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UNIT – IV
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICAL METHOD
Attitude of Beds
Attitude refers to the three dimensional orientation or positioning of a given
geological feature, such as a bed, a joint, a fold, etc.
Strike. When a bedding plane (or a joint plane, or a fault plane) is cut by a horizontal
plane, a line of intersection will be obtained at the surface. This direction is known as the
strike, or the direction of the strike, or the line of the strike. Strike direction can obviously be
represented as N 300 E or as S 300 W.
Dip. The dip direction is the direction along which the inclination of the bedding plane
occurs. The dip amount is the angle of inclination between the bedding plane and a
horizontal plane. . For example the beds are inclined at 300 to the horizontal, and their dip
may be expressed as S 600 E ; when the strike direction is N 300 E or S 600 W
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Elementary Principles of Geological Mapping
Introduction to Geological Maps
A good geological map of a given area is that particular map which can exhibit
clearly the topography as well as geology of that particular area.
The geological map should, therefore, be able to speak about the following four
aspects :
about the topography of the area ;
about the general geology of the
area; about the geological structures
; and about the geological succession
FOLDS
Definition of a Fold
Folds may be defined as undulations or bends that are developed in the rocks of the
Earth’s crust, as a result of the stresses. These bends, called folds, may develop in any type
of rock.
Parts of a Fold
Limbs. Limbs are the sides of a fold. An individual fold will have two limbs;
(i) Axial plane. Axial plane is the imaginary plane bisecting between the two limbs of a fold,
thus dividing the fold into two parts, as symmetrically as possible. Axial plane may be
vertical, inclined, or even horizontal.
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(ii)Axis of the Fold. The line of intersection of the axial plane with any bed of the fold, is
termed as the axis of the fold or fold axis.
Plunge or Pitch of the Fold. When the fold axis is inclined, the angle which it make with
the horizontal, as measured in a vertical plane, is called the angle of plunge.
Crest and Trough. Most of the folded rocks are composed of two general forms of folds,
i.e. (i) up folded bends, and (ii) down folded bends. the line running through the highest
points in an up – arched fold defines the crest; and a corresponding line running through the
lowest points on the same bed, in a down – arched fold is called the trough.
TYPE OF FOLDS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATIONS
Anticline and Syncline. When the beds are unfolded into an arch – like structure, it is
called an anticline or an anticline fold. In such folds, the beds on either side are inclined
away from the crest, and that is why the name anti – cline when the beds are down – folded
into a trough like form, the structure is called a syncline in this case the beds on either side
‘incline together’ towards the keel.
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Classification of Folds
The major classification of folds as anticlines and synclines, of which most of the
folded rocks are composed of, the other classifications may be :
On the basis of position of axial plane;
On the basis of degree of compression of the
beds; On the basis of their mode of occurrence;
On the basis of their position of fold axis;
On the basis of their behavior with depth; and
Other miscellaneous folds.
Classification of Folds on the basis of Position of Axial Plane
Symmetrical folds. A symmetrical fold is that in which the axial plane is essentially
vertical the two limbs will have the same angle of dip in opposite directions.
Asymmetrical Folds. The fold in which the axial plane is not vertical but is inclined, is called an
Asymmetrical fold.
Overturned folds. An overturned fold is a severely folded fold, in which the axial plane
gets so much inclined that the two limbs of the fold dip in the same general direction.
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Recumbent Folds. These are extreme types of overturned folds, in which the axial plane
acquires an almost horizontal position.
Isoclinal Folds. Isoclinals folds are those in which the limbs are dipping essentially in the
same direction and at equal angles, so that their axial planes are essentially parallel folds
may be vertical, inclined, or even horizontal.
Classification of Folds on the basis of Degree of Compression of the Beds.
In the case of severe compression, the beds may get thinner at the limbs and thicker at the
crests and troughs. The former type of folds, where the thickness of bed is the same
throughout its fold layer, is called an open fold; and the latter one, where the thickness is more
at trough and crest than at the limbs, is called a closed fold
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Classification of Folds on the basis of their mode of Occurrence
Anticlinorium and Synclinorium Folds. An Anticlinorium fold is a large anticline which
is further thrown into smaller folds.
