REFERENSI:

1. AWS Welding Standard

2. ASME Welding Standard

3. API Welding Standard

4. John E. Bringas, 2004. Handbook of comparative world steel

standards
5. Ibrahim Khan, 2007. Welding Science and Technology

6. Barwil Unitor Ships Service USA, 2005. Maritimes Welding

Handbook
Welding
Definition 1:

Welding is a complex, metallurgical process involving

melting, solidification, gas-metal reactions, surface
phenomena and solid state reactions for joining
metals.

Definition 2:

Welding is the joining of multiple pieces of metal by

the use of heat and or pressure. A union of the parts is
created by fusion or re-crystallization across the metal
interface. Welding can involve the use of filler material,
or it can involve no filler.
 Major classification of welding
 Arc Welding
 Resistance Welding
 Flash Welding
 Ox fuel Gas Welding
 Solid State Welding
 Electron Beam Welding
 Laser Beam welding
 Brazing
 Soldering
 Adhesive Bonding
 Thermal Spraying
Arc Welding:
– A fusion process wherein the coalescence of the
metals is achieved from the heat of an electric arc
formed between an electrode and the work.
 The electricity flows from the power source,
through the electrode and across the arc,
through the base material to the work lead
and back to the power source
Arc Welding Processes
• Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)/ stick welding

• Sub-merged arc welding (SAW)

• Gas metal arc and flux cored arc welding (GMAW)

• Flux cored arc welding (FCAW)

• Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)

• plasma arc welding (PAW)

• Electrogas welding

• Electroslag welding
 Manual Metal Arc Process (MMA)
SHEILDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)

Electrode covering

Electrode
core wire
(Rimming
Electric Arc
Steel)
Solidified slag
Molten weld pool

Gas shield
(Co2)
Build up of weld metal
Penetration

Parent material
Metal Active/Inert Gas (MAG/MIG)
Wire electrode
Current conductor
Wire feed
rolls

Gas nozzle Shielding gas in

Gas shield
Electric Arc Contact tip and
electrode wire guild
Molten weld pool Build up of weld metal
Penetration

Parent material
 Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)
Cap

Switch Switch
Handle power
Filler wire cable
Collet

Deposited weld metal

Non-consumable electrode
Shielding gas Gas inlet
& power
cable

Molten weld pool

 Sub-arc
(SAW)
Filler wire spool Flux hopper

Power supply Slide rail

- +

Wire electrode
Flux
Sub-arc (SAW)
 Flux Cored Arc Welding
Flux core
Insulated extension nozzle

Current carrying guild tube

Wire joint

Flux cored hollow wire

Flux powder
Arc shield composed of
vaporized and slag forming
Flux core compounds
wires

Molten
weld Metal droplets covered
Solidified weld pool
with thin slag coating
metal and slag
Fundamentals of Welding
Overview of Process
SMAW is an early arc welding process used for
ferrous and several nonferrous base metals. It uses
a covered electrode consisting of a core wire
around which a concentric clay-like mixture of
silicate binders and powdered materials (such as
fluorides, carbonates, oxides, metal alloys and
cellulose) is extruded. This covering is a source of
arc stabilizers, gases to displace air, metal and
slag to protect, support and insulate the hot weld
metal.
Tools & Equipment
• Electrode (consumable & non-consumable)
• Electrode Holder
• Electrode Cable
• Welding Machine (AC or DC Power Source)
• Work Cable
• Clamp
• Filler Metal
• Welding Helmet
• Protective Clothing
Advantages
• Many welding applications with small variety of
electrodes.
• Simple, portable,& inexpensive equipment
• Self flux provided by electrode
• Provides all position flexibility
• Weld can be made in Confined location
Limitations
• Used for steels, stainless steels, cast irons.
• Not used for aluminum and its alloys, or copper
and its alloys (energy density is too high).
• Best suitable for joining metals of
sections1/8 to 3/4 in.(3 to 9 mm) thickness.
• Groove weld joints in plate thickness normally
require edge preparation to allow proper access to
the root of the joint.
• Typical current range is between 50 and 300A.
Limitations contd…
• Special electrodes can be used as high as 600A and
others as low as 30A, allowing weld metal deposition
rates of between 2 and 17 lb/h (1 & 8 KG/Hr).
• High material cost as 60% of the weight of the
purchased electrodes is deposited as filler metal.
Applications
• Construction
• Pipelines
• Shipbuilding
• Fabrication job shops.
• Maintenance Industries
Common Defects
• Porosity
• Slag inclusions
• Incomplete Fusions
• Inadequate joint penetration.
• Undercut
• Overlap
• Cracks
Fundamentals of Welding
Diagram 1
Overview of Process
In SAW, the arc and molten meta; are shielded by
an envelope of molten flux and a layer of unused
granular flux particles. When the arc is struck , the
tip of the continuously fed electrode is submerged
in the flux and the arc is therefore not visible. The
weld is made without the intense radiation that
characterizes an open arc process and with little
fumes.
Tools, Equipment & Materials
•Electrode (consumable & non-consumable)
• Electrode Holder
• Electrode Cable
• Power Source (600 to 2000A output)
• Automatic Wire Feed
• Tracking System
• Work Lead
• Weld Backing
• Filler Metal
• Welding Helmet
• Protective Clothing
Advantages
• Useful for welding both Sheet and plate.
• Thin materials speed up to 200in/min (84mm/sec)
can be achieved.
• In thick section applications, high metal deposition
rates of 60 to 100 lb/h (27 to 45 kg/h).
• Least Expensive in operating cost
• Edge preparation is not required due to the usage
of
DCEP (Direct Current Electrode Positive).
Limitations
• Welds can only be made in the flat and horizontal
positions.
• Used for all grade of carbons, low alloy and allow
steels. Stainless Steel and some nickel alloys are
also effectively welded or used as surfacing filler
metals with the process.
• Power Source, Three Phase 220V or 440V
• Single phase 440V.
Applications

