Introduction to Fan Systems

Section 1: Introduction to Fan Systems

Fans1 are widely used in industrial and commercial often causes system designers to design fan
applications. From shop ventilation to material systems conservatively. Concerned about being
handling to boiler applications, fans are critical responsible for under-performing systems, designers
for process support and human health. In the tend to compensate for uncertainties in the design
manufacturing sector, fans use about 78.7 billion process by adding capacity to fans. Unfortunately,
kilowatt-hours2 of energy each year. This con- oversizing fan systems creates problems that can
sumption represents 15 percent of the electricity increase system operating costs while decreasing
used by motors.3 Similarly, in the commercial fan reliability.
sector, electricity needed to operate fan motors
composes a large portion of the energy costs for Fans that are oversized for their service requirements
space conditioning. do not operate at their best efficiency points. In
severe cases, these fans may operate in an unstable
Performance may range from “free air” to several manner because of the point of operation on the
pounds per square inch gage (psig)4, with fan airflow-pressure curve. Oversized fans generate
airflow from a few cubic feet per minute (cfm) excess flow energy, resulting in high airflow noise
to more than 1 million cfm. Pressures above and increased stress on the fan and the system.
15 psig generally require air compressors, which Consequently, oversized fans not only cost more to
are addressed in a separate sourcebook titled purchase and to operate, they create avoidable
Improving Compressed Air System Performance, system performance problems. The use of a
A Sourcebook for Industry. “systems approach” in the fan selection process
will typically yield a quieter, more efficient, and
In manufacturing, fan reliability is critical to plant more reliable system.
operation. For example, where fans serve material
handling applications, fan failure will immediately Fans
create a process stoppage. In industrial ventilation
applications, fan failure will often force a process
to be shut down (although there is often enough There are two primary types of fans: centrifugal
time to bring the process to an orderly stoppage). and axial. These types are characterized by the
Even in heating and cooling applications, fan path of the airflow through the fan. Centrifugal
operation is essential to maintain a productive work fans use a rotating impeller to increase the velocity
environment. Fan failure leads to conditions in of an airstream. As the air moves from the impeller
which worker productivity and product quality hub to the blade tips, it gains kinetic energy. This
declines. This is especially true for some production kinetic energy is then converted to a static pressure
applications in which air cleanliness is critical to increase as the air slows before entering the discharge.
minimizing production defects (for example, Centrifugal fans are capable of generating relatively
plastics injection molding and electronic component high pressures. They are frequently used in “dirty”
manufacturing). airstreams (high moisture and particulate content),
in material handling applications, and in systems
In each case, fan operation has a significant impact at higher temperatures.
on plant production. The importance of fan reliability

1 For the purposes of this sourcebook, the term “fan” will be used for all air-moving machines other than compressors.
2 United States Industrial Electric Motor Systems Market Opportunities Assessment, U. S. Department of Energy, December 1998.
3 Ibid.
4 At standard conditions, a column of water 27.68 inches high exerts 1 psig of pressure. Equivalently, 1 inch of water gage =
0.036 psig.

A Sourcebook for Industry 3

 Introduction to Fan Systems

Axial fans, as the name implies, move an airstream Designers tend to protect against being responsible
along the axis of the fan. The air is pressurized by for inadequate system performance by “over-
the aerodynamic lift generated by the fan blades, specifying.” However, an oversized fan/motor
much like a propeller and an airplane wing. assembly creates a different set of operating
Although they can sometimes be used interchange- problems, including inefficient fan operation,
ably with centrifugal fans, axial fans are commonly excess airflow noise, poor reliability, and pipe/duct
used in “clean air,” low-pressure, high-volume vibrations. By describing some of the problems
applications. Axial fans have less rotating mass and and costs associated with poor fan selection, this
are more compact than centrifugal fans of compa- sourcebook is intended to help designers and oper-
rable capacity. Additionally, axial fans tend to have ators improve fan system performance through bet-
higher rotational speeds and are somewhat noisier ter fan selection and improved operating and
than in-line centrifugal fans of the same capacity; maintenance practices.
however, this noise tends to be dominated by high
frequencies, which tend to be easier to attenuate. Noise. In industrial ventilation applications, noise
can be a significant concern. High acoustic levels
◆ Fan Selection promote worker fatigue. The noise generated by a
Fan selection is a complex process that starts with fan depends on fan type, airflow rate, and pressure.
a basic knowledge of system operating requirements Inefficient fan operation is often indicated by a
and conditions such as airflow rates, temperatures, comparatively high noise level for a particular fan
pressures, airstream properties, and system layout. type.
The variability of these factors and other consider-
ations, such as cost, efficiency, operating life, If high fan noise levels are unavoidable, then
maintenance, speed, material type, space con- ways to attenuate the acoustic energy should be
straints, drive arrangements, temperature, and considered. Noise reduction can be accomplished
range of operating conditions, complicate fan by several methods: insulating the duct; mounting
selection. However, knowledge of the important the fan on a soft material, such as rubber or suit-
factors in the fan selection process can be helpful able spring isolator as required to limit the amount
for the purposes of reducing energy consumption of transmitted vibration energy; or installing sound
during system retrofits or expansions. Often, a fan damping material or baffles to absorb noise energy.
type is chosen for nontechnical reasons, such as
price, delivery, availability, or designer or operator Rotational Speed. Fan rotational speed is typically
familiarity with a fan model. If noise levels, energy measured in revolutions per minute (rpm). Fan
costs, maintenance requirements, system reliability, rotational speed has a significant impact on fan
or fan performance are worse than expected, then performance, as shown by the following fan laws:
the issue of whether the appropriate fan type was
initially selected should be revisited.

