Chapter 6

Flow Through Steam

Nozzles
6.1 ❐ INTRODUCTION
The steam nozzle is a passage of varying cross-section by means of which a part of the enthalpy of
steam is converted into kinetic energy as the steam expands from a higher pressure to a lower pressure.
Therefore, a nozzle is a device designed to increase the velocity of steam. Steam nozzles are of three
types, namely convergent nozzle, divergent nozzle, and convergent–divergent nozzle. If the cross-
section of the nozzle decreases continuously from the entrance to exit, then it is called a convergent
nozzle, as shown in Fig. 6.1(a). If the cross-section increases, then it is called a divergent nozzle, as
shown in Fig. 6.1(b). If the cross-section of the nozzle first decreases and then increases, it is called a
convergent–divergent nozzle, as shown in Fig. 6.1(c). The least area of cross-section of the nozzle is
called the throat. The divergent section has to be long as the divergent angle is limited to about 7° in
order to prevent separation at the wall.
The main purpose of steam nozzles is to produce a high velocity jet of steam which is used in steam
turbine injectors for pumping feed water into boilers and to maintain high vacuum in power plant
condensers or steam jet refrigeration condensers.

Entry throat Exit

Convergent part Divergent part

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 6.1 Types of nozzles: (a) Convergent nozzle (b) Divergent nozzle

(c) Convergent-Divergent nozzle

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 254 Chapter 6

6.2 ❐ CONTINUITY EQUATION

Consider the flow of steam through a nozzle.
Let ṁ = steady state mass flow rate of steam, kg/s
A = cross-sectional area of nozzle normal to the direction of steam flow at any section, m2
v = specific volume of steam at the same section, m3/kg
c = velocity of steam across the section, m/s
Then for steady flow of steam through the nozzle,
Ac A1c1 A c
ṁ = = = 2 2 (6.1)
v v1 v2
Equation (6.1) is the continuity equation for steam flow through the nozzle.

6.3 ❐ VELOCITY OF FLOW OF STEAM THROUGH NOZZLES

The following assumptions are made:
1. The steam flows through the nozzle without any work or heat transfer.
2. The frictional forces are neglected.
Consider the flow of steam through a nozzle, as shown in Fig. 6.2. Applying the energy equation to
sections 1 and 2 at entrance and exit of nozzle, we have

c12 c2
h1 + = h2 + 2
2 2

c2 = 2( h1 − h2 ) + c12 (6.2a)

Usually c1 = 0,

c2 = 2( h1 − h2 ) = 44.72 ( ∆h)isen (6.2b)

where (∆h)isen = h1 − h2 = isentropic enthalpy change, kJ/kg

2
A1
A2
c1
c2
p2
p1
v2
v1 Exit
Entry

Figure 6.2  Flow through a nozzle

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 Flow Through Steam Nozzles 255

6.3.1 Flow of Steam Through the Nozzle

Let    pvn = constant
where n = 1.035 + 0.1 x1 for wet steam
= 1.135 for saturated steam
= 1.3 for superheated steam
As the steam pressure drops while passing through the nozzle, its enthalpy is reduced. This reduction
of enthalpy of steam must be equal to the increase in kinetic energy. Hence,
c22 − c12  n 
= (p v – p2v2)
2  n − 1 1 1
where p1, p2 = pressure of steam at entry and exit, respectively, v1, v2 = specific volume at entry and
exit, respectively.
If c1 << c2, then
c22  n   n   p v 
=  ( p1v1 − p2 v2 ) =   p1v1 1 − 2 2 
2  n − 1  n − 1  p1v1 
But p1v1n = p2 v2n
1
v  p n
    2 =  1 
v1  p2 
 1  n −1 
c22  n   p2  p1  n   n    p2  n 
    =   p v 1− ⋅ =  p v 1− 
2  n − 1 1 1  p1  p2    n − 1 1 1   p1  
   
 n −1 
 2n    p2  n 
      c2 =  p v 1−  (6.3)
 n − 1 1 1   p1 
 
 

6.4 ❐ MASS FLOW RATE OF STEAM

The mass flow of steam per second is flowing with velocity c2 through a cross-sectional area A2, and
specific volume v2 is:
A c
ṁ = 2 2
1 v2
 p n
Now, v2 = v1  1 
p  2
Also, from Eq. (6.3), we have

 2n 
c2 =   ( p v − p2 v2 )
n − 1 1 1
A 2  2n 
ṁ =   ( p v − p2 v2 )
v2  n − 1 1 1

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 256 Chapter 6

A2  2n 
=   ( p v − p2 v2 )
1 n − 1 1 1
 p1  n
v1  
 p2 
1
  2 n +1   2
= A2   2 n  p2   p2  n  p2 n   (6.4)

    −   
 n − 1 v1  p1   p1  
  

6.5 ❐ CRITICAL PRESSURE RATIO

From Eq. (6.4), we have
1
  2 n +1   2
m  2n  p2
 p2  n  p2  n  
=     −   
A 2  n − 1 v1
 p1   p1  
  
The mass flow rate per unit area is maximum at the throat because it has minimum area of cross-
 2 n +1 
m  p2  n  p2  n 
section. Therefore, will be maximum when   −    is maximum
A2  p1   p2  
 

 2 n +1 
 p2  n  p2  n  d
or  −  =0
 p2   p1   p1  
d   
 p1 
2 n +1
−1 −1
2 p n  n + 1  p2  n
or  2  − =0
n  p1   n   p1 
2−n 1
2 p  n  n + 1  p2  n
or  2  =
n  p1   n   p1 

n 2−n
p   n + 1  p2 
    2 
or     =
 p1   2   p1 

1− n n
p   n + 1
  2 
or   =
 p  1  2 
n n
p  n + 1 1− n  2  n −1
or       2 =   = (6.5)
p1  2   n + 1

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 Flow Through Steam Nozzles 257

Equation (6.5) gives the critical pressure ratio at which the discharge through the nozzle is maximum.
p
For saturated steam, n = 1.135, then 2 = 0.5774 (6.5a)
p1
p
For superheated steam, n = 1.3, then 2 = 0.5457 (6.5b)
p1
1
  1− n  2
 2n    2n   p2  n 
Now, c2 =  ( p v − p2 v2 ) =   p2 v2   − 1 
 n − 1 1 1   n − 1 
 1 p  
  
p2
Substituting for from Eq. (6.5), we get
p1
1 1
  2n   n + 1   2  2n   n − 1 2
c2 =   p2 v2  − 1  =     p2 v2 

 n −1  2  
 n −1 2 

                    = np2 v2 = nRT2 = cs2(6.6)

where cs2 = velocity of sound at exit of the nozzle.
1
  n −1   2
  2n    p2  n  
Also, c2 =   p1v1 1 −   
 n − 1   p1  
  

 2n   2n 
=  ⋅ np1v1 =  ⋅ nRT1
 n + 1  n + 1

 2n 
=  c  (6.7)
 n + 1 s1
where cs1 = velocity of sound at entry of nozzle.