An Synclinorium fold is a large syncline which is further thrown into smaller folds.
Domes and Basins. A dome is a special type of anticline in which the beds dip away
from the central point, in all directions a basin is a special type of syncline in which
the beds dip towards the central point.
DOME BASIN
Classification of Folds on the basis of the Position of Fold Axis
The fold axis may either be horizontal or may be inclined. When the fold axis is
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horizontal, it is called a Non plunging fold; and when the axis is inclined to the horizontal,
it is called a plunging fold. The angle of inclination being called as the angle of plunge.
Classification of Folds on the Basis of their Behaviour with Depth
Similar Folds. The thickening at axial regions (i.e. at crests and troughs) and thinning of
the limbs, hence known as zone of rock flowage.
Parallel Folds. Parallel folds are those in which the shape of the folds varies with depth,
but the thickness of the folded bed layers remains more or the same. In such folds, the
anticlines become sharp and sharper with depth; whereas, the synclines become broad and
broader with depth.
Supratenuous Folds. These folds exhibit thinning and thickening at the crests and the
troughs.
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Other Miscellaneous Folds
Monocline. Monocline is a local warping in which the otherwise horizontal strata, exhibit
an abruptly steep inclination. This inclination of a monocline may sometimes become
enormous (i.e. almost vertical from horizontal) so that a large difference of elevation
between the strata on either side of the bend is introduced.
Homocline. A homocline actually expresses a sequence of strata dipping in the same
Drag Folds. Drag folds are the minor folds developed within the body of a weaker bed
enclosed between two stronger beds. Such folds are developed due to the dragging effects.
The weaker bed is called the incompetent bed, and the stronger beds are called the
competent beds.
Chevron Folds. Mostly, the folds are rounded along their axial parts. However,
sometimes when the axial parts are not rounded and remain pointed, and then they are called
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Chevron folds.
Chevron folds
Causes of Folding
Tectonic Causes of Folding Tectonic are those which are produced due to the forces
operating within the Earth’s curst, such as: (i) lateral compression caused by shrinkage; (ii)
igneous intrusions; and salt intrusions.
Lateral Compression. The stresses are developed within the Earth’s crust due to
shrinkage, resulting from the differential cooling of the initial hot molten Earth.
Igneous Intrusions, Intrusions of magma from beneath may result in the folding of the
overlying strata. The anticline folds may, thus develop easily during the formation of
laccoliths.
Salt Intrusious. The upward movements of salt bodies under pressure (i.e. intrusions) from
beneath may also result in the arching up of the strata.
Non – Tectonic Causes of Folding. These include all those rock-folding effects which are
effective over the ground surface, resulting mainly under the influence of gravitational force. A
few of these causes include : (i) land sliding ; (ii) creeping ; (iii) differential compaction ; (iv)
iso-static setting ; (v) subsidence into solution cavities ; and (vi) glaciations.
Landsliding, Land sliding may sometimes produce folding, when large parts of rock
beds slide down the slopes and get buckled upon folded because of compression
produced during their coming to rest.
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13
Engineering Considerations involved in Dealing with Folded Rocks
A civil engineer has to be very cautious, while he is handling or excavating through
the folded rocks, because whenever, the folds are disturbed, they release the stored energy
and may damage the site in various ways. Moreover, folded rocks are generally highly
fractured, particularly along the axial parts. These fractures, not only make the rocks weak,
but also act as channel-ways for the surface waters to percolate through them.
Synclinal folded rocks may yield hard and tough quality stones; whereas,
anticline folded rocks will yield weaker stones.
Fractured folded rocks are highly permeable, and as such may pose numerous
problems in dam construction in such areas; heavy leakage from beneath the dam may take
place.
The anticline folds provide good prospects for stored petroleum.