Fans are usually selected from a range of models Airflowfinal = Airflowinitial ( RPM
RPM
final

initial
)
and sizes, rather than designed specifically for
a particular application. Fan selection is based
on calculating the airflow and pressure require- 2
RPMfinal
ments of a system, then finding a fan of the right Pressurefinal = Pressureinitial ( RPM ) initial
design and materials to meet these requirements.
Unfortunately, there is a high level of uncertainty
associated with predicting system airflow and
RPMfinal 3
pressure requirements. This uncertainty, combined
with fouling effects and anticipated capacity
Powerfinal = Powerinitial ( RPM )initial
expansion, encourages the tendency to increase
the specified size of a fan/motor assembly.

4 Improving Fan System Performance

 Introduction to Fan Systems

Rotational speed must be considered concurrently be less expensively constructed with fiberglass-
with other issues, such as variation in the fan load, reinforced plastic or coated with a corrosion-
airstream temperature, ambient noise, and resistant material. Because coatings are often less
mechanical strength of the fan. expensive than superalloy metals, fan types that
work well with coatings (for example, radial fan
Variations and uncertainties in system requirements blades because of their simple shape) are widely
are critical to fan type and fan rotational speed used in corrosive applications; however, wear will
selection. Fans that generate high airflow at reduce the reliability of coatings. Alternately, mate-
relatively low speeds (for example, forward-curved rials such as reinforced fiberglass plastics have
blade centrifugal fans) require a relatively accurate been developed for fan applications and function
estimate of the system airflow and pressure demand. effectively in many corrosive environments.
If, for some reason, system requirements are However, there may be size and speed limitations
uncertain, then an improper guess at fan rotational for composite materials and plastic materials.
speed can cause under-performance or excessive
airflow and pressure. Airstreams with high particulate content levels can
also be problematic for the fan drive train. In direct
Airstream temperature has an important impact on drive axial fans, the motor is exposed to the
fan-speed limits because of the effect of heat on airstream. Sealed motors can be used in these
the mechanical strength of most materials. At high applications but tend to be more expensive and,
temperatures, all materials exhibit lower yield in the event of lost seal integrity, they are suscepti-
strengths. Because the forces on shafts, blades, and ble to expensive damage. In axial fans, belt drives
bearings are proportional to the square of the offer an advantage by removing the motor from the
rotational speed, high-temperature applications are airstream. In centrifugal fans, the particulate
often served by fans that operate at relatively low content is less of a factor because the motor or
speeds. sheave can be located outside of the fan enclosure
and connected to the impeller through a shaft seal.
Airstream Characteristics. Moisture and particulate Gear drives are occasionally used in applications
content are important considerations in selecting where speed reduction is required but the use
fan type. Contaminant build-up on fan blades can of belt drives is unfeasible because of access or
cause severe performance degradation and fan maintenance requirements.
imbalance. Build-up problems are promoted by a
shallow blade angle with surfaces that allow con- In flammable environments, fans are usually
taminants to collect. Fans with blade shapes that constructed of nonferrous alloys to minimize the
promote low-velocity air across the blades, such as risk of sparks caused by metal-to-metal contact. In
backward inclined fans, are susceptible to some applications, certain components of the fan
contaminant build-up. In contrast, radial tip fans can be fabricated out of spark-resistant materials.
and radial blade fans operate so that airflow across Fans that operate in flammable environments
the blade surfaces minimizes contaminant build-up. should be properly grounded, including rotating
These fans are used in “dirty” airstreams and in components, to minimize sparking because of stat-
material handling applications. ic discharge.

