relativity of values ―that values are relative to cultural influences of historical
changes, in the sense that the appreciation of values is affected by these factors...since values
is relative to time, time becomes an important indicator of one‘s values.‖ As Havighurst and
Neugarten (1976) reveal, when a society changes, its values also change.
The existentialists consider the existence of man endowed with a free will.
Not all men have the same essence.

Oriental Philosophical Views

Mencius (cited by Cruz, 1993) speaks of human nature as originally good. He mentions
the four beginnings that belong to man‘s original nature, namely:

1. jen - the feeling of commensuration, which is the beginning of the virtue of human
heartedness.

2. yi -the feeling of shame and dislike, which is the start of righteousness.

3. Li- the feeling of modesty and yielding towards the good. This is the beginning of ritual or
propriety.
4. chin -the sense of right and wrong.
Man is naturally bestowed with the knowledge of what is right and what is wrong or what
is good and what is bad. These four beginnings of man differentiate him from the beast. Man is
expected to develop these four beginnings to become truly a man. Through the full development
of his nature, man cannot only know Heaven but also becomes one with Heaven.
The only way for man to be happy is to free himself from the slavery of his selfishness
and inordinate sexual desires. Gautama Buddha says: ―Never in this world does hatred cease
by hatred. Hatred ceases by love... Let us live happily by not hating those who hate us. Let us
live free among men who hate. Let a man overcome anger by kindness, evil by good, and hate
by love.‖
To Confucius, life is not a delusion, a curse, or a misery. It is a living reality, a blessing, a
natural priceless right and opportunity to work together with your fellows for the common good
and attain happiness. He says that man‘s perfection and happiness is realized and achieved in
social life. He advocates harmony among men in society. The social order predicted by
Confucius is patterned after the natural order of things in the universe and the moral order
reflected and embodied in the life of the moral man. Confucius states that the life of the moral
man is an exemplification of the universal moral order. The life of the vicious man is its
contradiction.
In constantly doing what is good as commanded by his nature, man becomes one with
the natural law, is adjusted to the rhythm of the universe, and thus enjoys peace and happiness.
Confucius says ―Mans greatest achievement is to find the central clue to our moral being that
unites us with the universal order‖

Contemporary View

Man is said to be a multi-bejeweled crown of creation. He radiates the various aspects

and facets of his being which he alone possesses his physical, mental, moral, spiritual, social,
civic, economic, psychological, aesthetic, and sensual aspects. These gifts are not mere
adornments but are meant to serve a noble purpose: to serve for the betterment and perfection
not only. of himself but also of humanity. In the end, man will be judged not only by his
possession, power or influence but also by the nature of his work (Montemayor, 1995)
Immanuel Kant Concludes that man is the only creature who governs and directs himself
and his actions. He sets up ends for hirnself and his purpose and freely orders means for the
attainment ‗of his aims. Every man is an END in himself and should never be treated merely as
a means as per the order of the Creator and the natural order of things (Montemayor, 1995)
Man is a human being. As (a true human being-he has the power to become the best
among all creations. The Divine Providence created man in His own likeness; gifted him with an
intellect and will in order to know the truth and to make the right decisions. With the use of these
endowments, man has the capacity to learn and be educated in the right sense of the word.
Through education, man will be equipped with the necessary knowledge, skills, and values
needed as he explores the world of work. Through his values, ideals, intelligent insights, and
productive efforts, man has the capacity to become progressive (Baking, 1982).

Assessment
1. Based on different philosophical views about man, give your own description of a man.
2. Among the Philosophical views of a ma presented, choose at least 3 to compare and
contrast using Venn diagram and give brief explanation.
 3. From the different Philosophical views, express your own philosophy of man.

Lesson II. Person, Personality and Character

While character and personality are both used to describe someone‘s behaviors, the two
examine different aspects of that individual. One‘s personality is more visible, while one‘s
character is revealed over time, through varying situations.
Specific Objectives:
1. Define person, personality and character
2. Discern personality from character
3. Evaluate ones personality and character
Lesson Outline
Personality is the sum total of the factors of physique and constitution and those enduring,
underlying tendencies of a person which determine his characteristic behavior or the

combination of characteristics or qualities that form an individual's distinctive character. People have

unique personalities that make them who they are. There are many different types of personality