6.6 ❐ MAXIMUM DISCHARGE

From Eq. (6.5), maximum mass flow rate of steam can be obtained as
1
  2 n +1   2
A 2   2n   2  n −1  2  n −1  
(ṁ )max =   p v   − 
v1  n − 1 1 1  n + 1  n + 1 

  
1
  2 n +1   2
 2n  p1  2  n −1  2  n −1  
= A 2   − 
 n − 1 v1  n + 1  n + 1 

  

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 258 Chapter 6

1
  n +1
−1
1− n   2
 2n  p1  2  n −1  2  n −1  
= A 2   − 
 n − 1 v1  n + 1  n + 1 

  
1
 n +1 2
−1
 2n   p1   2  n −1  2   
= A 2   − 1 
 n − 1  v1   n + 1  n + 1
   

1
 n +1 2
 2n   p1   2  n −1  n + 1  
= A 2   − 1
 n − 1  v1   n + 1   2   
 
1
 n +1 2
 2n   p1   2  n −1  n − 1 
= A 2 
 n − 1  v1   n + 1  
2 
 
1
 n +1  2
 np1  2  n −1 
= A2     (6.8)
v  n + 1
 1 

As p2 is gradually reduced, the discharge gradually increases and becomes maximum as critical
pressure is approached, as shown in Fig. 6.3.

Maximum discharge
Discharge

Critical pressure ratio

Pressure ratio p2/p1

Figure 6.3  Discharge v’s pressure ratio in a nozzle

6.7 ❐ EFFECT OF FRICTION ON EXPANSION OF STEAM

The exit velocity of steam for a given pressure drop is reduced due to the following reasons:
1. Friction between nozzle surface and steam
2. Internal fluid friction in the steam
3. Shock losses

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 Flow Through Steam Nozzles 259

Most of these losses occur beyond the throat in the divergent section of the nozzle as the length and the
velocity of steam is much higher there. The effects of these friction losses are as follows:
1. The expansion does not remain isentropic and the enthalpy drop is reduced, resulting in lower exit
velocity.
2. The final dryness fraction of steam is increased as a part of kinetic energy gets converted into heat
due to friction and is absorbed by steam, which increases the enthalpy.
3. The specific volume of steam is increased due to frictional reheating.
The effect of friction of steam flow through a nozzle is shown in h–s (Mollier) diagram in
Fig. 6.4. The point A represents the initial condition of steam and the point E represents the throat of a
convergent–divergent nozzle. AB represents the isentropic expansion without friction, and AC repre-
sents the expansion with friction. Isentropic enthalpy drop is (hA – hC) and actual enthalpy drop with
friction is (hA – hc). If the actual enthalpy drop as percentage of theoretical enthalpy drop is known,
then point C can be located. However, expansion must end at same pressure as at B. The horizontal
line drawn through C to cut the back pressure line pb at point D represents the final condition of steam.
The h–s diagram shows that the dryness fraction of steam at point D is greater than that at point B and
the specific volume of steam also increases.
Most of the friction occurs in the divergent part of the nozzle and actual expansion is represented
by the line AED. AE represents the expansion in the convergent part, whereas ED represents in the
divergent part of the nozzle. Lines AEB and AED represent expansion of steam for initially saturated
steam. Likewise, A1E1B1 and A1E1D1 are for initially superheated steam.

h
A1
A E1

D1 x = 1
D B1
B C

Figure 6.4  Effect of friction on expansion of steam in a convergent–divergent nozzle

6.8 ❐ NOZZLE EFFICIENCY

Nozzle efficiency, hn is a factor that takes into account the effect of friction during expansion of
steam in the nozzle. It is defined as:
Actual enthalpy drop h − hD
hn = = A (6.9)
Isentropic enthalpy drop hA − hB

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 260 Chapter 6

The exit velocity of steam considering friction is:

c2 = 44.72 h n × ( ∆h)isen (6.10)

 

= 44.72 K ( ∆h)isen

where K = hn .

6.9 ❐ SUPERSATURATED OR METASTABLE FLOW

THROUGH A NOZZLE
The isentropic expansion of superheated steam from supply pressure p1 to back pressure pb can be
represented on the Mollier diagram by line AE, as shown in Fig. 6.5. During expansion, change of
phase must start at point B where the pressure line p2 meets the saturation line. However, in nozzles,
under certain conditions, this phenomenon of condensation does not occur at point B as the time
available is very short due to very high velocity of steam (nearly sonic) through the nozzle. The equi-
librium between the vapour phase and liquid is, therefore, delayed and the vapour continues to expand
in dry state even beyond point B upon point B1. The pressure at B1 can be found by extending the
superheated constant pressure line p3 up to B1. The steam during the expansion BB1 remains dry and
condensation is suppressed.
The vapours between pressure p2 and p3 are said to be supersaturated or supercooled and such a
flow in nozzles is called supersaturated or metastable flow of steam. A limit to the supersaturated state
was observed by Wilson and the line drawn on the Mollier chart through the observed points is known
as Wilson line. For all practical purposes, this line has become the saturation line.
The flow is also called supercooled flow because at any pressure between p2 and p3, the tempera-
ture of the vapour is always lower than the saturation temperature corresponding to that pressure. The
difference in this temperature is called the degree of undercooling.
When the expansion reaches at point B, on the Wilson line, the condensation occurs at constant
enthalpy, and the pressure remaining constant, as shown by horizontal line BC. Further isentropic
expansion to the exit pressure is represented by CD. The ratio of saturation pressures corresponding to
the temperatures at B and B1 is called the degree of supersaturation.

h
p1
A p2
B
p3

B1 pb
C
Supersaturated
field
E D
x=1
Wilson line
s

Figure 6.5  Super-saturated flow of steam in a nozzle

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 Flow Through Steam Nozzles 261

Velocity of steam at the end of expansion,

1
  n −1   2
  2n    p2  n  
c2 =   p1v1 1 −   
 n − 1   p1  
  
1
 p n
Specific volume, v2 = v1  1 
 p2 
n −1
p  n
Temperature, T2 = T1  2 
 p1 
 2
mv
and A2 =
c2
The superheated expansion law, pv1.3 = constant, is followed in the supersaturated flow.

Example 6.1
Steam expands from 2.5 bar to 1 bar in a nozzle. The initial velocity of steam is 80 m/s and initial
temperature is 200°C. Taking nozzle efficiency as 96%, find the exit velocity.

Solution
Given that p1 = 2.5 bar, p2 = 1 bar, c1 = 80 m/s, t1 = 200°C, hn = 0.96
The h – s diagram is shown in Fig. 6.6.
From steam tables for superheated steam, we have
h1 = 2868 kJ/kg at p1 = 2.5 bar and 200°C
s1 = 7.3593 kJ/kg.K
At p2 = 1 bar, sf 2 = 1.3025 kJ/kg.K and sfg2 = 6.0568 kJ/kg.K
Since s1 > sfg2, steam is superheated. At 1 bar and s1 = 7.3593 kJ/kg.K, the enthalpy for superheated
steam by interpolation is:
 2776.4 − 2676.2 
h2 =   (7.3593 – 7.3614) + 2676.2
 7.6133 − 7.3614 
= 2691.95 kJ/kg
h
2.5 bar
1 1 bar
h1

h2′
h2 2 2′

Figure 6.6  Steam flow through a nozzle

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 262 Chapter 6

Enthalpy drop = h1 – h2 = 2868 – 2691.95 = 176.05 kJ/kg

Actual enthalpy drop, (∆h)actual = hn (h1 – h2) = 0.96 × 176.05 = 169.0 kJ/kg

c2 = 2( ∆h)actual + c12 = 2 × 169.0 × 103 + 80 2

= 586.86 m/s

Example 6.2
Superheated steam enters a convergent–divergent nozzle at 20 bar and 300°C. The exit pressure is
4.5 bar. Assuming frictionless flow up to the throat (pv1.3 = const.) and a nozzle efficiency of 90%,
determine (a) the flow rate for a throat area of 30 cm2 and (b) exit area.