Corrosive airstreams present a different set of Temperature Range. To a large degree, temperature
problems. The fan material, as well as the fan type, range determines fan type and material selection.
must be selected to withstand corrosive attack. In high-temperature environments, many materials
Also, leakage into ambient spaces may be a lose mechanical strength. The stresses on rotating
concern, requiring the fan to be equipped with a components increase as the fan’s operating speed
shaft seal. Shaft seals prevent or limit leakage from increases. Consequently, for high-temperature
around the region where the drive shaft penetrates applications, the fan type that requires the lowest
the fan housing. For example, in corrosive environ- operating speed for a particular service is often
ments fans can be constructed with expensive alloys recommended. Radial blade fans can be ruggedly
that are strong and corrosion resistant, or they can constructed and are frequently used in

A Sourcebook for Industry 5

 Introduction to Fan Systems

high-temperature environments. Component materials small ducts, and very compact fan assemblies.
also significantly influence a fan’s ability to serve Although this design practice may free up floor
in high-temperature applications, and different space, the effect on fan system performance can be
alloys can be selected to provide the necessary severe in terms of maintenance costs. The use of
mechanical properties at elevated temperatures. multiple elbows close to a fan inlet or outlet can
create a costly system effect, and the added
Variations in Operating Conditions. Applications that pressure drops caused by small duct size or a
have widely fluctuating operating requirements cramped duct configuration can significantly
should not be served by fans that have unstable increase fan operating costs. System designers
operating regions near any of the expected should include fan system operating costs as a
operating conditions. Because axial, backward- consideration in configuring fan assemblies and
inclined airfoil, and forward-curved fans tend to ductwork.
have unstable regions, these fans are not recom-
mended for this type of service unless there is a Fan Performance Curves
means of avoiding operation in the unstable
region, such as a recirculation line, a bleed fea-
ture, or some type of anti-stall device. Fan performance is typically defined by a plot of
developed pressure and power required over a
Space Constraints. Space and structural constraints range of fan-generated airflow. Understanding this
can have a significant impact on fan selection. In relationship is essential to designing, sourcing, and
addition to dimensional constraints on the space operating a fan system and is the key to optimum
available for the fan itself, issues such as mainte- fan selection.
nance access, foundation and structural support
requirements, and ductwork must be considered. Best Efficiency Point. Fan efficiency is the ratio of
Maintenance access addresses the need to inspect, the power imparted to the airstream to the power
repair, or replace fan components. Because down- delivered by the motor. The power of the airflow is
time is often costly, quick access to a fan can pro- the product of the pressure and the flow, corrected
vide future cost savings. Foundation and structural for units consistency. The equation for total
requirements depend on the size and weight of a efficiency is:
fan. Selecting a compact fan can free up valuable
Total Pressure x Airflow
floorspace. Fan weight, speed, and size usually Total Efficiency =
determine the foundation requirements, which, in bhp x 6,362
turn, affect installation cost. Where: Total Pressure is in inches of water
Airflow is in cubic feet per minute (cfm)
If the available space requires a fan to be located bhp is brake horsepower
in a difficult configuration (for example, with an
elbow just upstream or downstream of a fan), then An important aspect of a fan performance curve
some version of a flow straightener should be is the best efficiency point (BEP), where a fan
considered to improve the operating efficiency. operates most cost-effectively in terms of both
Because non-uniform airflow can increase the pres- energy efficiency and maintenance considerations.
sure drop across a duct fitting and will degrade fan Operating a fan near its BEP improves its
performance, straightening the airflow will lower performance and reduces wear, allowing longer
operating costs. For more information, see the fact intervals between repairs. Moving a fan’s operating
sheet titled Configurations to Improve Fan System point away from its BEP increases bearing loads
Efficiency on page 39. and noise.

An important tradeoff regarding space and fan Another term for efficiency that is often used with
systems is that the cost of floor space often fans is static efficiency, which uses static pressure
motivates designers and architects to configure a instead of total pressure in the above equation.
fan system within a tight space envelope. One way When evaluating fan performance, it is important
to accomplish this is to use small-radius elbows, to know which efficiency term is being used.