FAULTS
Due to the stresses developed within the Earth’s crust, the rock formation of the Earth may
either get folded or fractured. Folding is generally favored by the development of
compression stresses within the crust; whereas, fracturing is favored by the shearing stresses.
A rock fracture or a fracture surface along which relative movement due to internal shearing
stresses between the fractured parts occurs, is called a fault. The phenomenon of
development of such fractures and occurrence of the relative displacement of blocks is
known as faulting.
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Fault Terminology
Fault Plane. The surface along which fracture occurs in the rock body ; and there
occurs a relative movement between the so formed rock-parts, is termed as fault plane or
fault surface.
Fault trace or Fault outcrop or Fault line. This may be defined as the line of
intersection of a fault plane with the ground surface.
Dip and Strike of the fault. The inclination of the fault plane, with the horizontal is called
the ‘dip of the fault’. The direction perpendicular to the dip direction is nothing but the
‘strike of the fault’.
Hade. Hade is the angle which the fault plane makes with the vertical.
Hanging wall and Footwall. A fault plane separates the two blocks, and each block is
known as a wall. Now, if the fault plane is inclined, then the block lying over the fault plane
(though it may or may not be lying at a higher elevation than the other block) is called the
handing wall ; whereas, the block lying beneath, i.e. underside of the fault plane is called the
foot wall.
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Upthrow side and down-throw side. Of the two blocks of a fault, the one which
moves up with respect to the other is called the upthrow side ; and the one, which
moves down with respect to the other is called the down-throw side.
Throw. The total vertical displacement in a fault is known as the throw of
the fault.
Heave. The total horizontal displacement in a fault is known as heave.
Slip and its types. Slip of a fault is defined as the relative displacement of two
points which were initially against each other.
The maximum displacement is known as Net slip : displacement along the strike of
the fault plane is known as Strike slip ; and the displacement along the dip of the
fault plane is known as Dip slip.
Slicken Sides. The moving blocks in a faulting, may cause a lot of scratching on
one another along the fault plane. Due to this scratching, sometimes, grooves may
be produced. Such grooved surfaces produced by faulting are called slicken sides.
Types of Faults and their Classifications
on the basis of the apparent movement of the fault
Classification of Faults on the basis of the Apparent Movement of the Fault Blocks.
Noraml fault. A normal fault is the one in which the hanging wall has apparently moved
down with respect to the foot-wall. The fault planes of majority of normal faults dip more
than 450 (i.e. angle of hade > 450).
Thrust fault. A thrust fault or a thrust is one in which the hanging wall has apparently
moved up with respect to the foot wall.
Transcurrent fault or Tear fault or Transverse fault. It is that fault in which the blocks
have moved against each other in an essentially horizontal direction.
Vertical fault. That fault in which the fault plane is vertical, and the resulting movement of
blocks is also in vertical direction, is termed as vertical fault.
Classification of faults based on the Amount of the Dip of the Fault
High angle faults. These are those faults in which the fault plane dips steeply, at angles
more than 450
Low angle faults. These are those faults in which the fault plane dipsgently at angles less than
450.
Classification of Faults on the basis of the Attitude of the Fault.
Strike fault. A strike fault is that in which the strike direction of the fault plane is
essentially parallel to the strike direction of the adjacent beds.
Dip fault. In dip fault the strike of the fault plane is essentially normal (perpendicular) to
the strike of the adjacent beds.
Oblique fault. An oblique or diagonal fault is that in which the fault plane strikes the beds
neither parallel nor normally, but strikes obliquely or diagonally
Classification of Faults based on the direction of the Net Slip of the Fault.
Dip Slip faults. These are those faults in which the net slip is in the direction of the dip of
the fault.
Strike Slip faults. These are those faults in which the net slip is in the direction of the
strike of the fault.
Classification of faults on the basis of their General Pattern or Mode of
Occurrence Parallel faults. This term is used to express the occurrence of a number
of fault having the same dip and strike.
Radial faults. These comprise a group of faults that are arranged in a radial manner.
The faults appear to be radiating from a common point.