Solution
Given that p1 = 20 bar, t1 = 300°C, p3 = 4.5 bar, hn = 0.9, A2 = 30 cm2
n 1.3
p  2  n −1  2  0.3
Critical pressure ratio, 2 =   = = 0.5457
p1  n + 1  2.3 
Throat pressure, p2 = 20 × 0.5457 = 10.91 bar
From Mollier diagram (Fig. 6.7), we get
h1 = 3025 kJ/kg, h2 = 2880 kJ/kg, v2 = 0.2 m3/kg, h3 = 2700 kJ/kg, vs3′ = 0.4 m3/kg, and x3′ = 0.995
Thus, c2 = 2( h1 − h2 )

= 2(3025 − 2880) × 103

= 538.5 m/s
Ac
ṁ = 2 2
v2
30 × 10 −4 × 538.5
=
0.2
= 8.077 kg/s

c3 = 2h n ( h2 − h3 ) + c22 = 2 × 0.9 ( 2880 − 2700) × 103 + (538.5)2 = 783.6 m/s

h, kJ/kg
20 bar
1
3025 300°C 10.91 bar

2880 2
Dry 4.5 bar
satu
rate
d
2700
3 3′ x3′ = 0.995
s

Figure 6.7  Superheated steam flow through a nozzle

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 Flow Through Steam Nozzles 263

v3 = x3′ vs3′ = 0.995 × 0.4 = 0.398 m3/kg

 3′ 8.077 × 0.398
mv
A3 = = = 4.1 × 10–3 m2 or 41 cm2
c3 783.6

Example 6.3
Dry saturated steam at 3 bar is expanded through a convergent nozzle to 1.5 bar. The exit area
is 2.5 cm2. Calculate the exit velocity and mass flow rate, assuming (a) isentropic expansion,
(b) supersaturated flow, and (c) degree of under-cooling at exit.

Solution
(a) At p1 = 3 bar
s1 = 6.992 kJ/kg.K, h1 = 2724.3 kJ/kg, v1 = 0.6058 m3/kg
At p2 = 1.5 bar
s1 = s2 = sf 2 + x2 sfg2
6.9918 = 1.4335 + x2 × 5.7897
x2 = 0.96
h2 = hf2 + x2hfg2 = 467.08 + 0.96 × 2226.5 = 2604.52 kJ/kg
v2 = vf2 + x2 (vg2 − vf2) = 0.001053 + 0.96 × (1.159 − 0.001053) = 1.113 m3/kg

c2 = 2( h1 − h2 ) = 2 ( 2725.3 − 2604.52) × 103 = 491.49 m/s

A 2 c2 2.5 × 10 −4 × 491.49
 ṁ = = = 0.11 kg/s
v2 1.113
(b) For supersaturated flow, pv1.3 = const.
1
  n −1   2
  2n    p2  n  
c2 =    p1v1 1 −   
 n − 1   p1  
  
1
  0.3   2
 2 × 1.3    1 .5  1.3  
c2 =  × 3 × 105 × 0.6058 1 −     = 482.52 m/s
 0.3    3  

  
1 1
 p n  3  1.3
v2 = v1  1  = 0.6058   = 1.0325 m3/kg
 p2   1.5 

2.5 × 10 −4 × 482.52
ṁ = = 0.117 kg/s
1.0325

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 264 Chapter 6

n −1
 p  n
(c) T2 = T1  1 
 p2 
T1 = 273 + 133.55 = 406.55 K
0.3
 1.5  1.3
T2 = 406.55   = 346.45 K or 73.45°C
 3
Saturation temperature at 1.5 bar = 111.37°C
Degree of under cooling at exit = 111.37 − 73.45 = 37.92°C.

Example 6.4
Steam at a pressure of 10 bar, 0.96 dry is expanded through a convergent–divergent nozzle and
leaves the nozzle at 0.3 bar.
(a) Calculate the velocity of steam at throat for maximum discharge. Take n = 1.134.
(b) Calculate the exit area and steam discharge if the throat area is 1.5 cm2. Assume isentropic
flow and ignore friction losses.
Solution
The nozzle is shown in Fig. 6.8.
(a) v1 = vf1 + x1 (vg1– vf1) = 0.001127 + 0.96 × (0.19444 − 0.001127) = 0.1867 m3/kg
n 1.135
 2  n −1  2  0.135
For maximum discharge, p2 = p1  = 10  = 5.774 bar
 n + 1 
 2.135 

 2n 
Velocity of steam at throat, c2 =  pv
 n + 1 1 1
1
 2 × 1.135  5 2
c2 =   × 10 × 10 × 0.1867

 2.135 
= 445.54 m/s

1 2 3

p1 p2 p3
c1 c2 c3
v1 v2 v3
A1 A2 A3

Inlet Throat Exit

Figure 6.8  Convergent–divergent nozzle

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 Flow Through Steam Nozzles 265

(b) For isentropic flow,

s1 = sf1 + x1sfg1 = 2.1386 + 0.96 × 4.4478 = 6.4085 kJ/kg
s1 = s2
sf1 + x1sfg1 = sf2 + x2sfg2

p(bar) vf (m3/kg) vg (m3/kg) hf (kJ/kg) hfg (kJ/kg) sf (kJ/kg.K) sfg (kJ/kg.K)

5.5 0.001097 0.3427 655.9 2097.0 1.8972 4.8920
6.0 0.001101 0.3157 670.54 2086.3 1.9311 4.8289

At p2 = 5.774 bar

(0.001101 − 0.001097)
vf = 0.001097 + × (5.774 − 5.5) = 0.001099 m3/kg
0.5
 670.54 − 655.9 
hf = 655.9 + 
   (5.774 − 5.5) = 663.92 kJ/kg
 0.5
 2086.3 − 2097.0 
hfg = 2097.0 +   (5.774 − 5.5) = 2091.14 kJ/kg
 0.5
 1.9311 − 1.8972 
sf = 1.8972 +   (5.774 − 5.5) = 1.9157 kJ/kg.K
 0.5
 4.8289 − 4.8920 
sfg = 4.8920 +   (5.774 − 5.5) = 4.857 kJ/kg.K
 0.5
6.4085 = 1.9157 + x2 × 4.857
x2 = 0.925
h2 = hf2 + x2hfg2 = 663.92 + 0.925 × 2091.14 = 2598.22 kJ/kg
h1 = hf1 + x1hfg1 = 762.79 + 0.96 × 2015.3 = 2697.5 kJ/kg

c2 = 2( h1 − h2 ) = 2( 2697.5 − 2598.22) × 103 = 454.6 m/s

v2 = vf2 + x2 (vg2 − vf2) = 0.001099 + 0.925 × (0.3279 − 0.001099) = 0.3034 m3/kg