6 Improving Fan System Performance

 Introduction to Fan Systems

Region of Instability. In general, fan curves arc Fan Start-Up. Start-up refers to two different issues
downward from the zero flow condition—that is, in the fan industry. Initial fan start-up is the
as the backpressure on the fan decreases, the air- commissioning of the fan, the process of ensuring
flow increases. Most fans have an operating region proper installation. This event is important for
in which their fan performance curve slopes in the several reasons. Poor fan installation can cause
same direction as the system resistance curve. early failure, which can be costly both in terms of
A fan operating in this region can have unstable the fan itself and in production losses. Like other
operation. (See Figure 1-1.) Instability results from rotating machinery, proper fan operation usually
the fan’s interaction with the system; the fan attempts requires correct drive alignment, adequate
to generate more airflow, which causes the system foundation characteristics, and true fit-up to
pressure to increase, reducing the generated air- connecting ductwork.
flow. As airflow decreases, the system pressure
also decreases, and the fan responds by generating Fan start-up is also the acceleration of a fan from
more airflow. This cyclic behavior results in a rest to normal operating speed. Many fans,
searching action that creates a sound similar to particularly centrifugal types, have a large rotation-
breathing. This operating instability promotes poor al inertia (often referred to as WR2), meaning they
fan efficiency and increases wear on the fan require significant torque to reach operating speed.
components.

26 In this region, the slopes of the fan curve

and the system curve are near parallel.
24 Instability results when the fan curve
Region of Instability intersects the system curve at more than one
22 point, causing the fan to hunt.

20

18
Static Pressure

16
(in. wg)

14 Fan
Curve
12 System
Curves
10 Slope Lines

2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000

3,000 5,000 7,000 9,000 11,000 13,000 15,000 17,000

Airflow Rate (cfm)

Figure 1-1. Region of Instability5

5 Although fan system curves can have a static component, for the purposes of this sourcebook, system curves pass
through (0,0).

A Sourcebook for Industry 7

 Introduction to Fan Systems

In addition to the WR2 load, the air mass moved In axial fan applications, controllable pitch fans
by the fan also adds to the start-up torque require- offer a similar advantage with respect to reducing
ments on the fan motor. Although rotational inertia start-up current. Shifting the blades to a low angle
is not typically a problem in heating, ventilation, of attack reduces the required start-up torque of
and air conditioning (HVAC) applications, it may the fan, which allows the motor to reach operating
be a design consideration in large industrial appli- speed more quickly. For more information on
cations. Proper motor selection is essential VFDs and controllable pitch fans, see the fact
in ensuring that the fan can be brought to its sheet titled Controlling Fans with Variable Loads
operating speed and that, once there, the motor on page 43.
operates efficiently.
System Effect. The system effect is the change in
Because the start-up current for most motors is 2 system performance that results from the interaction
to 5 times the running current, the stress on the of system components. Typically, during the design
motor can be significantly reduced by starting a process, the system curve is calculated by adding
fan under its minimum mechanical load and the losses of each system component (dampers,
allowing the motor to achieve normal operating ducts, baffles, filters, tees, wyes, elbows, grills,
speed more quickly than when under full load. louvers, etc.). The governing equation for pressure
In many applications, system dampers can be loss across any particular component is:
positioned to reduce the load on the fan motor
during start-up. For example, the power required 2
by a centrifugal fan tends to increase with increasing ∆p = C ( 1,097
V
) ρ
flow (although in “non-overloading” fan types, the
power drops off after reaching a peak). In axial
fans, the power tends to decrease with increasing Where: ∆p = pressure loss in inches of water gage
flow. Consequently, for most centrifugal fan types, (in. wg)
C = loss coefficient for the component
large fan start-ups should be performed with
V = velocity in feet per minute
downstream dampers closed, while for most axial
ρ = density of the airstream (0.075 pounds
fan types, start-ups should be performed with these
per cubic foot at standard conditions)
dampers open. However, there are exceptions to
these guidelines, and the actual power curve for
the fan should be evaluated to determine how to The result of this equation is a parabolic line, as
soften the impact of a large fan start-up. shown by the system curve in Figure 1-2. This
system curve assumes all components display
The power surges that accompany the starting of pressure loss characteristics according to their loss
large motors can create problems. Among the coefficients. However, in reality, non-uniform
effects of a large start-up current are power quality airflow profiles that are created as the airstream
problems and increased wear on the electrical sys- develops swirls and vortices cause system
tem. In response to increasing demand for equip- components to exhibit losses that are higher than
ment that minimizes the problems associated with their loss coefficients. The overall effect of these
large motor starts, electrical equipment manufac- added losses is to move the system curve up, as
turers are offering many different technologies, shown by the corrected system curve in Figure 1-2.
including special devices known as soft starters, to
allow gradual motor speed acceleration. A key The system effect can be minimized by configuring
advantage of variable frequency drives (VFDs) is the system so that the flow profile remains as
that they are often equipped with soft starting fea- uniform as possible. However, if space constraints
tures that decrease motor starting current to about prevent an ideal system layout, then system effect
1.5 to 2 times the operating current. Although VFDs consequences should be incorporated into the fan
are primarily used to reduce operating costs, they selection process. For more information on how to
can significantly reduce the impact of fan starts on minimize losses, see the fact sheet titled Configurations
an electrical system. to Improve Fan System Efficiency on page 39.

