Chapter 3

Scales

3.0 Introduction

It is not possible always to make drawings of an object to its actual size. If the actual linear
dimensions of an object are shown in its drawing, the scale used is said to be a full-size scale.
Wherever possible, it is desirable to make drawings to full size.
A scale is defined as the ratio of the linear dimensions of element of the object as
represented in a drawing to the actual dimensions of the same element of the object itself.

3.1 Scales

All these scales are usually 300 mm long and sub-divided throughout their lengths. The
scale is indicated on the drawing at a suitable place near the title. The complete designation of a
scale consists of word scale followed by the ratio, i.e. scale 1:1 or scale, full size.
It may not be always possible to prepare full-size drawings. They are, therefore, drawn
proportionately smaller or larger. When drawings are drawn smaller than the actual size of the
objects (as in case of buildings, bridges, large machines etc.) the scale used is said to be a
reducing scale (1 : 5). Drawings of small machine parts, mathematical instruments, watches etc.
are made larger than their real size. These are said to be drawn on an enlarging scale (5:1).

Reducing scales 1:2 1:5 1:10

1:20 1:50 1:100
1:200 1:500 1:1000
1:2000 1:5000 1:10000
Enlarging scales 50:1 20:1 10:1
5:1 2:1
Full size scales 1:1

The scales can be expressed in the following three ways

1. Engineer’s scales

In this case, the relation between the dimension on the drawing and the actual dimension
of the object is mentioned numerically in the
style as 10 mm = 5 m etc.
 2. Graphical scale:

The scale is drawn on the drawing itself. As the drawing becomes old, the engineer's scale
may shrink and may not give accurate results. However, such is not the case with graphical scale
because if the drawing shrinks, the scale will also shrink. Hence, the graphical scale is commonly
used in survey maps.

3. Representative fraction:

The ratio of the length of the object represented on drawing to the actual length of the
object represented is called the Representative Fraction (i.e. R.F.).
Length of the drawing
R.F. =
Actual length of object

When a 1 cm long line in a drawing represents 1-meter length of the object, the R.F. is equal to
1 cm/1 m= 1 cm/1*100 cm=1/100 and the scale of the drawing will be 1: 100 or 1/100 full size.
The R.F. of a drawing is greater than unity when it is drawn on an enlarging scale. For example,
when a 2 mm long edge of an object is shown in a drawing by a line 1 cm long, the R.F. is 1 cm/2
mm=10 mm/2 mm=5. Such a drawing is said to be drawing on scale 5:1 or five time full-size.

Note:

When an unusual scale is used, it is constructed on the drawing sheet. To construct a

scale the following information is essential:
(1) The R.F. of the scale.
(2) The units which it must represent, for example, millimeters and centimeters, or feet and
inches etc.
(3) The maximum length which it must show.

The length of the scale is determined by the formula:

Length of the scale = R.F. x maximum length required to be measured. It may not be always
possible to draw as long a scale as to measure the longest length in the drawing. The scale is
therefore drawn 15 cm to 30 cm long, longer lengths being measured by marking them off in parts.

3.2 Type of scale

The types of scales normally used are:

1. Plain scales.
2. Diagonal Scales.
3. Vernier Scales.
(1) Plain scales

A plain scale is simply a line which is divided into a suitable number of equal parts, the
first of which is further sub-divided into small parts. It is used to represent either two units or a
unit and its fraction such as km and hm, m and dm, cm and mm etc.

Problem 1

On a survey map the distance between two places 1 km apart is 5 cm. Construct the scale to read
4.6 km.

If x is the drawing size required x = 5(1000)(100) x 1/20000

Therefore, x = 25 cm

Note: If 4.6 km itself were to be taken x = 23 cm. To get 1 km divisions this length has to be
divided into 4.6 parts which is difficult. Therefore, the nearest round figure 5 km is considered.
When this length is divided into 5 equal parts each part will be 1 km.
1. Draw a line of length 25 cm.
2. Divide this into 5 equal parts. Now each part is 1 km.
3. Divide the first part into 10 equal divisions. Each division is 0.1 km.
4. Mark on the scale the required distance 4.6 km.