A 2 c2 1.5 × 10 −4 × 445.54
(ṁ)max = = = 0.22 kg/s
v2 0.3034
At p3 = 0.8 bar, sf3 = 1.233 kJ/kg.K, sfg3 = 6.202 kJ/kg.K
s2 = s3
sf2 + x2 sfg2 = sf3 + x3 sfg3
1.9157 + 0.925 × 4.857 = 1.233 + x3 × 6.202
x3 = 0.833
h3 = hf3 + x3hfg3 = 391.7 + 0.833 × 2274.1 = 2286 kJ/kg

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 266 Chapter 6

c3 = 2( h1 − h3 ) = 2( 2697.5 − 2286) × 103 = 907.2 m/s

v3 = x3vg3 = 0.833 × 2.087 = 1.732 m3/kg
 3 0.226 × 1.732
mv
A3 = = = 4.315 × 10–4 m2 or 4.315 cm2
c3 907.2

Example 6.5
A convergent–divergent nozzle is supplied with steam at 10 bar and 250°C. The divergent portion of
the nozzle is 4 cm long and throat diameter is 6 mm. Find the semi-cone angle of the divergent sec-
tion so that steam may leave the nozzle at 1.2 bar. The frictional loss in the nozzle is 10 percent of the
total enthalpy drop. Assume that the frictional loss occurs only in the divergent part of the nozzle.
Solution
Assuming maximum discharge, the throat pressure,
n
 2  n −1
p2 = p1 
 n + 1
For superheated steam, n = 1.3
1.3
 2  0.3
p2 = 10  = 5.457 bar
 2.3 

The nozzle and the h − s (Mollier) diagram is shown in Fig. 6.9. Locate point ‘1’ on the Mollier dia-
gram corresponding to p1 = 10 bar and 250°C. Draw a vertical line from point ‘1’ to cut the p2 line at
point ‘2’ and p3 line at point 3.
Length (1 − 4) = 0.9 × Length (1 − 3)
Draw horizontal line 4 − 3′ to cut p3 line at point 3′. Point 3′ gives the exit condition of steam.
From the Mollier diagram, we have
p1 = 10 bar: h1 = 2940 kJ/kg
p2 = 5.457 bar: h2 = 2830 kJ/kg, v2 = 0.4 m3/kg
p3 = 1.2 bar: h3 = 2530 kJ/kg, x3′ = 0.955, vs3′ = 1.5 m3/kg
h1 − h3 = 2940−2530 = 410 kJ/kg
h4 − h3 = 0.1 × 410 = 41 kJ/kg
c2 = 2 ( h1 − h2 ) = 2 ( 2940 − 2830) × 103 = 469 m/s

A 2 c2 p (6 × 10 −3 )2 × 469
ṁ = = × = 0.03315 kg/s
u2 4 0.4

c3 = 2 × 0.9 ( h2 − h3 ) + c22 = 2 × 0.9 ( 2830 − 2530) × 103 + 4692

= 871.76 m/s
v3′ = x3′ vs3′ = 0.955 × 1.5 = 1.4325 m3/kg

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 Flow Through Steam Nozzles 267

1 2 3

Inlet Throat Exit

p = 10 bar p = 1.2 bar

h (kj/kg)
10 bar

2940 1
5.457 bar
250°C

2 1.2 bar
2830

4
h4
h3 3′
3
x3′ = 0.995

Figure 6.9  Superheated steam flow through a convergent–divergent nozzle

 3′ 0.03315 × 1.4325
mv
A3 = = = 5.447 × 10–5 m2
c3 871.76
p 2
d = 5.447 × 10–5
4 3
d3 = 8.33 × 10–3 m or 8.33 mm
D − d 8.33 − 6 2.33
tan q = = = = 0.02991
2L 2 × 40 80
 q = 1.67°
 2q = 3.34°

Example 6.6
Dry saturated steam at pressure of 5 bar flows through a convergent–divergent nozzle at the rate of
4 kg/s and discharges at a pressure of 1.5 bar. The loss due to friction occurs only in the diverging
portion of the nozzle and its magnitude is 15% of the total isentropic enthalpy drop. Assume the
isentropic index of expansion n = 1.135. Determine the area of cross-section at the throat and exit
of the nozzle.

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 268 Chapter 6

Solution
Refer to Fig. 6.10.
For maximum discharge,
n
p2  2  n −1
= 
p1  n + 1
1.135
 2  0.135
p2 = 5  = 2.887 bar
 1.135 + 1
From steam table, we get
h1 = 2748.7 kJ/kg, s1 = 6.8212 kJ/kg.K
Now, s1 = s3 = sf3 + x3sfg3
6.8212 = 1.4335 + x3 × 5.7997
x3 = 0.93
h3 = hf 3 + x3hfg3 = 467.08 + 0.93 × 2226.5 = 2537.7 kJ/kg
(h1 − h3)isen = 2748.7 − 2537.7 = 211 kJ/kg
h1 − h3′ = h1 − h4 = 0.85 × 211 = 179.35 kJ/kg
From Mollier diagram (Fig. 6.10), x2 = 0.965, x3′ = 0.945, h2 = 2662 kJ/kg
vs2 = 0.7 m3/kg, vs3′ = 1.1 m3/kg, h3′ = 2585 kJ/kg
v2 = x2vs2 = 0.965 × 0.7 = 0.676 m3/kg
v3′ = x3′vs3′ = 0.945 × 1.1 = 1.04 m3/kg

c2 = 2( h1 − h2 ) = 2( 2748.7 − 2662) × 103 = 416.4 m/s

 2′ 4 × 0.676
mv
A2 = = = 6.49 × 10–3 m3 or 64.9 cm2
c2 416.4

c3′ = 2( h2 − h3′ ) + c22 = 2( 2662 − 2585) × 103 + ( 416.4)2 = 572.2 m/s

 3′ 4 × 1.04
mv
A3 = = = 7.27 × 10–3 m2 or 72.7 cm2
c3′ 572.2

h (kJ/kg) 5 bar
2.887 bar
1
h1 1.5 bar
h2 2

h3′
h3 3′
4 3
x=1
x2
x3′
s

Figure 6.10  Dry saturated steam flow through a convergent–divergent nozzle

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 Flow Through Steam Nozzles 269