8 Improving Fan System Performance

 Introduction to Fan Systems

26
System Curve (with system effect)
24
22

20 Fan Curve
18 System Curve
Static Pressure

(as calculated)
16
(in. wg)

14

12

10
8

4 Expected Performance
2 Actual Performance

2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000

3,000 5,000 7,000 9,000 11,000 13,000 15,000 17,000

Airflow Rate (cfm)

Figure 1-2. System Effect for a Typical Fan and System

The system effect can be particularly problematic Fan System Components

when the airflow into or out of a fan is disrupted
into a highly non-uniform pattern. Poor configuration
A typical fan system consists of a fan, an electric
of ductwork leading to or from a fan can severely
motor, a drive system, ducts or piping, flow control
interfere with a fan’s ability to efficiently impart
devices, and air conditioning equipment (filters,
energy to an airstream. For example, placing an
cooling coils, heat exchangers, etc.). An example
elbow close to the fan outlet can create a system
system is illustrated in a diagram on page 10.
effect that decreases the delivered flow by up to
30 percent. This can require an increase in fan
To effectively improve the performance of fan
speed, which in turn results in an increase in
systems, designers and operators must understand
power and a decrease in system efficiency.
how other system components function as well.
The “systems approach” requires knowing the
Although underestimating the system effect
interaction between fans, the equipment that
causes insufficient air delivery, many designers
supports fan operation, and the components that
overcompensate for it and other uncertainties
are served by fans.
by selecting oversized fans. This practice creates
problems such as high energy costs, high mainte- Prime Movers. Most industrial fans are driven by
nance, and reduced system reliability. A more alternating current (AC) electric motors. Most are
reasonable approach is to combine proper system induction motors supplied with three-phase,
layout practices with an accurate estimate of the 240- or 480-volt power. Because power supplies
system effect to determine an appropriate fan size. are typically rated at slightly higher voltages than
motors because of anticipated voltage drops in the

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 Introduction to Fan Systems

Turning Vanes
(typically used on
short-radius elbows)

Outlet Diffusers

Heat Exchanger

Baffles

Filter

Inlet Vanes

Motor Controller

Centrifugal Fan
Variable Frequency Drive
Belt Drive
Motor

Figure 1-3. Example Fan System Components

distribution system, motors are typically rated at fans, actual operating speeds are usually around
230 or 460 volts. In recent years, because of 2 percent less than their nominal speeds. For
efforts by the National Electrical Manufacturers example, a theoretical four-pole induction motor
Association (NEMA) and motor manufacturers, the with no slip would rotate at 1,800 rpm with a
efficiency of general-purpose motors has signifi- 60-hertz power supply; however, rated operating
cantly improved. These improvements are also speeds for this motor are usually around 1,750 rpm,
attributable to the Energy Policy Act (EPAct), which indicating that slip rates are a little over 2.7 percent
for most motors went into effect in October 1997. at rated load. Fans that are driven by older motors
To improve motor efficiency, motor manufacturers are probably operating at much lower efficiencies
have modified motor designs and incorporated and at higher levels of slip than what is available
better materials, resulting in slight changes in from new motors.
motor operating characteristics. Although initial
costs of the motors have increased 10 to 20 per- Upgrading to a new motor can reduce operating
cent, for high run-time applications, improvements costs, because of improved motor efficiency, while
in motor efficiency create very attractive paybacks offering slightly improved fan performance. EPAct-
through lower operating costs. efficiency motors operate with less slip, which
means fans rotate at slightly higher speeds. For
A characteristic of induction motors is that their applications that can effectively use this additional
torque is directly related to slip, or the difference output, this high efficiency can be attractive.
between the speed of the magnetic field and the However, if the additional output is not useful, the
speed of the motor shaft. Consequently, in many added power consumption increases operating costs.

