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Horizontal Distance Measurement
Surveying Course: Module 4

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------------------- Objectives -------------------

Define and differentiate spatial and horizontal distances

Enumerate the methods and instruments used to

determine horizontal distances

Compute for horizontal distances using various methods

Explain the different sources of error in taping

--------------------- Outline ---------------------

Spatial and Horizontal Distances
Methods of Determining Distances
Pacing
Taping
Mechanical Devices
Tacheometry
Graphical and Mathematical Methods
Photogrammetry
Global Navigation Satellite Systems
Electronic Distance Measuring Equipment
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---------------- SPATIAL DISTANCE ----------------

• distance between any two random points
in 3D space

------------ HORIZONTAL DISTANCE ------------

• linear distance between two points on
any horizontal surface
• if points are at different elevations,
distance is the horizontal length between
plumb lines at the points

Thi s Photo by Unknown Author i s licensed under CC BY-SA 5

REQUIRED
ACCURACY
PURPOSE OF THE COST
MEASUREMENT INVOLVED

-----------------------------------------------------------------------
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN CHOOSING THE
METHOD OF DETERMINING HORIZONTAL DISTANCES
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
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S LI D E C O N T ENT C O U R T E SY O F K.A .V E R GA RA O F U P D G E

G R A P H I CAL &
M A T H E M A T IC A L
PACING METHODS

TA P I N G P H O T O G R A MM E T R Y

GLOBAL
M E C H A N I CA L N A VI G A TIO N
DEVI C ES SATELLI TE
SYSTEMS

TAC H EOMETR Y EDM

PACING

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---------------- PACING ----------------

• Consists of counting the number of steps or paces in
a required distance
• Furnishes a rapid means of approximately checking
more precise measurements of distance
• Used on:
• reconnaissance surveys
• small-scale mapping
• locating details
Source: J.P. La Putt (1987)
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---------------- PACING ----------------

• PACE: length of a step in
walking; measured from
heel-to-heel or toe-to-toe
• STRIDE: two paces or
double-step
• Relative Precision: 1/200 to
1/100

Source: J.P. La Putt (1987) 10

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How to calibrate one’s PACE?

Walk at a uniform step along a line of known

length on a level ground

Count the number of paces to cover the whole

stretch

Compute the pace factor in m/pace

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Factors Affecting the Length of Pace

speed of pacing
roughness and evenness of the ground
slope of the terrain
direction of pacing (i.e. uphill or downhill)
physical preparedness and fatigue of the pacer
weight of clothing and shoes
age and sex of the pacer

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EXAMPLE
Pacing

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EXAMPLE – PACING
A pacer walked over a 90.0 m line on a fairly level ground. He counted his paces per trial as
given in column A.
A (paces) B (strides)
The pacer then started walking along line XY of unknown
length. He recorded, in column B, the number of strides it 102 88.5
took for him to cover the whole length of XY. 105 89
Determine (use rounded-off values with 4 decimal places): 103 88
1. Pace Factor of the pacer: 105 87
2. Length of line XY: 103
3. Relative Precision if the calibrated distance of XY is 152.5 m

𝟗𝟎 𝐦 𝐗𝐘 = ?
[Link]

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EXAMPLE – PACING
A pacer walked over a 90.0 m line on a fairly level ground. He counted his paces per trial as
given in column A.
A (paces) B (strides)
The pacer then started walking along line XY of unknown
length. He recorded, in column B, the number of strides it 102 88.5
took for him to cover the whole length of XY. 105 89
Determine (use rounded-off values with 4 decimal places): 103 88
1. Pace Factor of the pacer: 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟖𝟕 𝐦/𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐞 105 87
2. Length of line XY: 103
3. Relative Precision if the calibrated distance of XY is 152.5 m
1 pace factor:
distance
pace factor =
average no. of paces
90.0 m
pace factor =
102 + 105 + 103 + 105 + 103
paces
5
𝟗𝟎 𝐦 pace factor = 0.8687 m/pace

