Inquiries, Investigations and Immersions
Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a researcher.
Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Inaccurate data collection can impact the results of a study and
ultimately lead to invalid results.
The Quantitative data collection methods, Quantitative research involves the collection of numerical data by using close-ended or
multiple-choice questions. The questions asked must be objective and easy to understand on the audience’s part to collect and examine the
received data.
Qualitative data collection methods play an important role in impact evaluation by providing information useful to understand the
processes behind observed results and assess changes in people’s perceptions of their well-being.
Data Collection Instruments
The qualitative methods most commonly used in evaluation can be classified in three broad categories:
in-depth interview-involves direct, one-on-one engagement with individual participants
Observation methods - it is one of the oldest and most fundamental research methods approaches. This approach involves collecting data
using one's senses, especially looking and listening in a systematic and meaningful way. (McKechnie,2008,p.573).
Document review - It is a way of collecting data by reviewing existing documents.
Documents may be hard copy or electronic and may include reports, program logs, performance ratings, funding proposals, meeting
minutes, newsletters, and marketing materials.
Interviews
1. Face -to -face interviews - A popular mode of interview, face-to-face interviews have the advantage of detailed discussion between the
researcher and the participant. The response rate in a face-to-face interview is often higher, even if it is time-consuming and expensive.
2. Telephone Interview - Telephone interview is more expensive, and there is always a higher chance of the respondent refusing to
participate in the survey. Moreover, there can be other technical issues.
3. Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI)- is a computer-assisted data collection method for replacing paper-and-pen
methods of survey data collection.
Questionnaires
1. Paper-pencil-questionnaires -can be sent to a large number of people and saves the researcher time and money.
2. Web based questionnaires -receiving an e-mail on which you would click on an address that would take you to a secure web-site to fill
in a questionnaire
Questionnaires often make use of Checklist and rating scales. These devices help simplify and quantify people's behaviors and attitudes.
- A checklist is a list of behaviors, characteristics, or other entities that the researcher is looking for. Either the researcher or survey
participant simply checks whether each item on the list is observed, present or true or vice versa.
- A rating scale is more useful when a behavior needs to be evaluated on a continuum. They are also known as Likert scales. (Leedy and
Omrod, 2001)
The population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about.
The sample is the specific group of individuals that you will collect data from.
Sampling frame
The sampling frame is the actual list of individuals that the sample will be drawn from. Ideally, it should include the entire target
population (and nobody who is not part of that population).
Simple random sampling
In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Your sampling frame should include
the whole population.
To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators or other techniques that are based entirely on chance.
Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to conduct. Every member of the population is
listed with a number, but instead of randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.
Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may differ in important ways.
To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called strata) based on the relevant characteristic (e.g. gender, age
range, income bracket, job role).
Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each subgroup should have similar characteristics to the whole
sample. Instead of sampling individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.
Convenience sampling
A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most accessible to the researcher.
This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell if the sample is representative of the population, so it
can’t produce generalizable results.
Voluntary response sampling
Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on ease of access. Instead of the researcher choosing
participants and directly contacting them, people volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online survey).
Purposive sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher using their expertise to select a sample that is most
useful to the purposes of the research.
It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather than
make statistical inferences, or where the population is very small and specific.
Snowball sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants via other participants. The number of people you
have access to “snowballs” as you get in contact with more people.
Data analysis in quantitative research
Phase I: Data Validation
Data validation is done to understand if the collected data sample is per the pre-set standards, or it is a biased data sample again divided
into four different stages
Fraud: To ensure an actual human being records each response to the survey or the questionnaire
Screening: To make sure each participant or respondent is selected or chosen in compliance with the research criteria
Procedure: To ensure ethical standards were maintained while collecting the data sample
Completeness: To ensure that the respondent has answered all the questions in an online survey. Else, the interviewer had asked all the
questions devised in the questionnaire.
Phase II: Data Editing
• Respondents sometimes fill in some fields incorrectly or sometimes skip them accidentally.
• Data editing is a process wherein the researchers have to confirm that the provided data is free of such errors.
• They need to conduct necessary checks and outlier checks to edit the raw edit and make it ready for analysis.
Phase III: Data Coding
• Out of all three, this is the most critical phase of data preparation associated with grouping and assigning values to the survey
responses.
• If a survey is completed with a 1000 sample size, the researcher will create an age bracket to distinguish the respondents based on
their age. Thus, it becomes easier to analyze small data buckets rather than deal with the massive data pile.
Data analysis and qualitative data research work a little differently from the numerical data as the quality data is made up of words,
descriptions, images, objects, and sometimes symbols. Getting insight from such complicated information is a complicated process. Hence
it is typically used for exploratory research and data analysis.
Common Ways To Analyze Qualitative Data
Content analysis
• It is one of the most common methods to analyze qualitative data
• It is used to analyze documented information in the form of texts, media, or even physical items.
• When to use this method depends on the research questions.
• Content analysis is usually used to analyze response from interviewees.
Discourse analysis
• Like narrative analysis, discourse analysis is used to analyze interactions with people.
• However, it focuses on analyzing the social context in which the communication between the researcher and the respondent
occurred.
• Discourse analysis also looks at the respondent’s day-to-day environment and uses that information during analysis.
Grounded theory
• This refers to using qualitative data to explain why a certain phenomenon happened.
• It does this by studying a variety of similar cases in different settings and using the data to derive causal explanations.