Enchelon faults. This term is used to express a group of faults that overlap one another.
Step faults. This term represents a combination of parallel faults, in which the beds
are thrown into step-like arrangements.
Peripheral faults. When in a given region, the faults are curved or acute, and they are
arranged in a peripheral manner, enclosing a more or less circular area.
Horst and Garben. a horst is a combination of two normal faults, occurring in such a
fashion that their side blocks have moved down with respect to the central block, resulting in
the formation of a raised land mass. A garben is also a combination of two normal faults.
Causes of Faulting
Faults are essentially the shear or sliding failures, resulting from tensional, compression, or
rotational stresses acting on the crustal rock masses. Normal faults of gravity faults are assumed
to have been formed under the influence of horizontal tension, whereby the crust would rupture
or fail along vertical or nearly vertical fractures Such faults are, therefore, sometimes called as
tension faults.
Thrust faults may be assumed to be originating from compressive stresses, which
may throw the rocks into folds, and these intensely fold d rocks getting fractured and faulted
under shear, at a later date. These reverse faults are therefore, sometimes called
compressional faults.
Engineering Considerations Involved in Dealing with the Faulted Rocks
Faulted rocks generally offer unstable sites from engineering considerations, not only
because there has been displacements along siderations, not only because there has been
displacements along the fault(s) in the past, but also that further fresh movements may take
place at any time in future. An engineer, as a general rule, try to avoid locating any of his
major structures on fault or rather eve in its vicinity.
JOINTS
Joints may be defined as cracks or fractures present in the body of a rock, along
which there has been no relative movements as happen in the case of faults. These joints or
cracks may be of small sizes extending only for a few centimeters in length, or may be
extremely extensive.
Open joints are those in which the blocks are separated or ‘opened out’ for some
small widths in a direction at right angles to the fracture surface.
In Close joints, however, there is no such separation. A rock is generally traversed
profusely by various joints, but some of them may be more prominent and well developed,
extending continuously for considerable lengths, as compared to others. Such prominent
joints are called master joints or major joints.
In the case of beds or faults, the inclination of a joint plane with the horizontal is called
the dip of the joint. It is expressed as the angle in degrees, and the direction with respect of
north, south, east and west. The line along which the joint plane meets the surface is called
the strike of the joint, the strike direction being perpendicular to the dip direction.
Classifications and Types of Joints
Joints may be classified into two major classifications, i.e.
geometrical classification ; and
genetic classification
The Geometrical Classification of Joints. The geometrical classification of joints is
based on the attitude of the joints with respect to that of the beds. Three types of joints, i.e.
strike joints, dip joints and oblique joints.
Strike joints are those in which the strike of the joints is parallel to the strike of the beds .
Dip joints are those in which the strike of the joints is perpendicular to the strike of the
beds (i.e. parallel to the dip o the beds), and (iii) Oblique joints are those in which the strike
of the joints in neither parallel nor normal to the strike of the beds.
The Genetic Classification of Joints. Depending upon the cause of their origin,
joints may be divided into (i) Tension joints and (ii) Shear joints.
Tension joints. Tension joints are those which are formed due to tensile forces or
stresses produced in the rocks, either during their formation or after their formation. The
important types of tension joints are :(a) columnar joints ; (b) mud cracks ; (c) sheeting
joints ; and (d) mural joints.
Columnar joints. Developed in igneous volcanic rocks, particularly Basalts.
These joints are hexagonal in plan, and are produced in the body of the cooling magma, due
to the contraction caused by cooling.
Mud cracks are also tension joints, formed in a similar manner are
columnar joints ; but here, the contraction occurs due to the drying of the mud.
Sheet joints. The horizontal joints developed in massive igneous rocks,
especially Granites. These horizontal joints are closely spaced in the upper layers, and
become progressively farther apart with depth.
Murual joints. These are three sets of joints, mutually perpendicular (two sets of
vertical joints and one set of horizontal joints) to one another, developed generally in
igneous rocks, such as Granites. The spacing between the joints is more or less equal, so that
the rock is split into cubical blocks, or murals.