Problem 2:

Construct a scale of 1:50 to read meters and decimeters and long enough to measure 6 m. Mark
on it a distance of 5.5 m.

1. Obtain the length of the scale as:

RF x 6 m = 1/50 x 6 x 100=12 cm
2. 2. Draw a rectangle strip of length 12 cm and width 0.5 cm.
3. Divide the length into 6 equal parts, by geometrical method each part representing 1 m.
 4. Mark O (zero) after the first division and continue 1, 2,3 etc., to the right of the scale.
5. Divide the first division into 10 equal parts (secondary divisions), each representing 1
cm.
6. Mark the above division points from right to left.
7. Write the units at the bottom of the scale in their respective positions.
8. Indicate RF at the bottom of the figure.
9. Mark the distance 5.5 m as shown.

Problem 3:

The distance between two towns is 250 km and is represented by a line of length 50 mm on a
map. Construct a scale to read 600 km and indicate a distance of 530 km on it.

1. Determine the RF value as 50 mm/250 km=1/5 x 106

2. Obtain the length of the scale as: 1 /5 x 10 6 x 600 km = 120 mm.

3. Draw a rectangular strip of length 120 mm and width 5 mm.
4. Divide the length into 6 equal parts, each part representing 10 km.
5. Repeat the steps 4 to 8 of construction in Fig 3.2. Suitably.
6. Mark the distance 530 km as shown.

Problem 4:
 Construct a plain scale of convenient length to measure a distance of 1 cm and mark on it a
distance of 0.94 cm.

This is a problem of enlarged scale.

1. Take the length of the scale as 10 cm

2. RF = 1011, scale is 10:1
3. The construction is shown in Fig 3.5

(3) Diagonal Scales.

Plain scales are used to read lengths in two units such as meters and decimeters, centimeters and
millimeters etc., or to read to the accuracy correct to first decimal.
Diagonal scales are used to represent either three units of measurements such as meters,
decimeters, centimeters or to read to the accuracy correct to two decimals.

1. Draw a line AB and erect a perpendicular at B.

2. Mark 10 equi-distant points (1, 2 , 3, etc.) of any suitable length along this perpendicular and mark C.
3. Complete the rectangle ABCD
4. Draw the diagonal BD.
5. Draw horizontals through the division points to meet BD at l , 2' , 3' etc.

Considering the similar triangles say BCD and B44'

 Thus, the lines 1-1', 2 - 2', 3 - 3' etc., measure [Link], 0.2CD, 0.3CD etc. respectively. Thus,
CD is divided into 1110 the divisions by the diagonal BD, i.e., each horizontal line is a multiple
of 11 10 CD.

This principle is used in the construction of diagonal scales.

Note: B C must be divided into the same number of parts as there are units of the third dimension
in one unit of the secondary division.

Problem 5:

On a plan, a line of 22 cm long represents a distance of 440 meters. Draw a diagonal scale
for the plan to read up to a single meter. Measure and mark a distance of 187 m on the scale.

1. RF = 22/440 x 100=1/2000
2. As 187 m are required consider 200 m.

Therefore drawing size = R F x actual size = 1/2000 x 2000 x 200 x 100 = 10 cm

When a length of 1 0 cm representing 200 m is divided into 5 equal parts, each part
represents 40 m as marked in the figure.

3. The first part is sub-divided into 4 divisions so that each division is 10 cm

4. On the diagonal portion 10 divisions are taken to get 1 m.
5. Mark on it 187 m as shown.
Problem 6 :

An area of 144 sq cm on a map represents an area of 36 sq km on the field. Find the RF

of the scale of the map and draw a diagonal scale to show Km, hectometers and decameters and
to measure up to 10 /an. indicate on the scale a distance 7 km, 5 hectometers and 6 decimeters.

1. 144 sq cm represents 36 sq km or 12 cm represent 6 km

2. Draw a length of 20 cm and divide it into 10 equal parts. Each part represents 1 km.
3. Divide the first part into 10 equal subdivisions. Each secondary division represents 1 hectometer
4. On the diagonal scale portion take 10 equal divisions so that 1110 of hectometer = 1 decameter
is obtained.
5. Mark on it 7.56 km. as shown
Problem 7:

Construct a diagonal scale 1/50, showing meters, decimeters and centimeters, to measure
upto 5 meters. Mark a length 4. 75 m on it.