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EXAMPLE – PACING
A pacer walked over a 90.0 m line on a fairly level ground. He counted his paces per trial as
given in column A.
A (paces) B (strides)
The pacer then started walking along line XY of unknown
length. He recorded, in column B, the number of strides it 102 88.5 = 𝟏𝟕𝟕 𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐬
took for him to cover the whole length of XY. 105 89 = 𝟏𝟕𝟖 𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐬
Determine (use rounded-off values with 4 decimal places): 103 88 = 𝟏𝟕𝟔 𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐬
1. Pace Factor of the pacer: 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟖𝟕 𝐦/𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐞 105 87 = 𝟏𝟕𝟒 𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐬
2. Length of line XY: 𝟏𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝟒 𝐦 103
3. Relative Precision if the calibrated distance of XY is 152.5 m
2 length of line XY:
distance
pace factor =
average no. of paces
0.8687 m XY
=
pace 177 + 178 + 176 + 174
paces
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XY 𝐗𝐘 = ?
0.8687 m = ⇒ XY = 153.1084 m
176.25
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EXAMPLE – PACING
A pacer walked over a 90.0 m line on a fairly level ground. He counted his paces per trial as
given in column A.
A (paces) B (strides)
The pacer then started walking along line XY of unknown
length. He recorded, in column B, the number of strides it 102 88.5 = 𝟏𝟕𝟕 𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐬
took for him to cover the whole length of XY. 105 89 = 𝟏𝟕𝟖 𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐬
Determine (use rounded-off values with 4 decimal places): 103 88 = 𝟏𝟕𝟔 𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐬
1. Pace Factor of the pacer: 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟖𝟕 𝐦/𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐞 105 87 = 𝟏𝟕𝟒 𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐬
2. Length of line XY: 𝟏𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝟒 𝐦 103
3. Relative Precision if the calibrated distance of XY is 152.5 m
3 RP:
error
RP =
calibrated distance
153.1084 m − 152.5 m
RP =
152.5 m
1 1 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 → 𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐝 𝐗𝐘 = 𝟏𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝟒 𝐦
RP = ≈ ′𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆′ → 𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐢𝐛𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐗𝐘 = 𝟏𝟓𝟐. 𝟓 𝐦
250.6575 250
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Laboratory Exercise
Determining Pace Factor and Measuring Horizontal Distances

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TAPING

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---------------- TAPING ----------------

• Involves direct measurement of distances with steel

tapes
• Consists of stretching a calibrated tape between two
points and reading the distance indicated on the tape
• Most common method of measuring or laying out
horizontal distances
Source: J.P. La Putt (1987) 21

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---------------- TAPING ----------------

• STEEL TAPE: ribbon of steel;

0.5-1.0cm in width; weighs
0.8-1.5kg / 30 m; used for
most conventional
measurements in surveying
and engineering works

Source: J.P. La Putt (1987)

Thi s Photo by Unknown Author i s licensed under CC BY-SA

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---------------- TAPING ----------------

RANGE POLES
TAPING ACCESSORIES

PLUMB BOB

CLINOMETER

CHAINING
PINS
Thi s Photo by Unknown Author i s licensed under CC BY-SA

[Link] [Link] [Link]

Equipment-Tools/[Link] content/uploads/2019/08/[Link] [Link]/Images/Original/5564_43096_p1.jpg 23

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----------- TAPING OPERATIONS -----------

• BREAKING TAPE: measurement of shorter distances which
are accumulated to total a full tape length

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----------- TAPING OPERATIONS -----------

• SLOPE TAPING: taped measurements are made directly
along the slopes when the ground is of uniform inclination
and fairly smooth

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S LI D E C O N T ENT C O U R T E SY O F K.A .V E R GA RA O F U P D G E

Tape not of standard length

CORRECTIONS
TO TAPE Slope Alignment Temperature

Tension Sag Wind

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50 m standard tape

50 m - TAPE TOO SHORT

50 m - TAPE TOO LONG

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B A

B A 28

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------ RULES IN TAPE CORRECTIONS ------