traits, including some that are positive and some that are negative. 
In the language of laymen, personality refers to those physical attributes and mannerism of an
aesthetically refined person. In psychology, those ―enduring and underlying tendencies‖ which
determine characteristic behavior are the talents, powers, and habits which are accidental to a
person. Thus, one individual is not more of a person than another, but he may have more
personality than another.
The person of a man does not grow in stature or yung person’s natural height; but personality
of a man develops and enlarges itself according to the pattern of his actions, the mature use of
his powers, and the schema/purpose of his habits. Whereas person is entirely a gift and a
birthright, personality is largely a matter of one‘s achievement. There is no such thing as the
cultivation of person; but there is such a thing as the cultivation of personality. Character is
often taken as synonymous with personality. This is correct if personality is taken as the sum-
total of psychophysical systems in an individual which enable him to adjust to his environment
but character assumes a restricted meaning. Character refers to a person‘s choice of values
and this intelligent and free conversion of such values into practical goal.
If personality is a psychological entity, character is an ethical entity. We do not say that a man
has good or bad personality, but we do say that a man has a good character. Thus, if
personality is a principle of rational action, character is a principle of moral action. Personality
might be defined as the sum-total of our rational habits grouped around the axis or central part
of the intellect. Character might be similarly defined as the sum-total of all our moral habits
grouped around the axis of will.
―Personality is easy to read, and we‘re all experts at it. We judge people [as] funny,
extroverted, energetic, optimistic, confident—as well as overly serious, lazy, negative, and shy—
if not upon first meeting them, then shortly thereafter. And though we may need more than one
interaction to confirm the presence of these sorts of traits, by the time we decide they are, in
fact, present, we‘ve usually amassed enough data to justify our conclusions.
―Character, on the other hand, takes far longer to puzzle out. It includes traits that
reveal themselves only in specific—and often uncommon—circumstances, traits like honesty,
virtue, and kindliness‖ (Lickerman, 2011).
While personality is easier to spot, it‘s largely static and slow to evolve. Character, on the other
hand, takes longer to discern but is easier to change. That‘s because character is shaped by
beliefs, and with enough effort and motivation, changing one‘s perspective and view of the world
can lead to a shift in one‘s character.
The malleability of character makes sense when you look at human evolution. In order
for our ancestors to survive, they had to adapt to new environments and change with the times
—and this remains true in the modern era.
If an individual deems a change in his or her surroundings to be significant, then his or her
beliefs will transform to accommodate the change.
For instance, an individual who might have a shy personality can learn to switch his
attitude toward public speaking when stepping into the role of a teacher. The new social and
external demands lead to an internal shift that changes his demeanor.
In this way, even if an individual‘s inborn preference is to shy away from the public, the
beliefs and values that shape his behavior can evolve to reflect the values of his immediate
groups and communities. Such awareness and adaptability help with survival (Kurtus, 2011).
The bottom line is, despite the significance of our inborn personality traits, we can
overcome them as required by personal or cultural demands.
EXAMPLE OF CHARACTER TRAIT:
Character traits are valued aspects of a person's behavior. Everyone has character traits, both
good and bad. Character traits are often labeled with descriptive adjectives such
as patient, unfaithful or jealous. Loving, kind, generous. Etc.
EXAMPLE OF PERSONALITY
Being honest and taking responsibility for our actions are admirable qualities of a person.
Assessment
1. Present your own understanding of a person, personality and character.
2. Expound the statement ―If personality is a psychological entity, character is an ethical
entity‖.
3. Based on your readings, what is your personality and how will you evaluate your
character.

Lesson III. Habits and its Moral Significance

Man is a creature of habits. He is born with a wide assortment of powers that open up limitless
horizons for development. Reason stands to the apex of the vast array of potentialities. Man, if
he must integrate all his powers in one wholesome personality, must rely on the powers of
reason. Man must for the habits of reason.
Specific Objectives:

1. Explain the moral significance of habits

2. Articulate how your habit affects your education.
Lesson Outline
Habit comes from a Latin habere, meaning to have. Habit is either the disposition to
have something, or the disposition to act in a certain manner. The first is called entitative habit,
that which disposes a thing to have a certain nature or quality of being, such as to be beautiful,
talented or to be obese. The latter is called operative habit, that which disposes for doing
something in a certain manner, such as painting, writing or talking. We are primarily interested
with operative habits. They may be defined as the readiness to do something.
Habits are acquired. Once acquired, they become very difficult to alter/changed. They are
therefore relatively permanent. Acquiring habit is like starting a pathway across a lawn. At first,
our foot impressions are hardly visible but with each successive step, as more and more people
walk across the lawn, the pathway comes out clearly.
In like manner, habits are not formed in an instant. They result from constantly repeated
actions. After they are formed, they do not vanish instantly. It would require a
tremendous effort to change a habit.
 Habits are largely dominant and subconscious patterns of action established and
maintained by repetition. So, habits are patterns of action, such as tying our shoes, with three
distinguishing features:
(1) Dominance
(2) Unconsciousness
(3) Repetition
(1) Dominance means that we perform the habitual actions the vast majority of the time. In
almost every case that we pick up the ends of our shoelaces, we tie our shoes.
(2) Sub consciousness means that we are not consciously choosing or 2 attending to the
habitual actions. We don‘t have to think about each loop and pinch in order to tie our shoelaces.
(3) That habits are established and maintained by repetition means that we automatize the
actions by practicing them over and over again. We have all tied our shoes a billion and one
times, so now we can do it in our sleep.
Moral habits share all of these features of ordinary habits, plus one more: moral habits arise
out of a commitment to particular moral principles. We might adopt the moral habit of
consciously setting aside time to rest and rejuvenate in order to achieve the value of being more
productive while working. We might adopt the moral habit of being aware of our emotional
states in order to achieve the value of greater clarity of thought. In other words, moral habits are
habits which aim to achieve moral values.
The Function of Habits in Life
Without habits, without the capacity to automatize frequently repeated actions, we could
never move beyond the most simple of tasks. We would barely be able to walk, let alone
perform amazing feats of multi-tasking, such as walking and chewing gum at the same time. Our
conscious mind would be wholly engaged in tasks that, with habits, we relegate to the
background. (or put something to it).
The exact same analysis applies to moral habits. Imagine not being in the habit of honesty.
Imagine having to consciously determine, with every new fact of which you became aware,
whether to accept it or pretend that it isn‘t true. Imagine, in every sentence of every
conversation, consciously deciding whether to tell the truth or to lie. You‘d be thinking very little
and speaking even less! Only through habit, only by automatizing these moral decisions -- so
that we are always accepting facts and always telling the truth -- can we actually go about living
our lives. Having no habits, making all moral decisions consciously and deliberately, is simply
not an option. Thus the question is not: Should I have habits? Our brains naturally form habits,
whether we deliberately cultivate them or not. The real question is: Should I form habits
consciously or unconsciously? Should I choose my own habits or have them chosen for me?
To show why consciously-cultivated habits are so worthwhile, let‘s take a peek at the
three of benefits that well-developed and consciously-chosen moral habits bring us, namely (1)
reduction of cognitive load, (2) the disposition to act morally, and (3) consistency between our
words and our deeds.

Benefit #1: Moral habits reduce our cognitive load. Moral habits automatize decisions for
us, freeing us from the time and effort of deliberating most everyday moral choices. As I
mentioned, without any such automatization, we would be mentally crippled/malfunction. But
more broadly speaking, our moral habits allow us to both focus our attention on the more
interesting and complex aspects of life and act quickly.
Benefit #2: Moral habits dispose us to act morally. Good moral habits make virtuous
action easy and natural, and render vice difficult and unpleasant. In forming habits, we condition
our emotions to take pleasure in acting on principle and feel pain in acting against principle.
That emotional feedback naturally inclines us towards the right thing to do.
Benefit #3: Moral habits give us consistency between our words and our deeds. Moral
habits connect our abstract moral principles to the concrete moral choices we face every day.
As such, habits strengthen the bond between what we say and what we do. They strengthen our
integrity. However, integrity concerns more than the ―trickle-down‖ effect from our principles to
our actions. It also concerns the ―trickle-up‖ effect from our actions to our principles. To put it
bluntly, what we do affects what we think. If our actions are inconsistent with our beliefs, we will
change our beliefs in order to reconcile the two.

Assessment
1. Why do you think habit is important in relation to morality?
2. Explain how your habits affect your education.
3. Give concrete example of how a habit is form using the distinguishing features of habits.

Lesson IV. Intellectual Virtues and the Effects of Vices

People‘s virtues are a subset/part of their good qualities. They are not innate, like
eyesight, but are acquired by practice and lost by disuse. They are abiding states, and they thus
differ from momentary passions such as anger and pity. Virtues are states of character that find
expression both in purpose and in action. Moral virtue is expressed in good purpose—that is to
say, in prescriptions for action in accordance with a good plan of life. It is expressed also in
actions that avoid both excess and defect. A temperate person, for example, will avoid eating or
drinking too much, but he will also avoid eating or drinking too little. Virtue chooses the mean,
or middle ground, between excess and defect. Besides purpose and action, virtue is also
concerned with feeling. One may, for example, be excessively concerned with sex or
insufficiently interested in it; the temperate person will take the appropriate degree of interest
and be neither lustful nor frigid.
Specific Objectives:
1. Differentiate intellectual and moral virtue
2. State the effects of vices to personal life and education.
Lesson Outline
Virtues may pertain to intellect or to the will. Those that pertain to the intellect are called
intellectual virtues. They help man acquire knowledge and perfection on that aspect only. Those
that pertain to the will are called moral virtues. They dispose the will towards proper conduct
and contribute to the perfection of the whole person.