6.10  ❐ ISENTROPIC, ONE-DIMENSIONAL STEADY FLOW

THROUGH A NOZZLE
A nozzle with both converging and diverging section is shown in Fig. 6.11. For the control volume
shown, the following relations can be written:
First law:
dh + cdc = 0 (6.11)
Property relation
dp
Tds = dh − = 0 (6.12)
r
Continuity equation:
rAc = ṁ = const.
By logarithmic differentiation, we get
d r dA dc
+ + = 0(6.13)
r A c
Combining Eqs (6.11) and (6.12), we have

dp
dh = = − cdc
r
1
dc = − dp
rc
Substituting this in Eq. (6.13), we have

dA  d r dc  d r  dp  1
= − − =−   + dp
A  r c r  dp  rc 2
 
 
d r  d r 1  dp  1 1
        = − − = − +
r  dp c 2  r   dp  c 2 
Since the flow is isentropic,    
  dr  
dp c2
= = cs2
d r M2
and therefore,
dA dp
= (1 − M 2 )(6.14a)
A rc 2

p
p + dp
c T c + dc
T + dT
s s + ds

Control surface

Figure 6.11  One-dimensional isentropic flow through a nozzle

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 270 Chapter 6

(g RT)dp cs2 dp
= (1 − M 2 ) = ⋅ (1 − M 2 )
2 g p
g pc 2 c
dA 1 dp  1 − M 2 
or   =   (6.14b)
A g p  M2 

where cs = velocity of sound

steam velocity
M = Mach number =
sonic velocity
g  = ratio of specific heats = cp/cv
This is a very significant equation, and from it, we can draw the following conclusions about the
proper shape for nozzles and diffusers:
1. For a nozzle, dp < 0. Therefore,
for a subsonic nozzle, M < 1, dA < 0, and the nozzle is converging;
for a supersonic nozzle, M > 1, dA > 0, and the nozzle is diverging.
2. For a diffuser, dp > 0. Therefore,
for a subsonic diffuser, M < 1, dA > 0, and the diffuser is diverging;
for a supersonic diffuser, M > 1, dA < 0, and the diffuser is converging.
3. When M = 1, dA = 0, which means that some velocity can be achieved only at the throat of a
nozzle or diffuser. These conclusions are summarised in Fig. 6.12.

M<1 p decreases M>1 p decreases

Subsonic A decreases Supersonic A increases

(a)

M<1 p increases M>1 p increases

Subsonic A increases Supersonic A decreases

(b)

Figure 6.12  Required area changes for (a) nozzles and (b) diffusers

6.10.1 Relationship between Actual and Stagnation Properties

c2
The relation between enthalpy h, stagnation enthalpy h0, and kinetic energy is:
2
c2
h + = h0 (6.15)
2

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 Flow Through Steam Nozzles 271

For an ideal gas with constant specific heat, Eq. (6.15) can be written as:
g RT  T0 
c2 = 2 cp0 (T0 − T) = 2 − 1
g − 1  T 
Since cs2 = g RT, where g = cp0/cv0

2cs2  T0 
c2 = − 1
g − 1  T 
c2 2  T0 
= M2 = − 1
cs2 g − 1  T 
T0  g − 1 2
= 1+  M (6.16)
T  2 
For an isentropic process,
g 1
 T0  g −1 p0  T  g −1 r0
 T  = and  0  =
p T r
g
p0  (g − 1) 2  g −1
Therefore, = 1+ M  (6.17)
p  2 
1
r0  (g − 1) 2  g −1
= 1+ M  (6.18)
r  2 
p r T
Values of , , and are given as a function of M in Table 6.1 for the value of g  = 1.40.
p0 r0 T0
Table 6.1  O
 ne-dimensional insentropic compressible-flow functions for an ideal gas with constant
specific heat and molecular weight and g  = 1.4

M M* A/A* p/p0 r/r0 T/T0

0.0 0.00000 ∞ 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000
0.1 0.10944 5.82183 0.99303 0.99502 0.99800
0.2 0.21822 2.96352 0.97250 0.98028 0.99206
0.3 0.32572 2.03506 0.93947 0.95638 0.98232
0.4 0.43133 1.59014 0.89561 0.92427 0.96899
0.5 0.53452 1.33984 0.84302 0.88517 0.95238
0.6 0.63481 1.48820 0.78400 0.84045 0.93284
0.7 0.73179 1.09437 0.72093 0.79158 0.91075
0.8 0.82514 1.03823 0.65602 0.73999 0.88652
0.9 0.91460 1.00886 0.59126 0.68704 0.86059
(Continued)

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 272 Chapter 6

Table 6.1  (Continued )

M M* A/A* p/p0 r/r0 T/T0

1.0 1.0000 1.00000 0.52828 0.63394 0.83333
1.1 1.0812 1.00793 0.46835 0.58170 0.80515
1.2 1.1583 1.03044 0.41238 0.53114 0.77640
1.3 1.2311 1.06630 0.36097 0.48290 0.74738
1.4 1.2999 1.11493 0.3424 0.43742 0.71839
1.5 1.3646 1.17617 0.27240 0.39498 0.68966
1.6 1.4254 1.25023 0.23527 0.35573 0.66138
1.7 1.4825 1.33761 0.20259 0.31969 0.63371
1.8 1.5360 1.43898 0.17404 0.28682 0.60680
1.9 1.5861 1.55526 0.14924 0.25699 0.58072
2.0 1.6330 1.68750 0.12780 0.23005 0.55556
2.1 1.6769 1.83694 0.10935 0.20580 0.53135
2.2 1.7179 2.00497 0.93522E-01 0.18405 0.50813
2.3 1.7563 2.19313 0.79973E-01 0.16458 0.48591
2.4 1.7922 2.40310 0.68399E-01 0.14720 0.46468
2.5 1.8257 2.63672 0.58528E-01 0.13169 0.44444
2.6 1.8571 2.89598 0.50115E-01 0.11787 0.42517
2.7 1.8865 3.18301 0.42950E-01 0.10557 0.40683
2.8 1.9140 3.50012 0.36848E-01 0.94626E-01 0.38941
2.9 1.9398 3.84977 0.31651E-01 0.84889E-01 0.37286
3.0 1.9640 4.23457 0.277224E-01 0.76226E-01 0.35714
3.5 2.0642 6.78962 0.13111E-01 0.45233E-01 0.28986
4.0 2.1381 10.7188 0.65861E-02 0.27662E-01 0.23810
4.5 2.1936 16.5622 0.34553E-02 0.17449E-01 0.19802
5.0 2.2361 25.0000 0.18900E-02 0.11340E-01 0.16667
6.0 2.2953 53.1798 0.63336E-03 0.51936E-02 0.12195
7.0 2.3333 104.143 0.24156E-03 0.26088E-02 0.09259
8.0 2.3591 190.109 0.10243E-03 0.14135E-02 0.07246
9.0 2.3772 327.189 0.47386E-04 0.81504E-02 0.05814
10.0 2.3905 535.938 0.23563E-04 0.49482E-03 0.04762
∞ 2.4495 ∞ 0.0 0.0 0.0

The conditions at the throat of the nozzle can be found by putting M = 1 at the throat. The properties
at the throat are denoted as an asterisk (*) and are referred to as critical properties.
T* 2
Therefore, = (6.19)
T0 g + 1

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 Flow Through Steam Nozzles 273

g
p*  2  g −1
= (6.20)
p0 g + 1
g
p*  2  g −1
= (6.21)
r 0 g + 1
Table 6.2 gives these ratios for various values of k.