• Used for all grade of carbons, low alloy and alloy

steels. Stainless Steel and some nickel alloys are
also effectively welded or used as surfacing filler
Pipelines.
• Jobs require deposition of large quantities of filler
metal.
• Fabrication job shops.
• Maintenance Industries.
• Pipelines
Common Defects
• Porosity
• Slag inclusions
• Incomplete Fusions
• Inadequate joint penetration.
• Undercut
• Overlap
• Cracks
Fundamentals of Welding
Fundamentals of Welding
Fundamentals of Welding
Fundamentals of Welding
Overview of Process
GMAW process use a continuous solid wire to
provide filler metal, and use gas to shield the arc
and weld metal. The electrode is solid and all of
the shielding gas is supplied by an external
source. The shielding gas used has a dual purpose
of protecting the arc and weld zones from air and
providing desired arc characteristics. Gases are
used depending on the reactivity of the metal and
the design of the joint to be welded.
GMAW Process Variations
In GMAW, the common variations of shielding gases, power
sources and electrodes have significant effects that can
produce three different modes of metal transfer across the
arc. These are:
1) Spray Transfer
It describes an axial transfer of small discrete droplets of
metal at rates of several hundred per second.
2) Globular Transfer
In this process variation, carbon dioxide-rich gases are used
to shield the arc and welding zone.
3) Short Circuiting Transfer
In this transfer, the average current and deposition rates can
be limited by using power sources which allow metal to be
transferred across the arc only during intervals of controlled
short circuits occurring at rates in excess of 50 per second.
Fundamentals of Welding

• A variable speed motor and motor control

• Welding gun
• Gas Nozzle on gun
• A system of cables, hoses, electrical connections and
casings.
• A mount for the spooled or coiled electrode.
• A control station containing the relays, solenoids and
timers.
• A source of shielding gas.
• Power Source (2KW to 20 KW)
• Water supply
• Shielding gas argon, nitrogen, helium
Advantages
• Long welds can be made without starts and stops.
• Minimal skill required.

• Minimal cleaning of surface before weld

• Allows welding in all positions
• High deposition frequency around 95-100% with
solid electrodes, 80-85% with gas-shielded cored
electrodes and 80-85% with the self shielded cored
electrodes.
Limitations
• Ferrous metals welding in all positions if they are
less than ¼ in (6mm) thickness.
• Globular and spray transfer are restricted to
welding steels in the flat and horizontal positions.
Fundamentals of Welding
Fundamentals of Welding

• Porosity
• Slag inclusions
• Incomplete Fusions
• Inadequate joint penetration.
• Undercut
• Overlap
• Cracks
Fundamentals of Welding
Fundamentals of Welding
Fundamentals of Welding

FCAW process uses cored electrodes instead of

solid electrodes for joining ferrous metals. The
flux core may contain minerals, ferroalloys and
materials that provide shielding gases,
deoxidizers and slag forming materials.
Fundamentals of Welding

• A variable speed motor and motor control

• Welding gun
• Gas Nozzle on gun
• A system of cables, hoses, electrical connections
and casings.
• A mount for the spooled or coiled electrode.
• A control station containing the relays, solenoids
and timers.
• A source of shielding gas.
• Power Source (2KW to 20 KW)
• Water supply
Advantages
• Long welds can be made without starts and stops.
• Minimal skill required.

• Minimal cleaning of surface before weld

• Allows welding in all positions
• 80-85% with gas-shielded cored electrodes and 80-
85% with the self shielded cored electrodes.
Limitations
• Used Cored electrodes instead of solid electrodes.
• Used for ferrous metals.
Fundamentals of Welding

• Ferrous metals in all positions.