The intellectual virtues are:

1. Understanding which is the habit of the first principles, such as, ―do good and avoid
evil‖, ―the whole is greater than the sum of any of its parts‖;
2. Science which is the habit of proximate causes, such as, concluding from the facts of
experience or inference;
3. Wisdom which is the habit of ultimate causes, such as, being aware that the
ecosystem binds both man and lower creatures;
4. Art which is the habit of making or producing things, such as, paintings, music,
sculpture;
5. Prudence which is the habit of doing or choosing from alternative values, such as
saving for the ―rainy days‖.
Understanding, science and wisdom pertain to speculative intellect. Art and prudence
pertain to practical intellect.
The Moral Virtues
The moral virtues are those that build the character of a person. These are justice,
temperance and fortitude.

1. Justice is the virtue which inclines us to render to another what is due to him. The
biblical just man is one who respects himself, worships God and helps others.
2. Fortitude is the virtue which gives us the strength in facing dangers and vicissitudes of
life. In Filipino we refer to it as tatagngkalooban so that we describe a man of fortitude as
matibay, matatag, or malakasangloob.
Fortitude must be tempered by prudence. It belongs to the prudent man to decide
whether to assume a risk or to avoid it.
3. Temperance is the virtue which helps us regulate our passions and our use of earthly
goods. In the philosophy of Aristotle, temperance or moderation provides the ―golden
mean‖ so that nothing is done in excess or in defect because anything excessive or
defective constitutes a vice, it has been said that virtue stands in the middle of both
extremes, or as the Latin say, ―virtusstatenmedio‖.

The effects of Vices

A vice is the habit of doing an evil acquired through the repetition of an evil act. One single act
of immorality does not constitute an immoral habit. But it is no less imputable to the subject. So
much for the expression -―We don‘t hate the sinner but the sin" .The fact is that every evil act
speaks ill of the Character of the person acting.

A vice is opposed to virtue either by excess or by defect.

1. Vices opposed to prudence by excess are: cautiousness, fraud, flattery, trickery,

etcetera; by defect are: imprudence, precipitateness, impulsiveness, carelessness,
and stubbornness.
2. Vices opposed to justice by excess: profligacy, idolatry. fanaticism and superstition;
by defect: all forms of unjust activities by omission, such as disrespectforelders,
irreligion, non-paymentoflegitimatedebts,etcetera.
3. Vices opposed to fortitude by excess: rashness, boldness, recklessness; by defect:
cowardice, timidity, sensitivity, and depression.
 4. Vices opposed to temperance by excess: rigorousness, lackofselfconfidence,
moroseness, by defect: pride, lust, hatred gluttony, vanity and others.

Assessment

1. Based on your own understanding, point out the difference/s between intellectual
and moral virtues.
2. Give a certain vice that you have and explain its effects to both your personal life and
education.

Chapter Summary

• Knowing man as an individual and as a member of society is fundamental in the study at

values and ethics.
• Man is a complex organism, for he is composed of a physical body, intellect and
emotions. He has needs and wants to be satisfied in order to live a successful and
happy life. He has needs and appetites that are physiological, intellectual, psychological
or emotional, social, economic, political, moral, and spiritual in nature.
• There are different philosophical views of a man such as: Biological, classical view,
Christian view, existentialist view, oriental philosophical view, and contemporary view.
• Personality is a psychological entity while character is an ethical entity.
• Personality is a principle of rational action while character is a principle of moral action.
• Personality might be defined as the sum-total of our rational habits grouped around the
axis of intellect.
• Character might be similarly defined as the sum-total of all our moral habits grouped
around the axis of will.
• Habit comes from a Latin habere, meaning to have.
• Entitative habit disposes a thing to have a certain nature or quality of being, such as to
be beautiful, talented or to be obese.
• Operative habit disposes for doing something in a certain manner, such as painting,
writing or talking.
• Dominance, Unconsciousness and repetition are the features of habits.
• The benefits of well-developed and consciously-chosen moral habits are: reduction of
cognitive load, the disposition to act morally, and consistency between our words and
our deeds.
• Virtues may pertain to intellect or to the will. Those that pertain to the intellect are called
intellectual virtues. Those that pertain to the will are called moral virtues.
• The intellectual virtues are: Understanding, science, wisdom, art and prudence.
• Understanding, science and wisdom pertain to speculative intellect. Art and prudence
pertain to practical intellect.
• The moral virtues are those that build the character of a person. These are justice,
temperance and fortitude.
• A vice is the habit of doing an evil acquired through the repetition of an evil act.
• A vice is opposed to virtue either by excess or by defect.