Table 6.2  Critical properties for isentropic flow of an ideal gas

Ratio g = 1.1 g = 1.2 g = 1.3 g = 1.4 g = 1.67

P*/p0 0.5847 0.5644 0.5457 0.5283 0.4867
r*/r0 0.6139 0.6209 0.6276 0.6340 0.6497
T*/T0 0.9524 0.9091 0.8696 0.8330 0.7491

6.11 ❐ MASS RATE OF FLOW THROUGH AN ISENTROPIC

NOZZLE
From the continuity equation, we have
m pc g T0 pc g T0 1
= rc = =
A RT g T0 g RT R T T0

pM g g −1 2
   = 1+ M (6.22)
T0 R 2
Substituting Eq. (6.17) in Eq. (6.22), the flow per unit area can be expressed in terms of stagnation
pressure, stagnation temperature, Mach number, and gas properties.
m p g M
     = 0 × (6.23)
A T0 R (g +1)
 g −1 
2 (g −1)
2
1 + 2 M 

m
At the throat, M = 1, and therefore, the flow per unit area at the throat, , can be found by setting
M = 1 in Eq. (6.23). A*
m p0 g 1
    = × (6.24)
(g +1)
A* T0 R
g + 1 2(g −1)
 2 
A
The area ratio can be obtained by dividing Eq. (6.24) by Eq. (6.23).
A*

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 274 Chapter 6

A/A*
4
3
g = 1.4
2
1

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 M

Figure 6.13  Area ratio as a function of Mach number for isentropic nozzle
(g +1)
1  2   g − 1 2   2(g −1)
A
=   1 + 2 M   (6.25)
A∗ M  g + 1  
The values of A/A* as a function of M are given in Table 6.1. Fig. 6.13 depicts the variation of A/A*
with M, which shows that a subsonic nozzle is converging and a supersonic nozzle is diverging.

6.11.1 Effect of Varying the Back Pressure on Mass Flow Rate

Consider first a convergent nozzle as shown in Fig. 6.14, which also shows the pressure ratio p/p0
along the length of the nozzle. The conditions upstream are the stagnation conditions, which are
assumed to be constant. The pressure at the exit plane of the nozzle is designated pE and the back
pressure (the pressure outside the nozzle exit) pB. As the back pressure pB is decreased, the variation
of the mass flow rate and the exit plane pressure pE/p0 are plotted in Fig. 6.15.
Where pB/p0 = 1, there is, of course, no flow, and pE/p0 = 1 as designated by point 'a'. Next, let the
back pressure pB be lowered to point b, so that pB/p0 is greater than the critical pressure ratio. The
mass flow rate has a certain value and pE = pB. The exit Mach number is less than one. Next, let pB
be lowered to the critical pressure at point c. The Mach number at the exit is now unity and pE = pB.
When pB is decreased below the critical pressure, designated by point d, there is no further increase
in the mass rate of flow, and pE remains constant at a value equal to the critical pressure, and the exit
Mach number is unity. The drop in pressure from pE to pB takes place outside the nozzle exit. Under

p0
pE pB
T0

p
a
p0
b
c
d

Figure 6.14  Pressure ratio as a function of back pressure for a convergent nozzle

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 Flow Through Steam Nozzles 275

pE
p0
d c
m 1.0
b a
b
d c

a pB pB
1.0 p0 1.0 p0

Figure 6.15 Mass rate of flow and exit pressure as a function of back

pressure for a convergent nozzle

c=0
p0 pE pB
T0

Throat
a
b
p c
p0 d
e

Figure 6.16 Nozzle pressure ratio as a function of back pressure

for a convergent–divergent nozzle
these conditions, the nozzle is said to be choked, which means that for given stagnation conditions, the
nozzle is passing the maximum possible mass flow.
Consider next a convergent–divergent nozzle as shown in Fig. 6.16. Point ‘a’ designated the condi-
tion when pB = p0 and there is no flow. When pB is decreased to the pressure indicated by point b, so
that pB/p0 is less than unity but considerably greater than that the critical pressure ratio, the velocity
increases in the convergent section, but M < 1 at the throat. Therefore, the diverging section acts as
a subsonic diffuser in which the pressure increases and velocity decreases. Point ‘c’ designated the
back pressure at which M = 1 at the throat, but the diverging section acts as a subsonic diffuser (with
M = 1 at the inlet) in which the pressure increases and velocity decreases. Point ‘d’ designates one
other back pressure that permits isentropic flow, and in this case, the diverging section acts as a super-
sonic nozzle with a decrease in pressure and an increase in velocity. Between the back pressure desig-
nated by points c and d, an isentropic solution is not possible, and shock waves will be present. When
the back pressure is decreased below that designated by point d, the exit pressure pE remains constant,
and the drop in pressure from pE to pB takes place outside the nozzle. This is designated by point e.

Example 6.7
A convergent nozzle has an exit area of 500 mm2. Air enters the nozzle with a stagnation pressure
of 1000 kPa and a stagnation temperature of 360 K. Determine the mass rate of flow for back pres-
sures of 800 kPa, 528 kPa, and 300 kPa, assuming isentropic flow. For air, k = 1.4.

Solution
g
p∗  2  g −1  2 
3.5
Critical pressure ratio, = =  = 0.528
p0 g + 1  2.4 

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 276 Chapter 6

p* = 1000 × 0.528 = 528 kPa

Therefore, for a back pressure of 528 kPa, M = 1 at the nozzle exit and the nozzle is choked.
Decreasing the back pressure below 528 kPa will not increase the flow.
For a back pressure of 528 kPa,
T* 2 2
= = = 0.8333
T0 g + 1 2.4
T * = 360 × 0.8333 = 300 K
*
At the exit, c = cs = g RT = 1.4 × 287 × 300 = 347.2 m/s
p* 528
r* = = = 6.1324 kg/m3
RT* 0.287 × 300
Discharge at the exit section,
ṁ = r*Ac = 6.1324 × 500 × 10–6 × 347.2 = 1.0646 kg/s
p 800
For a back pressure of 800 kPa, E = = 0.8
p0 1000
p T
From Table 6.1 for = 0.8, ME = 0.573 and E = 0.9381 by interpolation
p0 T0
TE = 360 × 0.9381 = 337.7 K
Sonic velocity at exit,
cEs = g RTE = 1.4 × 287 × 337.7 = 368.4 m/s
Velocity at exit,
cE = MEcEs = 0.573 × 368.4 = 211.1 m/s
Density of air at exit,
pE 800
rE = = = 8.2542 kg/m3
RTE 287 × 337.7
ṁ = rEAEcE = 8.2542 × 500 × 10–6 × 211.1 = 0.8712 kg/s
For a back pressure less than the critical pressure (528 kPa), the nozzle is choked and the mass rate
of flow is the same as that for the critical pressure. Therefore, for an exhaust pressure of 300 kPa, the
mass flow rate is 1.0646 kg/s.
Example 6.8
A converging–diverging nozzle has an exit area to throat area ratio of 2. Air enters this nozzle
with a stagnation pressure of 1000 kPa and a stagnation temperature of 360 K. The throat area is
500 mm2. Determine the mass rate of flow, exit pressure, exit temperature, exit Mach number, and
exit velocity for the following conditions:
(a) Sonic velocity at the throat, diverging section acting as a nozzle.
(b) Sonic velocity at the throat, diverging section acting as a diffuser.
Solution
(a) From Table 6.1, we have
A p T
For E = 2, M*E = 2.197, E = 0.0939, E = 0.5089
* p0 T0
A

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 Flow Through Steam Nozzles 277

Therefore, pE = 0.0939 × 1000 = 93.9 kPa

TE = 0.5089 × 360 = 183.2 K
csE = g RTE = 1.4 × 287 × 183.2 = 271.3 m/s
cE = ME* csE = 2.197 × 271.3 = 596.1 m/s
Critical pressure at throat, p* = p0 × 0.528 = 1000 × 0.528 = 528 kPa
Critical temperature, T * = 0.8333 × 360 = 300 K
At throat, c = csE = g RT* = 1.4 × 287 × 300 = 347.2 m/s
p* 528
r* = * = = 6.1324 kg/m3
RT 0.287 × 300

ṁ = r∗Ac = 6.1324 × 500 × 10–6 × 347.2 = 1.0646 kg/s

(b) From Table 6.1, we have
A p T
For E = 2, ME = 0.308, E = 0.936, E = 0.9812
A* p0 T0
Therefore, pE = 0.936 × 1000 = 936 kPa
 TE = 0.9812 × 360 = 353.3 K
 csE = g RTE = 1.4 × 287 × 353.3 = 376.8 m/s
 cE = MCsE = 0.308 × 376.8 = 116 m/s
Since M = 1 at the throat, mass rate of flow is the same as in (a).