• Produce vertical welds at deposition rates in
excess of 5 lb/h(2 kg/h).
Fundamentals of Welding

• Porosity
• Slag inclusions
• Incomplete Fusions
• Inadequate joint penetration.
• Undercut
• Overlap
• Cracks
Fundamentals of Welding
Fundamentals of Welding
Fundamentals of Welding
Fundamentals of Welding

GTAW uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode

which must be shielded with an inert [Link] arc
is initiated between the tip of the electrode and
work to melt the metal being welded, as well as
the filler metal, when used. A gas shield protects
the electrode and the molten weld pool, and
provides the arc characteristics.
Fundamentals of Welding

• Welding Torch
•Tungsten Electrode
• Inert Gas
• Pressure regulators and flow meters
• Welding face shield
• Protective clothing
• Gas Nozzle on gun
• A source of shielding gas.
• Power Source (8KW to 30 KW)
Current range 200A to 500A)
• High Frequency Oscillator
• Welding wire
Fundamentals of Welding

• Welds with or without filler metal

• Precise control of welding variables (heat)
• Low distortion
• Higher quality root pass.
• Accommodate wide range of thickness, positions and
geometries.
• Portable Equipment
• Combination with GMAW or SMAW produce good
results for pipe welding.
Fundamentals of Welding

• More training time required as GMAW & SMAW.

• More expensive than SMAW
• Requires greater welder dexterity than MIG or
stick welding
• Lower deposition rates
• More costly for welding thick sections
Fundamentals of Welding

• Most commonly used for aluminum and

stainless steel.
• For steel
– Except for thin sections or where very
high quality is needed
Fundamentals of Welding

• Porosity
• Incomplete Fusions
• Inadequate joint penetration.
• Cracks
Fundamentals of Welding

• Definition:
– This is a group of fusion welding processes that
use heat and pressure to make the coalescence.
• The heat comes from electrical resistance to
current flow at the site of the weld.

– The processes include:

• Spot Welding
• Projection Welding
• Seam Welding
Fundamentals of Welding
Fundamentals of Welding

• Spot Welding
– A process typically used in high-volume, rapid welding
applications.
• The pieces to be joined are clamped between two
electrodes under force, and an electrical current is sent
through them.
– The advantages of spot welding are many and
include the fact that it is:
• An economical process
• Adaptable to a wide variety of materials including low
carbon steel, coated steels, stainless steel, aluminum,
nickel, titanium, and copper alloys
• Applicable to a variety of thicknesses
• A process with short cycle times
• A robust process
• Tolerant to fit-up variations
Fundamentals of Welding

There are three major processes within this

group:

1- oxyacetylene welding

2- oxyhydrogen welding

3- pressure gas welding.

Fundamentals of Welding

General Gas Welding Procedures

Oxyfuel gas welding (OEW) is a group of welding processes which
join metals by heating with a fuel gas flame or flares with or
without the application of Pressure and with or without the use of
filler metal.

Fuel gas and oxygen are mixed in the proper proportions in a

mixing chamber which may be part of the welding tip assembly.

Molten metal from the plate edges and filler metal, if used,
intermix in a Common molten pool. Upon cooling, they coalesce to
form a continuous
piece.
Fundamentals of Welding

Process Overview
Brazing is a group of welding processes in
which the joint is heated to a suitable
temperature in the presence of a filler metal
having a liquidus above 840 F (450 C) and
below the solidus of the base metal.

Major Considerations:
• Joint Design
• Filler Metal
• Uniform heating
• Protective or reactive shielding
Fundamentals of Welding

• Torch Brazing
• Furnace Brazing
• Induction Brazing
• Dip Brazing
• Infrared Brazing
• Diffusion Brazing
Fundamentals of Welding

Process Overview
Soldering involves heating a joint to a suitable
temperature and using a filler metal (solder)
which melts below 840 F (450 C).

Major Considerations:
• Joint Design
• Filler Metal
• Uniform heating
• Protective or reactive shielding
Fundamentals of Welding

• Dip Soldering (DS)

• Iron Soldering (INS)
• Resistance Soldering (RS)
• Induction Soldering (IS)
• Torch Soldering (TS)
• Furnace Soldering (FS)
• Infrared Soldering (IRS)
• Ultrasonic Soldering
Fundamentals of Welding

Process Overview
Adhesive Bonding is a joining process which is
gaining acceptance as an assembly method for
joining metals.