When a line is measured with a tape that is
“TOO LONG”, corrections are ADDED

A B
+
50 m standard tape

50 m tape - TOO LONG

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------ RULES IN TAPE CORRECTIONS ------

When laying out a length with a tape that is
“TOO LONG”, corrections are SUBTRACTED

A B
-
50 m standard tape

50 m tape - TOO LONG

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------ RULES IN TAPE CORRECTIONS ------

When a line is measured or laid out with a
tape that is “TOO SHORT”, corrections applied
are opposite of 1st and 2nd rules

ACTION TOO SHORT TOO LONG

MEASURE - +
LAYOUT + -
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TOO LONG/ TOO LONG/

TOO SHORT TOO SHORT TOO SHORT
TOO SHORT

Tape not of standard length Slope Alignment Temperature

Tension Sag Wind

TOO LONG/
TOO SHORT TOO SHORT
TOO SHORT 32

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MECHANICAL DEVICES

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-------- MECHANICAL DEVICES --------

• PEDOMETER
• MEASURING WHEEL
• ODOMETER/MILEAGE RECORDER
• OPTICAL RANGEFINDER
Thi s Photo by Unknown Author i s licensed under CC BY-SA

Thi s Photo by Unknown Author i s licensed under CC BY-SA Thi s Photo by Unknown Author i s licensed under CC BY-SA-NC Thi s Photo by Unknown Author i s licensed under CC BY-SA 34

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TACHEOMETRY:
STADIA METHOD

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------------- TACHEOMETRY -------------

• An indirect method of measuring
horizontal distances
• It is based on the optical geometry of
the instrument
• Uses subtended intervals and angles
observed with a transit/theodolite/level
on a graduated rod
• Relative accuracy is 1:300 to 1:400

Thi s Photo by Unknown Author i s licensed under CC BY-SA

Source: J.P. La Putt (1987) 36

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------------- STADIA METHOD -------------

• Uses a telescope with Upper

Stadia Hair
two horizontal cross hairs Stadia
Interval
called stadia hairs, and Horizontal
Cross Hair
a graduated rod called
stadia rod Lower
Stadia Hair

Source: J.P. La Putt (1987) This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA
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------------- STADIA METHOD -------------

D = Ks + C
Upper Hair Reading (UR)
Middle Hair Reading (MR)
Lower Hair Reading (LR)
UR
K = stadia interval factor (100 usually)
s = stadia interval
C = instrument constant; distance from the center of MR
instrument to principal focus (0 if internal focusing s=UR-LR
telescope )
UR LR
MR
LR

Stadia Rod
Thi s Photo by Unknown Author i s licensed under CC BY-SA

Instrument Horizontal Distance 38

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EXAMPLE
Stadia Method

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EXAMPLE – STADIA METHOD

A stadia rod held at a distant point B is sighted by an instrument set up at A.
The upper and lower stadia hair readings were observed as 1.30m and
0.90m, respectively. If the stadia interval factor is 100 and the instrument
constant is zero, determine the length of line AB.

D = Ks + C UR

D = 100(1.30 m − 0.90 m) + 0 s = UR-LR

MR
D = 40.0 m
LR
UR
MR
LR

Stadia Rod Thi s Photo by Unknown Author i s licensed under CC BY-SA

Instrument Horizontal Distance

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GRAPHICAL AND
MATHEMATICAL
METHODS

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--- GRAPHICAL AND MATHEMATICAL ---

--- METHODS ---
• Use of basic geometry and trigonometry concepts
• The most commonly-used graphical and mathematical
methods for distance calculation are the following:
1. Pythagorean Theorem
2. Distance Formula
3. Solving Triangles by SOH-CAH-TOA
4. Sine Law
5. Cosine Law
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----- PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM -----

• Solving for the

length of a side
of a right
triangle, given
the other two
sides

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---------- DISTANCE FORMULA ----------