6.12  ❐ NORMAL SHOCK IN AN IDEAL GAS FLOWING

THROUGH A NOZZLE
A shock wave involves an extremely rapid and abrupt change of state. In a normal shock, this change
of state takes place across a plane normal to the direction of flow. Figure 6.17 shows a control surface
that includes such a normal shock. Let subscripts x and y denote the conditions upstream and down-
stream of shock, respectively, and assuming steady-state, steady-flow with no heat and work transfer
across the control surface, then the various relations are as follows:
2
cx2 cy
= hy + (6.26)
First law: hx +
2 2
hox = hoy
or    

Control surface
Normal shock

cx cy

Figure 6.17  One-dimensional normal shock

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 278 Chapter 6

Continuity equation:
m
= r x cx = r y c y (6.27)
A
Momentum equation:
A(px − py) = ṁ (cy − cx)(6.28)
Second law:
sy − sx ≥ 0 (6.29)
The energy and continuity equations can be combined to establish an equation that when plotted on
the h − s diagram is called the Fanno line. Similarly, the momentum and continuity equations can be
combined to establish an equation the plot of which on the h − s diagram is known as the Rayleigh line.
Both these lines are shown on the h − s diagram in Fig. 6.18. The point of maximum entropy on each
line, points ‘a’ and ‘b’, corresponds to M = 1. The lower part of each line corresponds to supersonic
flow, whereas the upper part corresponds to subsonic flow.
The two points where all three equations are satisfied are points x and y, where x being in the super-
sonic region and y in the subsonic region. Since sy − sx ≥ 0, the normal shock can proceed only from
x to y. This means that the velocity changes from supersonic (M > 1) before the shock to subsonic
(M < 1) after the shock.
Assuming constant specific heats, the energy Eq. (6.26) gives,
Tox = Toy(6.30)
That is, there is no change in stagnation temperature across a normal shock. Using Eq. (6.16), we have
Tox g −1 2
= 1+ Mx
Tx 2
Toy g −1 2
= 1+ My
Ty 2

and substituting into Eq. (6.30), we have

g −1 2
Ty 1+ Mx
  = 2 (6.31)
Tx g −1 2
1+ My
2
h
hox hoy
hox = hoy
cy2
ox

y
po
p

2 M < 1 above points a and b

b M > 1 below points a and b
a
cx2 M = 1 at a and b
2
Rayleigh line

x Fanno line
hx
s

Figure 6.18  End states for a one-dimensional normal shock on an enthalpy–entropy diagram

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 Flow Through Steam Nozzles 279

The continuity equation is,

rxcx = rycy
px py
But     rx = , ry =
RTx RTy

Ty py cy p y M y csy p y M y Ty
= = =
Tx px c x px M x csx px M x Tx

2 2
Ty  p y   M y 
or    = (6.32)
Tx  px   M x 

Combining energy Eq. (6.31) and continuity Eq. (6.32) gives the equation of the Fanno line.

g −1 2
py Mx 1+ Mx
= 2 (6.33)
px g −1 2
My 1+ My
2

The momentum and continuity equations can be combined as follows to give the equation of the
Rayleigh line.
m
px – py = (c – c ) = r y c 2y − r x cx2
A y x
px + rx cx2 = py + ry c 2y

px + rx M 2 c 2 = p + r M 2 c 2
x sx y y y sy

px M 2x p y M 2y
px + (g RTx ) = p y + = (g RTy )
RTx RTy

px (1 + g M 2x ) = p y (1 + g M 2 )

py 1 + g M2
  = (6.34)
px 1 + g M 2y
Combining Eqs (6.33) and (6.34), we get
2
M 2x +
g −1
  M 2y = (6.35)
2g
M 2x − 1
g −1
Table 6.3 gives the normal shock functions, which includes My as a function of Mx for g = 1.4.

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 280 Chapter 6

Table 6.3  O
 ne-dimensional normal shock functions for an ideal gas with constant specific heat
and molecular weight and g = 1.4

Mx My py/px ry/rx Ty/Tx p0y/p0x poy/px

1.00 1.00000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.00000 1.8929
1.10 0.91177 1.2450 1.1691 1.0649 0.99893 2.1328
1.20 0.84217 1.5133 1.3416 1.1280 0.99280 2.4075
1.30 0.78596 1.8050 1.5157 1.1909 0.97937 2.7136
1.40 0.73971 2.1200 1.6897 1.2547 0.95819 3.0492
1.50 0.70109 2.4583 1.8621 1.3202 0.92979 3.4133
1.60 0.66844 2.8200 2.0317 1.3880 0.89520 3.8050
1.70 0.64054 3.2050 2.1977 1.4583 0.85572 4.2238
1.80 0.61650 3.6133 2.3592 1.5316 0.81268 4.6695
1.90 0.59562 4.0450 2.5157 1.6079 0.76736 5.1418
2.00 0.57735 4.5000 2.6667 1.6875 0.72087 5.6404
2.10 0.56128 4.9783 2.8119 1.7705 0.67420 6.1654
2.20 0.54706 4.4800 2.9512 1.8569 0.62814 6.7165
2.30 0.53441 6.0050 3.0845 1.9468 0.58329 7.2937
2.40 0.52312 6.5533 3.2119 2.0403 0.54014 7.8969
2.50 0.51299 7.1250 3.3333 2.1375 0.49901 8.5261
2.60 0.50387 7.7200 3.4490 2.2383 0.46012 9.1813
2.70 0.49563 8.3383 3.5590 2.3429 0.42359 9.8624
2.80 0.48817 8.9800 3.6636 2.4512 0.38946 10.569
2.90 0.48138 9.6450 3.7629 2.5632 0.35773 11.302
3.00 0.47519 10.333 3.8571 2.6790 0.32834 12.061
4.00 0.43496 18.500 4.5714 4.0469 0.13876 21.068
5.00 0.41523 29.000 5.0000 5.8000 0.06172 32.653
10.00 0.38758 116.50 5.7143 20.387 0.00304 129.22
∞ 0.37796 ∞ 6.0000 ∞ 0.0 ∞

Example 6.9
For the convergent–divergent nozzle of Example 6.8 in which the diverging section acts as a super-
sonic nozzle (Fig. 6.19), a normal shock stands in the exit plane of the nozzle. Determine the static
pressure and temperature and the stagnation pressure (a) just downstream of the normal shock and
(b) at a point where M = 1.4.
Solution
(a) From Table 6.3, we have
py Ty po y
Mx = 2.197, My = 0.547, = 4.46, =1.854, = 0.630
px Tx pox

