CHAPTER 1 - AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY
1.1 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
1.1 L.O.: Compare and contrast anatomy and physiology and discuss the fundamental
relationship between them
● Human anatomy: the scientific study of the body’s structures
○ Some structures are microscopic, others can be seen readily
● Gross anatomy: the study of the larger structures of the body, those visible with the
aid of magnification
○ Macro means “large”, thus, gross anatomy is also referred to ask macroscopic
anatomy
■ In contrast, micro means “small”
● Microscopic anatomy: the study of structures that can be observed only with the use
of a microscope or other magnification devices
○ Includes study of cells (cytology) and tissues (histology)
● Anatomists take two general approaches to the study of the body’s structures: regional
and systemic
● Regional anatomy: the study of the interrelationships of all of the structures in a
specific body region, such as the abdomen
○ Demonstrated how the interrelationships of body structures, such as how
muscles, nerves, blood vessels, and other structures work together to serve a
particular body region
● Systemic anatomy: the study of the structures that make up a discrete body system -,
a group of structures that work together to perform a unique body function
● Human physiology: the scientific study of the chemistry and physics of the structures
of the body and the ways in which they work together to support the functions of life
● In all: anatomy is about structure, physiology is about function
● Homeostasis: the state of steady internal conditions maintained by living things
● Physiologists specializing in a particular branch of physiology, for instance,
neurophysiology
● Physiologists may work from the organ level to the molecular level (ex.:
electrochemical signals travelling along nerves)
● Form is closely related to function in all living things
○ Ex.: thin eye flap of an eyelid slides down to clear dust particles, and almost
instantaneously slides back up to allow you to see
1.2 Structural Organization of the Human Body
● Cell: the smallest independently functioning unit of a living organism
○ All living structures of human anatomy contain cells, and almost all functions
of human physiology are performed in cells or are initiated by cells
● Cells perform all functions of life
● Tissue: a group of many similar cells that work together to perform a specific
function
● Organ: an anatomically distinct structure of the body composed of two or more tissue
types
○ Each organ performs one or more specific physiological functions
● Organ system: a group of organs that work together to perform major functions or
meet physiological needs of the body
● The organism level is the highest level of organization
● Organism: a living being that has a cellular structure and that can independently
perform all physiologic functions necessary for life
○ In multicellular organisms, all cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems of the
body work together to maintain to the life and health of the organism
1.5 Homeostasis
● Maintaining homeostasis requires that the body continuously monitor its internal
conditions
● Set point: physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates
● Normal range: the restricted set of values that is optimally healthful and stable
○ Physiological parameters, such as temperature, fluctuate within a normal range
a few degrees above and below the set points
● Control centers in the brain and other parts of the body monitor and react to
deviations from homeostasis using negative feedback
● Negative feedback: a mechanism that reverses a deviation from the set point
○ Negative feedback maintains body parameters within their normal range
○ Maintenance of homeostasis by negative feedback throughout the body is
always occurring
● 3 components of a negative feedback system:
○ Sensor (aka receptor)
■ Monitors a physiological value
● The value is reported to the control centre
○ Control center
■ Compares the value to the normal range
● If value deviates too much from set point, control center
activates an effector
○ Effector
■ Causes a change to reverse the situation and return the value to the
normal range
○ In order to set the system in motion:
■ The stimulus must drive a physiological parameter beyond its normal
range
● This stimulus is “heard” by a specific sensor
○ Ex.: the control of blood glucose: endocrine cells in
pacnrease decrete excess glucose → pancreatic beta
cells respond to increase glucose by releasing insulin →
insuline signals skeletal muscle fibers, fat cells, and
liver cells to take up excess glucose (removes it from
bloodstream) → as [glucose] drops, the decrease in
concenration (which is the actual negative feedback) is
detected → insulin release stops → prevents blood
sugar levels from going too low this time
● Human feedback system to regulate temperature:
○ Promotes heat loss or heat gain
○ Ex.: hypothalamus receives data from sensors that temperature is too high → a
cluster of brain cells referred to as the “heat-loss” centre are stimulated
■ Stimulation has 3 effects:
■ (1) blood vessels in the skin dilate → more blood from the body core
can flow to the surface → skin can radiate the heat into the
environment
■ (2) increase in blood flow = sweat glands increase output → as sweat
evaporates, it takes heat with it
■ (3) depth of respiration increases - person breasted through the mouth
instead of nasal passageway → increases heat loss from lungs
○ In contrast, activation of the brain’s heat-gain centre by exposure to cold
reduces blood flow to the skin, and blood returning from the limbs is diverted
into a network of deep veins
■ This arrangement traps heat closer to the body core and restricts heat
loss
■ For severe heat loss: brain triggers random signals to muscles →
shivering → muscle contractions of shivering release heat while using
an ATP
■ The brain triggers the thyroid gland to release thyroid hormone →
increases metabolic activity and heat production in cells
■ The brain also signals adrenal glands to release epinephrine →
hormone that causes the breakdown of glycogen into glucose (which
can be used as an energy source)
● Breakdown of glycogen into glucose results in increased
metabolism and heat production
● Positive feedback: intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition rather
than reversing it
○ A deviation from the normal range results in more change, and the system
moves farther away from the normal range
○ Positive feedback in the body is normal only when there is a definite end point
(ie. child birth)
1.6 Anatomical Terminology
● The standard body “map”, or anatomical position, is that of the body standing
upright, with the feet at shoulder width and parallel, toes forward. The upper lungs are
held out to each side, and the palms of the hands face forward.