Shear Joints. Shear joints are formed by the shearing stresses, which tend to
slide (or actually slide) one part of the rock against the other.
Joints in Different Rocks
The joints are developed in three different types of rocks
Joints in Igneous Rocks. Igneous rocks are joined to varying degrees, depending
upon the conditions under which the magma has cooled down for their formations. Tension
Joints are generally developed in igneous rocks due to contraction off magma.
Columnar tension joints are commonly developed in volcanic igneous rocks like
Baslats ; whereas, Mural tension joints are developed in massive deep seated igneous rocks
like Granites. Sheeting tension joints are also sometimes developed in Granites, which make
this rock look like a bedded sedimentary formation.
Joints in Sedimentary Rocks. Generally, two sets of joints, more or less
perpendicular to each other, and also to the bedding of the rock, are developed in
sedimentary rocks.
In folded sedimentary rocks, tension joints are developed near the axial parts, and
shear joints are developed in the body of the folds (i.e. limbs). Fine-grained sedimentary
rocks like clays may develop mud cracks.
Joints in Metamorphic Rocks. These rocks are also sometimes heavily jointed,
although regularly exhibited jointing patterns are rather poor.
Engineering Considerations Involved in Dealing with Jointed Rocks
For construction of any major civil engineering structure in any area, it is absolutely
necessary to investigate the rock joints thoroughly, mainly because joints act as sources of
weakness for the rocks, and also as sources of leakage through the rocks.
Hence, if the proposed foundation rocks for a dam or a reservoir happens to be
heavily jointed, and if the water-table of the region is low, then the leakage from the
reservoir to the underground may be very heavy, finally resulting in abandoning the
proposed site, and to choose better one. The Joints in rocks play a very important role in
landslides in hilly regions, because they serve as slip surfaces.
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
Seismic methods;
Electrical methods;
Gravitational methods;
Magnetic methods;
Radio metric methods ; and
Geothermal methods
SEISMIC METHOD OF GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
The seismic method is highly developed, and most of the sub-surface details are
obtained correctly. Since the rocks do posses different elastic properties and densities, the
elastic waves get propagated through them with different velocities. In other words, the
seismic waves move through the different types of rocks at different velocities.
Seismic Wave Velocities through different Rocks and Soils
S. No. Rock Type Seismic wave velocity km/sec.
1. Rocks 5 – 6.5
2. Basalt 4–6
3. Granite 2.5 – 6
4. Limestone 2.1 – 4
5. Sandstone 1.5 – 4
6. Moist clay 1.5 – 2.5
7. Wet sand 0.6 – 1.8
8. Loose sand and soil 0.1 – 0.5
Seismic exploration in done by two methods ; viz.
refraction methods ;
reflection methods ;
The reflection methods are adopted for deep explorations (depth not less than 100 m,
usually more than 2 km) of general geological importance, or in oil explorations, since they
are capable of revealing accurately the subsurface structures like anticlines, synclines, salt
domes, faults, reefs, etc. While the refraction methods are adopted for comparatively
shallower explorations (from surface to several meters deep) such as those required for most
of the civil engineering uses, like exploring the foundation sites for detecting bed rock depth,
fault zones, ground water, etc.
Seismic wave Refraction method for two layer (strata) case with a horizontal
interface. A typical instrument, working on this principle, essentially consists of two parts,
viz : (i) a detonator or a device for producing seismic waves, called the source or the shot
point : and (ii) a device, for receiving and recording the travel of the generated waves with
time, called the geophone or the seismogram. The time (t) is generally recorded in mille
seconds.
When a detonation or impact occurs from the ‘source’, the waves are emitted in every
direction. One particular wave (01), called a direct wave will travel parallel to the ground
surface in the direction of the geophone, and is hence caught and recorded by the geophone
placed at position 1. Other waves travel in downward direction at various angles to the
horizontal, and get refracted, when they happen to pass through a stratum of different
seismic velocity. If the seismic velocity of the lower stratum (v2) is higher than that of the
upper stratum (v1), a particular wave OAB, would travel just along the top of the lower
stratum, along the interface i.e. the horizontal boundary between the two strata, as shown.