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 Flow Through Steam Nozzles 281

Normal shock
pOX = 1000 kPa
TOX = 360 K

Mx = 2.197
pox = 1000 kPa
px = 93.9 kPa
Tx = 183.2 K

Figure 6.19  Convergent–divergent nozzle

py = 4.46 × 93.9 = 512.7 kPa

Ty = 1.854 × 183.2 = 339.7 K
poy = 0.630 × 1000 = 630 kPa
(b) From Table 6.1 at point x, as the flow is isentropic to point x,
px T A
Mx = 1.5, = 0.2724, x = 0.6897, x = 1.1762
pox Tox A*x
Therefore, px = 0.2724 × 1000 = 272.4 kPa
Tx = 0.6897 × 360 = 248.3 K
The properties at y can be determined from the normal shock functions (Table 6.3) as
py Ty po y
My = 0.7011, = 2.4583, = 1.320, = 0.9298
px Tx pox
py = 2.4583 × 272.4 = 669.6 kPa
Ty = 1.320 × 248.3 = 327.8 K
poy = 0.9298 × 1000 = 929.8 kPa
Tox = Toy = 360 K, as there is no change in stagnation temperature across a normal shock. From
y to E, the diverging section acts as a diffuser.

Example 6.10
Steam at stagnation pressure of 800 kPa and a stagnation temperature of 350°C expands in a nozzle
to 200 kPa. When the mass flow rate is 3 kg/s, determine the throat area and exit area for isentropic
flow.
Solution
p*
Critical pressure ratio at the throat, = 0.545
p0
p* = 0.545 × 800 = 436 kPa
s* = s0 = 7.4089 kJ/kg. K
h0 = 3161.7 kJ/kg
T * = 268.7°C
h* = 3001.4 kJ/kg

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 282 Chapter 6

c *2
h0 = h* +
2
c* = 2( h0 − h*) = 2(3161.7 − 3001.4) × 103 = 566.2 m/s
v*= 0.5724 m3/kg
 * 3 × 0.5724
mv
A* = = = 3.033 × 10–3 m2 or 30.33 cm2
c* 566.2
At the nozzle exit,
pE = 200 kPa, sE = s0 = 7.4089 kJ/kg.K
TE = 178.5°C
hE = 2826.7 kJ/kg
vE = 1.0284 m3/kg

cE = 2( h0 − hE ) = 2(3161.7 − 2826.7) × 103 = 818.5 m/s

 E 3 × 1.0284
mv
AE = = = 3.769 × 10–3 m3 or 37.69 cm2
cE 818.5

Example 6.11
5 kg/s of steam at 30 bar and 350°C is supplied to a group of 6 nozzles in a wheel diameter main-
tained at 4 bar. Calculate the following:
(a) The dimensions of the nozzles of rectangular cross-sectional flow area with aspect ratio of
2.5:1. The expansion may be considered metastable and friction is neglected.
(b) Degree of undercooling and supersaturation
(c) Loss in available heat drop due to irreversibility
(d) Increase in entropy
(e) Ratio of mass flow rate with metastable expansion to that if expansion is in thermal equilibrium.
Solution
The h-s diagram is shown in Fig. 6.20.
h1 = 3115.3 kJ/kg
v1 = 0.09053 m3/kg
s1 = 6.74257 kJ/kg.K
s3 = s1 = sf3 + x3sfg3
6.7427 = 1.7766 + x3 × 5.1193
x3 = 0.97
h3 = hf3 + x3hfg3
= 604.73 + 0.97 × 2133.8
= 2674.5 kJ/kg
v3 = vf3 + x3(vg3– vf3) = 0.0010840.97 × (0.4625 – 0.001084)
= 0.45 m3/kg

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 Flow Through Steam Nozzles 283

h (kJ/kg)

3115.3 30 bar
350° C

4 bar

2 2′
2674.5
3

Figure 6.20  Mollier diagram for superheated steam

(a) For supersaturated steam, n = 1.3

 n −1 
 n    p2  n 
h1 − h2 =  p v 1−
 n − 1 1 1   p1  
 
 
 0.3 
1.3   4  1 .3 
= × 30 × 105 × 0.09053 × 10−3 1 −   
0.3  30 
 
= 437.5 kJ/kg

c2 = 2( h1 − h2 ) = 2 × 437.5 × 103 = 935.4 m/s

1 1
 30  1.3
v2 = v1  p1  n = 0.09053   = 0.4263 m3/kg
 p   4
2
A 2 c2
ṁ =
v2
5 × 0.4263
A2 = = 2.279 × 10−3 m2 or 22.79 cm2
935.4
Let breadth = b
Then length, l = 2.5 b
Area of 6 nozzles = 6 × 2.5b × b = 15b2
15b2 = 2.279 × 10–3
b = 0.0123 m or 12.3 mm
l = 0.0308 m or 30.8 mm
n −1 0.3
p  n  4  1.3
(b) T2 = T1  2  = (273 + 350)   = 391.34 K or 118.34°C
 1
p  30 
At 4 bar, ts = 143.65°C
Degree of undercooling = 143.65 − 118.34 = 24.31°C

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 284 Chapter 6

ps corresponding to 118.3°C = 1.9 bar

4
Degree of super saturation = = 2.1
1.9
(c) h1 = h3 = 3115.3 − 2674.5 = 440.8 kJ/kg
Loss of available heat drop = (h1 − h3) − (h1 − h2)
   (∆h)loss = 440.8 − 437.5 = 3.3 kJ/kg

( ∆h) less 3.3 3.3

(d) Increase in entropy = = = = 0.0079 kJ/kg.K
Ts 273 + 143.6 416.6

(e) c3 = 2( h1 − h2 ) = 2 × 440.8 × 103 = 938.9 m/s

Mass flow rate for metastable flow

Mass flow rate for thermaal equilibrium flow
Area of flow × c2 v3
=
×
v2 Area of flow × c3
c2 v2 935.4 × 0.45
= = = 1.05
v2 c3 0.4263 × 938.9

Example 6.12
Dry saturated steam at 5 bar with negligible velocity expands isentropically in a convergent nozzle
to 1 bar and dryness fraction 0.94. Determine the velocity of steam leaving the nozzle.
Solution
Given that p1 = 5 bar; p2 = 1 bar; x2 = 0.94
For p1 = 5 bar, enthalpy of dry saturated steam from steam tables,
h1 = hg1 = 2748.7 kJ/kg
and for p2 = 1 bar, we find that,
hf 2 = 417.44 kJ/kg, hfg2 = 2258.0 kJ/kg
∴  h2 = hf2 + x2 hfg2
= 417.44 + 0.94 × 2258.0 = 2539.96 kJ/kg
Enthalpy drop, ∆h = h1 − h2
= 2748.75 − 2539.96 = 208.74 kJ/kg
Velocity of steam leaving the nozzle
c2 = 44.72 ∆h = 44.72 208.74 = 646.1 m/s

Example 6.13
Dry saturated steam at a pressure of 15 bar enters in a nozzle and is discharged at a pressure of 1.5
bar. Find the final velocity of steam when initial velocity of steam is negligible. If 15% of the heat
drop is lost in friction, then find the percentage reduction in the final velocity.

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