● A body that is lying down is described as either prone or supine
○ Prone: face-down orientation
○ Supine: face-up orientation
● Anterior (or ventral): describes the front or direction toward the front of the body
● Posterior (or dorsal): describes the back or direction toward the back of the body
● Superior (or cranial): describes a position above or higher than another part of the
body proper
● Inferior (or caudal): describes a position below or lower than another part of the
body proper; near or toward the tail (in humans, the coccyx, or lowest part of the
spinal column)
● Lateral: describes the side or direction toward the side of the body
● Medial: describes the middle or direction toward the middle of the body
● Proximal: describes a position in a limb that is nearer to the point of attachment or
the trunk of the body
● Distal: describes a position in a limb that is father from the point of attachment or the
trunk of the body
● Superficial: describes a position closer to the surface of the body
● Deep: describes a position farther from the surface of the body
● Section: a two-dimensional surface of a three-dimensional structure that has been cut
● Plane: an imaginary two-dimensional surface that passes through teh body
○ Three planes commonly referred to in anatomy and medicine
● Saggital plane: plane that divides the body or an organ vertically into right and left
sides
○ If this vertical plane runs directly down the middle of the body, it is called the
midsaggital or median plane
○ If it divides the body into unequal right and left sides, it is called a parasagittal
plane or less commonly a longitudinal section
● Frontal plane: the plane that divides the body or an organ into an anterior (front)
portion and a posterior (read) portion
○ Frontal plane is often referred to as a coronal plane
● Transverse plane: the plane that divides the body or organ horizontally into upper
and lower portions
○ Transverse planes produce images referred to as cross sections
QUESTIONS
● Which of the following specialities might focus on studying all of the structures of the
ankle and foot? Regional anatomy
● A scientist wants to study how the body uses foods and fluids during a marathon run.
This scientist is most likely a(n) exercise physiologist.
● The smallest independently functioning biological unit of an organism is a(n) cell.
● A collection of similar tissues that performs a specific function is an organ.
● C.J. is stuck in her car during a bitterly cold blizzard. Her body responds to the cold
by breaking down stored energy.
● The heart is within the mediastinum.
● Name at least three reasons to study anatomy and physiology.
○ Essential to know for a career in health-related professions
○ Can help you make choices that promote your health, and respond
appropriately to signs of illness
○ Allows you to make more sense of health-related phenomena/news
● Name the six levels of organization of the human body.
○ Chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
● Identify the four components of a negative feedback loop and explain what would
happen if secretion of a body chemical controlled by a negative feedback system
became too great.
○ Stimulus, sensor, control centre, and effector. If too much chemical was
secreted, sensors would activate a control centre, which would activate an
effector. The effector would then be adjusted downwards.
● What regulatory processes would your body use if you were trapped by a blizzard in
an unheated, uninsulated cabin in the woods?
○ The brain’s heat-gain centre would be activated; keeping blood away from the
skin and directing it to vital organs, increase in muscle contractions →
shivering → heat gain, thyroid hormone generate to increase
metabolism/generate heat, epinephrine generated to breakdown glycogen into
glucose → generates heat.