10 Improving Fan System Performance

 Introduction to Fan Systems

Another component of the prime mover is the motor Because most fans are operated with induction
controller. The controller is the switch mechanism motors, the operating rotational speeds of direct-
that receives a signal from a low power circuit, drive fans are limited to within a few percent of
such as an on/off switch, and energizes or de-ener- the synchronous motor speeds (most commonly
gizes the motor by connecting or disconnecting 1,200, 1,800, and 3,600 rpm). The sensitivity of
the motor windings to the power line voltage. fan output to its operating rotational speed means
Soft starters are electrical devices that are often that errors in estimating the performance require-
installed with a motor controller to reduce the ments can make a direct-drive system operate inef-
electrical stresses associated with the start-up of ficiently (unlike belt drives, which allow fan rota-
large motors. In conventional systems, the high tional speed adjustments by altering pulley diame-
in-rush and starting currents associated with most ters). One way to add rotational speed flexibility to
AC motors creates power quality problems, a direct-drive system is to use an adjustable speed
such as voltage sag. Soft starters gradually drive (ASD). ASDs allow a range of shaft speeds
ramp up the voltage applied to the motor, reducing and are quite practical for systems that have varying
the magnitude of the start-up current. As industrial demand. Although ASDs are generally not a prac-
facilities increase the use of computer-based tical option for fans that are only required to oper-
equipment and control systems, soft starters are ate at one speed, ASDs can provide a highly effi-
becoming important parts of many motor control cient system for fans that operate over a range of
systems. In fact, a major advantage associated with conditions.
most VFDs is that they often have built-in, soft-start
capabilities. In axial fans, direct drives have some important
advantages. Applications with low temperatures
Another common characteristic of motors used in and clean system air are well-suited for direct
fan applications is multiple speed capability. drives because the motor mounts directly behind
Because ventilation and air-moving requirements the fan and can be cooled by the airstream. This
often vary significantly, the ability to adjust fan space-saving configuration allows the motor to
speed is useful. Motors can be built to operate at operate at higher-than-rated loads because of
different speeds in two principal ways: as a single added cooling. However, accessibility to the motor
set of windings equipped with a switch that ener- is somewhat restricted.
gizes or de-energizes an additional set of poles, or
with the use of multiple windings, each of which Belt drives offer a key advantage to fan systems
energizes a different number of poles. The first by providing flexibility in fan speed selection. If
type of motor is known as a consequent pole the initial estimates are incorrect or if the system
motor and usually allows two operating speeds, requirements change, belt drives allow flexibility
one twice that of the other. The second type of in changing fan speed. In axial fans, belt drives
motor can have two, three, or four speeds, keep the motor out of the airstream, which can be
depending on application. In general, multiple- an advantage in high temperature applications, or
speed motors are more costly and less efficient than in dirty or corrosive environments.
single-speed motors. However, the flow control
benefit of different motor speeds makes them There are several different types of belt drives,
attractive for many fan applications. including standard belts, V-belts, cogged V-belts,
and synchronous belts. There are different cost and
Drive System. The drive system often offers operating advantages to each type. In general,
substantial opportunities to improve energy synchronous belts are the most efficient, while
efficiency and to lower overall system operating V-belts are the most commonly used. Synchronous
costs. There are two principal types of drive systems: belts are highly efficient because they use a mesh-
direct drive and belt drive. Gear drives are also type contact that limits slippage and can lower
used but are less common. In direct drive systems, operating costs. However, switching to synchronous
the fan is attached to the motor shaft. This is a belts must be done with caution. Synchronous
simple, efficient system but has less flexibility with belts usually generate much more noise than other
respect to speed adjustments. belts. They also transfer shock loads through the