• Also based on the

Pythagorean Theorem
• This can be used when
solving for the distance
between two points,
given the X and Y
coordinates of both
points
𝑫𝑶𝑷 = 𝑿𝟐 − 𝑿𝟏 𝟐 + 𝒀𝟐 − 𝒀𝟏 𝟐
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---------- SOH-CAH-TOA ----------

• Relates the sides to the

corresponding opposite angles
inside the right triangle to solve
for any unknown length or angle

O = opposite side
A = adjacent side
H = hypotenuse of the right triangle
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---------- SINE LAW ----------

• Applicable for any triangle

• Relates the length of the
sides and the sine of the
corresponding (opposite)
angles inside the figure

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---------- COSINE LAW ----------

• Applicable for any triangle

• Relates the length of the sides
and the cosine of the
corresponding (opposite)
angle inside the figure

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EXAMPLE
Graphical and Mathematical Methods

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EXAMPLE 1 – GRAPHICAL and MATHEMATICAL METHODS

A triangular lot ABC has sides AB = 360 m and BC = 400 m and angle B = 50°.
Solve for all the missing sides and angles.
𝐵 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑤: sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
=
𝑎 𝑏
50°
sin 𝐴 sin 50°
𝑐 = 360 m =
400 m = 𝑎 400 323.23
323.23 sin 𝐴 = 400 sin 50°
sin 𝐴 = 0.947986812
𝐴 𝑏 𝐶 𝐴 = sin−1 0.947986812
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑤: 𝐴 = 71.44°
𝑏2 = 𝑎 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑎𝑐 cos 𝐵
𝑏2 = 4002 + 3602 − 2 400 360 cos 50° 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 180°

𝑏2 = 104477.1684 71.44° + 50° + 𝐶 = 180°

𝑏 = 323.23 m 𝐶 = 58.56°
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EXAMPLE 2 – GRAPHICAL and MATHEMATICAL METHODS

Compute the distances of lines AB, BC Point Eastings (X) Northings (Y)
and CA using the given coordinates of A 20,000.00 20,000.00
the three points A, B, and C. B 20,050.00 18,900.00
𝐴 C 20,650.00 19,000.00
𝒅 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 𝟐

𝐴𝐵 = 20050 − 20000 2 + 18900 − 20000 2

𝐴𝐵 = 1101.14 m

𝐵𝐶 = 20650 − 20050 2 + 19000 − 18900 2

𝐵𝐶 = 608.28 m
𝐶
𝐶𝐴 = 20000 − 20650 2 + 20000 − 19000 2

𝐶𝐴 = 1192.69 m
𝐵

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PHOTOGRAMMETRY

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-------- PHOTOGRAMMETRY --------

• Measuring of images on a
photograph
• Uses scale to obtain ground
distances

image distance
scale =
ground distance

Thi s Photo by Unknown Author i s licensed under CC BY-NC

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EXAMPLE
Photogrammetry

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EXAMPLE – PHOTOGRAMMETRY
A line connecting two electric posts and defining a lot boundary is 2.6cm
long on a photo. Determine its ground distance in meters if the photo scale
used is 1:500.
image distance
scale =
ground distance
1 2.6 cm
=
500 ground distance

ground distance = 500 2.6 cm

ground distance = 1300 cm
ground distance = 13 m

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GLOBAL NAVIGATION
SATELLITE SYSTEMS

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------------------ GNSS ------------------

• Fixing of satellites to determine

position of points
• Minimum of four satellites
• Distance is determined from
position of points

Thi s Photo by Unknown Author i s licensed under CC BY-ND

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ELECTRONIC DISTANCE
MEASUREMENT

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------------------ EDM ------------------

• Measurement of distance is
based on the invariant speed of
light or electromagnetic waves
in a vacuum

Thi s Photo by Unknown Author i s licensed under CC BY-NC

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END OF LECTURE
QUESTIONS?

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