• Researchers may alter the explanations or create new ones as they study more cases until they arrive at an explanation that fits all
cases.
Narrative analysis
• This method is used to analyze content from various sources, such as interviews of respondents, observations from the field, or
surveys.
• It focuses on using the stories and experiences shared by people to answer the research questions.
Thematic Analysis
• In a thematic analysis of qualitative data, the researcher looks across all the data to identify some recurring issues.
• Main themes that summarize all the views collected can be derived from these issues.
• The main stages of thematic analysis are as follows:
A. Read and annotate transcript.
B. Identify themes
C. Develop a coding scheme
D. Coding the data
Read and annotate transcript. In this stage, as a researcher you can have a feel for the data because primary observations are provided.
However, an overview of the data cannot be achieved in this early stage.
Identify themes. In this stage, you can look at the data in details to identify themes. In each transcript, you may note at the outset what the
interviewee is trying to impart in his/her responses. It is suggested that these themes must be enumerated and notes be made as abstract as
possible.
Develop a coding scheme. Initial themes can be collected to develop a coding scheme. This includes the enumerated themes and the
codes applicable to the data. Each broad code have a number of sub codes. It is recommended to use a coding scheme as soon as initial
data have been gathered.
Coding the data. The next step is applying these codes to the whole data set. This can be done on either the margins of the transcripts or
the statements in line. In an ideal setting, the whole set of data should be coded to ensure honest and exhaustive analysis.
There are six basic steps in coding data:
a. Get an idea of the entire set. After reading the transcriptions carefully, write down some ideas as they arise in the margins and
transcription
b. Select one interesting document. Choose the shortest and perhaps the most interesting transcript, reread it and ask questions,
“What is the respondent talking about?” Discern the underlying meaning and jot down in the margins of the transcript.
c. c. Start the document coding process. Divide the transcript into segments, put brackets in each of the segments, and give
specific code to each phrase or word that exactly explains or describes the meaning of the text segment.
d. d. List all the code words. After coding the whole text, look for redundant codes by grouping the similar ones. Through this
process, the list of codes can be reduced into a more manageable number. It is recommended to limit the number of codes from
the start of the process, so that it is easier to manage the reduction of code number.
e. e. Categorize the codes for emerging themes or descriptions of the subject or setting. Themes or categories are the same
codes combined together to identify major ideas in the data. Identify five to seven categories representing the most discussed
responses of the subjects. These few themes will enable the researcher to write an in-depth information about a few themes, rather
than a broad description about many themes
Developing a Coding Theme
Using the questions in your research data use the following steps in developing a coding theme. Use the “How to Analyze Data and Use
Codes or Categories” steps(Taylor-Powell and Renner, 2003).
1. Get to know your data. Read your data very well and have a good grasp of the meaning that each statement tries to convey.
(Strauss and Corbin 1990).
2. Focus the analysis. Your participants might be giving pieces of information that are not related or significant to your present
study. Be sure to identify and disregard them.
3. Review the purpose and go back to the research question. Always go back to the purpose of your study and your research
questions. They will guide and help you identify what is important and they are your main guides in analyzing your data.
4. Identify themes or patterns. Use codes or labels during this process. Basically, we use labels or highlighter to identify themes or
patterns. Your thorough understanding of your data will facilitate this process.
5. Ask team to analyze You can ask another person (your teammates) to reanalyze the data to make sure nothing is missed.
6. Organize themes into categories: preset or emergent Once codes have been identified, you can now organize them in tabular
form.
7. Identify patterns within and among categories. This is when you categorize patterns and themes that you have identified in
your data.
This is the final step. You can further streamline your categories by looking at those that you think could be combined to form
just one category. Go back to your research questions. Those themes and patterns that your have identified are the answers to your
research questions.
The Chapter 5 of the research paper is composed of Conclusion and Recommendations.
1. The conclusion is composed of the inclusive summary of the findings of the study.
3. The uses of research conclusions are denoted by the following:
a) it stresses out the importance of the thesis statement,
b) it gives the written work a sense of completeness,
c) it leaves a final impression to the readers and
d) it demonstrates good organization.
4. Recommendations is the section in the research paper where you could give your suggestions for the improvement of the study.
5. The research recommendations should follow the following characteristics:
a) must be brief,
b) should be clear and;
c) must be precise.
6. Things to consider when crafting the recommendations where as follows:
a) must avoid writing broad and generic recommendations;
b) recommendations must be one step further than the conclusion and;
c) researchers must consider the areas of concerns of the study.
When making the conclusion of your paper, you must abide with the following characteristics (Prieto et al., 2017).
These characteristics will guide youto produce a quality research conclusion.
1. Conclusions are inferences, deductions, abstractions, implications, interpretations, general statements and/or generalizations based
upon the finding.
2. Conclusions should appropriately answer the specific questions raised at the beginning of the investigation in the order that they
are given under the statement of the problem.
3. Conclusions should point out what were factually learned from the inquiry
4. Conclusions should be formulated concisely, that is, brief and short, yet they convey all the necessary information resulting from
the investigation.
As recommendations should be crafted briefly, clearly and precisely, here are some guidelines by Prieto et al. (2017) that you can use.
1. You must avoid writing broad and generic recommendations. Also, avoid recommendations that are directly related to the topic of
the research.
2. Remember that recommendations are one step further than the conclusion.
3. You must take into consideration that recommendations must be specified according to the areas of concern (i.e. academe,
policymakers, etc.)