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 Introduction to Fan Systems

drivetrain without allowing slip. These sudden Ductwork or Piping. For most fan systems, air is
load changes can be problematic for both motors directed through ducts or pipes. In general, ducts
and fans. Another problem with synchronous belts are made of sheet metal and used in low-pressure
is the limited availability of pulley sizes. Because systems, while pipes are sturdier and used in
the pulleys have a mesh pattern, machining them higher-pressure applications. Because ducts are
alters the pitch diameter, which interferes with used for most air-moving applications, “duct” will
engagement. Consequently, pulleys are available be the common reference for this sourcebook; how-
in discrete sizes, which precludes an important ever, most of the same principles can be applied to
advantage of belt drives: the ability to alter operating pipes.
rotational speeds by adjusting sheave diameters.
Because of these factors, synchronous belts are not In ventilation applications in which a fan pulls
as widely used as V-belts in fan applications. directly from a ventilated space on one side and
discharges directly to an external space (like a
In contrast, V-belts are widely used because of wall-mounted propeller fan), duct losses are not a
their efficiency, flexibility, and robust operation. significant factor. However, in most applications,
V-belts have a long history in industrial applications, ducts are used on one or both sides of a fan and
which means there is a lot of industry knowledge have a critical impact on fan performance. Friction
about them. An important advantage to V-belts is between the airstream and the duct surface is usu-
their protection of the drivetrain during sudden ally a significant portion of the overall load on a fan.
load changes. Service conditions that experience
sudden drivetrain accelerations cause accelerated As a rule, larger ducts create lower airflow
wear or sudden failure. While synchronous belts resistance than smaller ducts. Although larger ducts
tend to transfer these shock loads directly to the have higher initial costs in terms of material and
shafts and motors, V-belts can slip, affording some installation, the reduced cost of energy because of
protection. Although they are less efficient than lower friction offsets some of these costs and should
synchronous belts, V-belts offer many advantages be included during the initial design process and
such as low cost, reliable operation, and operating during system modification efforts. For more
flexibility. In applications that use standard belts, information, refer to the fact sheet titled Fan
upgrades to V-belts should be considered. System Economics on page 55. Other considera-
tions with ducts are their shape and leakage class.
Although they are not commonly used, gear systems Round ducts have less surface area per unit cross
offer some advantages to belt systems. Gear systems sectional area than rectangular ducts and, as a
tend to be much more expensive than belt drive result, have less leakage. In hot or cool airstreams,
alternatives; however, gears tend to require less this surface area also influences the amount of
frequent inspection and maintenance than belts heat transferred to the environment.
and are preferable in applications with severely
limited access. Gears also offer several motor/fan Duct leakage class, typically identified by the
configurations, including in-line drives, parallel- factor CL (which has units of cfm/linear foot) is an
offset drives, and 90-degree drives, each of which indicator of duct integrity. Variables that determine
may provide an attractive advantage in some CL include the type of joints used in construction,
applications. Gear-system efficiency depends largely the number of joints per unit length of duct, and
on speed ratio. In general, gear efficiencies range the shape of the duct. Depending on the length
from 70 to 98 percent. In large horsepower (hp) of the duct system, leakage can account for a
applications (greater than 100 hp), gear systems significant portion of a fan’s capacity. This is
tend to be designed for greater efficiency because especially applicable to systems with rectangular
of the costs, heat, and noise problems that result ducts that have unsealed joints. In many cases, the
from efficiency losses. Because gears require lubri- system designer can improve the performance of
cation, gearbox lubricant must be periodically the ventilation system by specifying ducts that
inspected and changed. Also, because gears—like have low CLs. For more information see the fact
synchronous belts—do not allow slip, shock loads sheet titled System Leaks on page 37.
are transferred directly across the drivetrain.

12 Improving Fan System Performance

 Introduction to Fan Systems

Airflow Control Devices. Flow control devices delivered to a particular workspace. Because VAV
include inlet dampers on the box, inlet vanes at the systems are much more energy efficient than their
inlet to the fan, and outlet dampers at the outlet of precursors (constant-volume or dual-supply systems),
the fan. Inlet box dampers are usually parallel dampers can be used to lower system operating costs.
blade dampers. Inlet vanes adjust fan output in two
principal ways: by creating a swirl in the airflow However, in many applications, dampers can
that affects the way in which the air hits the fan decrease fan efficiency. Dampers decrease total fan
blades, or by throttling the air altogether, which output by increasing backpressure, which forces
restricts the amount of air entering the fan. The the operating point of a fan to shift to the left along
inlet vanes and dampers must be designed for its performance curve. Often, as the fan operating
proper fan rotation and are to be installed in such point moves to the left along its curve, it operates
a way that these inlet vanes and dampers open in less efficiently and, in some cases, may perform in
the same direction as the fan rotation. The pre- an unstable manner. Unstable fan operation is the
rotation or swirl of the air helps reduce the brake result of an aerodynamic phenomenon in which
horsepower of the fan. If the inlet dampers on the there is insufficient air moving across the fan blades.
inlet box are located too far away from the inlet of The airflow rate surges back and forth resulting in
the fan, the effect of pre-rotation may be lost or inefficient performance, annoying noise character-
reduced, and horsepower savings may be negligible. istics, and accelerated wear on the fan drive system.