Advantages:
• Minimal Training.
• Capable of joining dissimilar metals like metals to
plastics
• Bonding very thin sections without distortion
• Very thin sections to thick sections
• Joining heat sensitive alloys
• Producing bonds with unbroken surface contours.
• Low Cost
Fundamentals of Welding

Dis-advantages:
•Joints produced, may not support shear or impact
loads.
•Must have adhesive layer less than 0.005 in
(0.13mm) thick.
•Joints can not sustain operational temperatures
exceeding 500 F (260 C)Surfaces to be bonded
requires special cleaning.
•Some adhesives are to be used quickly after mixing.
•NDT of adhesive joints is difficult.
Welding Metallurgy

Fusion Weld Structure

Fusion line

Weld preparation

Base Weld metal

HAZ HAZ
metal
 Arc welding is a process used to join two
pieces of metal together.
◦ How does it work?
 A welder creates an electric arc that melts the metal
and filler rod to create a pool of molten metal that
hardens to fuse the two pieces of metal together.
 Why is welding important?
◦ Many of the things you use need to be welded.
 Your parent’s car
 Power line towers
 Your school desk
 Your bicycle
[Link]

[Link] [Link]
[Link]
  Why Learn to Weld?
◦ Welding can help build a successful career to earn
money to buy the things you want.
◦ Skilled Welders are in high demand.
◦ Welding is challenging and high tech.

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
 Voltage – The electrical potential or pressure
that causes current to flow
 Measured in Volts
 Current – The movement of charged
particles in a specific direction
 Measured in Amps DC+
 Polarity DC -

 DC- (Direct Current

Electrode Negative)
 DC+ (Direct Current
Electrode Positive) AC
 AC (Alternating Current)
 The electricity flows from the power source,
through the electrode and across the arc,
through the base material to the work lead
and back to the power source

Circuit – click on the link

to learn more.
Circuit Info.
 Use the following links to learn how electricity
works in a circuit
◦ Conductors, Insulators, and electron flow
◦ Current and Voltage in a Circuit
◦ Resistance
◦ Ohms Law
 The electron flow you just learned about is
what creates the arc in arc welding.
 This is a form of electrical energy
◦ How do we use that electrical energy to fuse metals
together?
 The energy transfers that take place in welding

Electrical The arc created by the

electric current is
converted into heat
Thermal because of the
resistance of electron
flow. The heat melts
the metal to fuse it
together.
 Here are some places to look to learn more
about energy and energy transfers.
◦ Forms of Energy
◦ Energy Transformations
 Changes of State and Chemical Reactions
◦ During the welding process the metal changes
states or forms.
 What are the states of matter?
 Solid
 Liquid
 Gas
 Plasma

Click here to learn more about the changes of state

 Changes of State and Chemical Reactions
◦ So what changes of state occur during welding?
 Initially the metal is a solid
 When the arc starts the solid is converted into a liquid
 Some of the liquid is converted into a gas vapor
 When the arc stops the liquid cools to form a solid
again – this is the newly formed weld joint

Solid Liquid Solid

(gas
vapor)
 Changes of State and Chemical Reactions
◦ Chemical Reactions
 During the welding process certain chemical reactions
take place.
 Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen can react in the weld
puddle and cause changes in the structure of the weld
weakening the weld.

[Link]
 AWS A5.5 Alloyed Electrodes
E 70 1 8 M G
Covered Electrode

Tensile Strength (p.s.I)

Welding Position

Flux Covering

Moisture Control

Alloy Content
 AWS A5.1/5 Alloyed
Electrodes
Example AWS electrode flux types

Cellulose flux- ends in 0,1

E6010, E6011, E7010, E8011

Rutile flux-ends in 2,3,4

E5012, E6012, E6013, E6014

Basic flux-ends in 5,6,7,8

E6016, E7017, E8018, E9018
 MMA Welding
Consumables
Rutile electrodes
 Used mainly on general purpose
work
 Low pressure pipework, support
brackets.
Flux constituents include:
 Titanium dioxide, slag former
 Clay - binding agent
 Sodium silicate - main ionizer
 Rutile Electrodes

Advantages Disadvantages
 Easy to use  High in hydrogen
 Low cost / control  High crack tendency
 Smooth weld profiles  Low strength
 Slag easily detachable  Low toughness values
 High deposition
possible with the
addition of iron
powder
 MMA Welding
Consumables
Cellulose electrodes
 Used mainly for pipeline welding
 Suitable for welding in all position especially
vertical down, stove technique
 They produce a gas shield high in hydrogen
 Deep penetration/fusion characteristics
Flux constituents include:
 Cellulose, natural organic compounds
 Titanium dioxide - slag former
 Sodium silicate/potassium silicate - main
ionizers
 AWS A5.1/5 Alloyed
Electrodes
Example AWS electrode flux types

Cellulose flux- ends in 0,1

E6010, E6011, E7010, E8011

Rutile flux-ends in 2,3,4

E5012, E6012, E6013, E6014

Basic flux-ends in 5,6,7,8

E6016, E7017, E8018, E9018