1. Obtain the length of the scale as 1/50 x 5 x 100 = 10 cm

2. Draw a line A B, 10 cm long and divide it into 5 equal parts, each representing 1 m.
3. Divide the first part into 10 equal parts, to represent decimeters.
4. Choosing any convenient length, draw 10 equi-distant parallel lines above AB and complete the
rectangle ABC D.
5. Erect perpendiculars to the line A B, through 0, 1, 2, 3 etc., to meet the line C D.
6. Join D to 9, the first sub-division from A on the main scale AB, forming the first diagonal.
7. Draw the remaining diagonals, parallel to the first. Thus, each decimeter is divided into 1/
10th division by diagonals.
8. Mark the length 4.75 m as shown.

(3) Vernier Scales

The vernier scale is a short auxiliary scale constructed along the plain or main scale,
which can read upto two decimal places.
The smallest division on the main scale and vernier scale are 1 msd or 1 vsd receptively.
Generally (n+ 1) or (n-l) divisions on the main scale is divided into n equal parts on the vernier
scale.
 When 1 vsd < 1 it is called forward or direct vernier. The vernier divisions are numbered
in the same direction as those on the main scale.

When 1 vsd> 1 or (1 + lin), It is called backward or retrograde vernier. The vernier

divisions are numbered in the opposite direction compared to those on the main scale.

The least count (LC) is the smallest dimension correct to which a measurement can be
made with a vernier.

For forward vernier, L C = (1 msd - 1 vsd)

For backward vernier, LC = (1 vsd - 1 msd)

Problem 8 :

Construct a forward reading vernier scale to read distance correct to decameter on a map
in which the actual distances are reduced in the ratio of 1: 40,000. The scale should be long
enough to measure upto 6 km. Mark on the scale a length of 3.34 km and 0.59 km.

1. RF = 1140000; length of drawing = 6 x 1000 x 100/40000 = 15 cm

2. 15 cm is divided into 6 parts and each part is 1 km
3. This is further divided into 10 divitions and each division is equal to 0.1 km = 1 hectometer.
1 ms d = 0.1 km = 1 hectometer
L.C expressed in terms of m s d = (111 0) m s d
L C is 1 decameter = 1 m s d - 1 v s d
1 v s d = 1 - 1110 = 9110 m s d = 0.09 km
4. 9 m sd are taken and divided into 10 divisions as shown. Thus 1 vsd = 9110 = 0.09 km
5. Mark on It by taking 6 vsd=6 x 0.9 = 0.54 km, 28 msd(27 + 1 on the LHS of 1) =2.8 km and
Total 2.8 + 0.54 = 3.34 km.
6. Mark on it 5 msd = 0.5 km and add to it one vsd = 0.09, total 0.59 km as marked.
Problem 9:

construct a vernier scale to read meters, decimeters and centimeters and long enough to
measure upto 4 m. The RF of the scale in 1120. Mark on it a distance of 2.28 m.

Backward or Retrograde Vernier scale

1. The smallest measurement in the scale is cm.
Therefore LC = 0.01 m
2. Length of the scale = RF x Max. Distance to be measured

3. Draw a line o f 0 cm length. Complete the rectangle of 20 cm x 0.5 cm and divide it into 4
equal parts each representing 1 meter. Sub divide all into 10 main scale divisions.
1 msd = 1 m/10 = 1 dm.
4. Take 10+ 1 = 11 divisions on the main scale and divide it into 10 equal parts on the vernier
scale by geometrical construction.
Thus Ivsd= llmsd/10= 1.1 dm= 11 cm
5. Mark 0, 55, 110 towards the left from 0 (zero) on the vernier scale as shown.
6. Name the units of the divisions as shown.
7. 2.28 m = (8 x vsd) + 14 msd)
= (8 x 0.11 m) + (14 x 0.1 m)
= 0.88 + 1.4 = 2.28 m.