The outlet damper, when used for controlling Another airflow control method that is available
airflow, is usually of opposed-blade design for better for axial fan applications is the use of variable
flow distribution on the discharge side of the fan. pitch blades. Variable pitch fans control fan output
If the outlet damper is going to be used for open/ by adjusting the fan blade angle of attack with
close service or for isolating the fan, a parallel- respect to the incoming airstream. This allows the
blade discharge damper may be used. Typically, fan to increase or decrease its load in response to
fans with inlet vanes provide better power savings system demand. In effect, this method is similar to
while operating the fan at part load conditions, as that provided by inlet vanes, which adjust the
opposed to fans with inlet box dampers operating angle of attack of the entering airstream by creat-
in a similar situation. Inlet vanes provide better ing a swirl in the airflow pattern. Variable pitch
controllability with optimum power savings fans provide a highly efficient means of matching
compared to other dampers. Outlet dampers adjust fan output to system demand.
resistance to airflow and move the operating point
along the fan’s performance curve. Because they Another method of airflow control is fan speed
do not change air entry conditions, outlet dampers adjustment. Recalling the fan laws, speed has a
do not offer energy savings other than shifting the linear relationship with airflow, a second-order
operating point along the fan horsepower curve. relationship with pressure, and a third-order
relationship with power. By slowing or speeding
Dampers can be used to throttle the air entering or up a fan, its output can be adjusted to match
leaving a fan and to control airflow in branches of system demand. In general, fan speed adjustment
a system or at points of delivery. Dampers control is the most efficient method of airflow control.
airflow by changing the amount of restriction in an
airstream. Increasing the restriction creates a larger There are two primary speed control options: mul-
pressure drop across the damper and dissipates some tiple-speed motors and ASDs. Multiple-speed motors
flow energy, while decreasing the restriction reduces have discrete speeds, such as “high,” “medium,”
the pressure differential and allows more airflow. and “low.” Although these motors tend to be
somewhat less efficient than single speed motors,
From a system perspective, proper use of dampers they offer simplicity, operating flexibility, a relative-
can improve energy efficiency over traditional system ly compact space envelope, and significant energy
designs, especially in HVAC systems. In variable-air savings for fan systems with highly variable loads.
volume (VAV) systems, dampers are effective at ASDs include several different types of mechanical
rerouting airflow and at controlling the amount of air and electrical equipment. The most common type

A Sourcebook for Industry 13

 Introduction to Fan Systems

of ASD is a VFD. VFDs control the frequency of

the power supplied to a motor to establish its
operating speed. Unlike multiple speed motors that
operate at discrete speeds, VFDs allow motors to
operate over a continuous range of speed. This
flexibility provides accurate matching between fan
output and the flow and pressure requirements of
the system. For more information, see the fact
sheet titled Controlling Fans with Variable Loads
on page 43.

Air Conditioning and Process Equipment (Filters,

Heat Exchangers, etc.). Other equipment
commonly found in air-moving systems includes
devices used to condition the airstream to obtain
certain properties. Heat exchangers are used to
heat or cool an airstream to achieve a particular
temperature or to remove moisture. Filters are used
to remove unwanted particles or gases. Conditioning
equipment influences fan performance by providing
flow resistance and, in some cases, by changing air
density. Filters, including cyclone types or mesh
types, inherently create pressure drops, which are
often significant components of the overall system
pressure drop. Mesh-type filters create increasingly
large pressure drops as they accumulate particles.
In many systems, poor performance is a direct
result of inadequate attention to filter cleanliness.

Cyclone filters remove particulates by rapidly

altering the direction of the airflow so that heavy
particulates, unable to change direction quickly,
get trapped. Although cyclone filters are less
effective than mesh filters, they tend to require less
maintenance and have more stable pressure-drop
characteristics.

The effects of heating and cooling coils on fan

system performance depend largely on where in
the system the heat exchangers are located, the
extent of the temperature change, and how the
heat exchangers are constructed. Where there are
large changes in airstream temperature, fan per-
formance can change as the air density changes.
Heat exchangers that have closely spaced fins can
accumulate particulates and moisture that not only
impact heat transfer properties, but also increase
pressure losses.

14 Improving Fan System Performance