This refracted wave continually leaks energy back to the surface, can be detected by the
geophones, placed at certain distances away from the original position.
The test procedure, therefore, consists of installing a geophone at different locations in turn,
along a straight line at increasing distances from the source. The distance between the first
and the last location (i.e. 1- 3 in this case) should be about 3 to 5 times Z, where Z is the
anticipated depth of the upper stratum. A series of impacts were released from the source,
and arrival times of the first wave are recorded at different locations of the geophones.
Obviously, the first location of the geophone (which is very near to the source) will record
the direct wave, and other positions will record the refracted leaked waves. The values of
time of arrival of the wave (t) and the distance of the geophone from the source (x) are
plotted.
When x is less than Z, (i.e. for the first position of geophone), the corresponding
arrival time will represent the arrival time for the direct wave. Let the point be plotted as
point. When x is more than Z, such as for 2 and 3 positions of geophone, the corresponding
arrival times will represent the refracted wave, and are plotted as points 2 and 3 on the plot.
When point 1 as joined with origin 0 on the plot, the line 01 will represent the
velocity of the direct wave (say v1). When poits 2 and 3 are joined, the line would represent
the velocity of the refracted wave (say v2). The two lines would be of different slope, as they
represent respective velocities v1 and v2. They are produced far and back, to meet at point C,
having abscissa equal to xc, called the critical distance. Curve so obtained is called the travel
time curve or a hodograph.
The depth Z of the boundary between the two strata i.e. the depth of the upper strata,
can then be worked out by the equation :
x v2 v1
c
Z= 2 v v
2 1
Formula is based on the assumptions that : (i) all strata are homogeneous and
isotropic ; (ii) the strata boundaries are plane ; (iii) each stratum is thick enough to produce a
change in slope on the time-distance plot ; and (iv) the seismic velocity increases in each
successive stratum from the surface downwards.
This method, help us in plotting sub-soil profiles, economically, but would fail to
detect a layer having velocity lesser than that of the upper layer. Such a layer which goes
undetected in seismic refraction studies, is called the hidden zone or hidden bed.
The seismic refraction method is widely used in making geological studies of
foundation sites. These studies help in : (i) determining the depth and occurrence of bed rock
; (ii) detection of local fracture zones, i.e. the fault zones which are weak within the bed rock
; (iii) locating the buried stream channels ; (iv) determining the thickness of loose over
burden ; etc.
In India, GSI (Geological Survey of India) as well as CWPRS (Central Water and
Power Research Station) Pune, have carried out many bed rock studies by the seismic
refraction method.
Limitations of the Seismic Refraction Studies
Although, the seismic method is the best among the various geophysical methods of
site exploration, yet this method has the following limitations :
If the lower strata is dense compared to the upper strata, the velocity of seismic
waves in the lower strata will be faster, and the depth of the upper strata can be predicted
correctly.
ELECTRICAL METHODS OF GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
The electrical methods are based on the fact that the subsurface formations,
structures, ores, etc. all possess different electrical properties.
The electrical methods of prospecting can be employed in the following three
way’s.
Using Self potential method
Using Surface potential method, called the electrical Resistivity method;
and Using Electro-magnetic method.
In self potential methods, the natural electric field existing in an area is investigated.
In the surface potential methods, however, the ground is charged by an artificial electric
field, and its results on the surface are investigated. In this process of artificially energizing
the ground, we may use either D.C. current or A.C. current of different frequencies
(including transient current). The charging of the ground can be achieved when an electric
circuit is grounded at two points, to produce electric field in the Earth. Any variation in
conductivity of subsurface strata alters the form of the current flow within the Earth, and this
affects the distribution of the electric potential. The measurement of potential helps in
identification of the strata. This method is popularly known as the electrical-resistivity
method. In the electro-magnetic method, electro-magnetic field of the ground currents are
measured in place of their electrical fields, and accordingly the interpretation of the substrata
is done.
Out of these three methods, the electrical resistivity method is mostly used by
engineers for sub-surface explorations.
Electrical resistivity Method. The electrical resistivity method, as said above, is
based upon the principle that electrical resistance, offered by different types of rocks in the
sub-surface, is different. This electrical resistivity (which is the reciprocal of conductivity)
of different rock formations, in fact largely depends upon the amount of the concentration of
the dissolved salts (electrolytes) in the pore water present in the rocks and also upon the
volume of the pore water , because the solid soil grains are poor conductors of electricity.
The concentration of the dissolved electrolytes in pre water of the rock strata, in turn
depends upon the chemical composition of the rock; while the amount of the pore water
itself will depend upon the porosity of the rock layer. Hence, a rock layer having more
porosity will have more pore water, thereby making the said rock layer more conducive for
electrical currents. The resistivity of this layer will therefore, be low. On the other hand, if
the rock layer is composed of some insoluble mineral(s), as is the case with Sandstones, it
will have low concentrations of dissolved electrolytes in the pores. For such a case,
therefore, the strata will have low electrical conductivity, and hence high resistivity.
Thus, if the measurement of resistivity s do by passing current through the strata, it can help
in the identification of the strata. Consists of driving two electrodes 1 and 2 into the ground.
At a netted with the battery to measure current in the circuit. The potential (E) at two
intermediate points is measured by means of other two electrodes 3 and 4, placed equally
spaced between the first two. All 4 electrodes would, thus, be at
3 x
equal spacing each of 3 x.
This spacing of electrodes (x) determines the effective depth upto which the lines of
electric current flow, and hence the depth of the strata influencing the rate of drop of
potential (E) from one electrode to the other. The larger the spacing (x), the larger is the
depth of the strata involved in the circuit.
Also, with E as the potential drop between the two central electrodes at distance x,
and I as the current in the circuit, the mean resistivity or apparent resistivity (p) is given by
the equation.
E
P = 2x I
Where p = apparent resistivity in ohm-m
X = electrode spacing in m
E = potential drop in volts
I = circuit current in amperes.
Since the resistivity so obtained is an average value between the two points of
electrodes spacing, it is called the apparent resistivity.
Typical Resistivity values of Different Rocks
S. No. Type of Rock stratum Resistivity in (ohm – m)
1. Marble 104 – 108
2. Granite 103 – 105
3. Gabbro 103 – 105
4. Basalt 103 – 105
5. Gneiss 102 – 105
6. Limestone 102 – 103
7. Sandstone 10 – 103
8. Conglomerate 10 – 103
9. Clay, Shale 1 - 103
The resistivity surveys (studies) can be done by two methods:
to get the horizontal variation of materials ; and
to get the vertical variation of materials.
Horizontal variations of materials in an area, the spacing between the electrodes are
kept equal to the depth to be proved. For example, if it is required to investigate the type of
material up to 5 m depth in a locality, then the area is divided i to a traverse and electrodes
spacing is kept 5 m. The values of resistivity m as used at various points, are plotted on the
traverse, and equal resistivity values can be join d to represent the contour lines of the same
resistivity, called the iso-resistvity contours.
Engineering Applications of Electrical Resistivity Method
The resistivity method is widely used for determination of water tables or water-
bearing strata. Civil engineers use it for the determination of depth of bed rocks for masonry
or concrete dam construction.
To determine the thickness of loose overburden or the depth of the bed rock at the
foundation site;
To detect fractured or weak zones in the bed rock ;
To ascertain the sub-surface rock types and their compactness (i.e. strength);
To locate dykes or veins in foundation rocks ;
To know the attitudes (strikes and dips) of rocks ;
To detect structural defects like faults in the foundation site ;
To locate suitable building material at shallow depth near the project site, if required ;
To locate places of leakages along canals or reservoirs or tanks, etc.
To know ground water conditions; etc.