Course Code : MBA-104

Course Title : Organizational Behavior

Assignment No. : MBA-104/2022

Q1. Discuss how Theory X and Theory Y manages approach motivation.

Ans. Theory X and theory Y are part of motivational theories. Both the theories, which are
very different from each other, are used by managers to motivate their employees. Theory
X gives importance to supervision, while theory Y stresses on rewards and recognition.

Description: Theory X and theory Y follow different methodologies of keeping people

motivated. Theory X follows an authoritarian approach to motivate people. One of the key
assumption in this approach is that the average employee doesn't like work and will do
anything to avoid it.

The other assumption under theory X is that the employees need to be threatened or forced
to work towards the organizational goals. They will avoid responsibility and the managers
have to supervise them at every step.

In an organisation where theory X is followed, the management too follows an authoritarian

style. There is little delegation of authority from the management.

On the other hand, companies who follow theory Y have a more decentralized approach,
which means that the authority is distributed among employees. This keeps them
motivated.

There are some key assumptions under theory Y. One of them is that employees take
responsibility of their actions and work towards achieving the goals of the organization
without much supervision.

The workers are more participative and try to solve problems on their own without relying
on supervisors for guidance. This type of management style is more common than theory X.
In this type of management style, even a small employee can participate in the decision-
making process.

Theory X works on the idea of punishing people to keep the work going, while under theory
Y, promotions, rewards, and recognition play an important part. This keeps employees
motivated to work hard towards achieving goals of the organisation.

Q2. How can the perceptual skills be enhanced?

[Link] skills can be improved even in adulthood, but this learning seldom occurs by
stimulus exposure alone. Instead, it requires considerable practice performing a perceptual
task with relevant stimuli. It is thought that task performance permits the stimuli to drive
learning. A corresponding assumption is that the same stimuli do not contribute to
improvement when encountered separately from relevant task performance.
because of the absence of this permissive signal. However, these ideas are based on only
two types of studies, in which the task was either always performed or not performed at all.
Here we demonstrate enhanced perceptual learning on an auditory frequency-discrimination
task in human listeners when practice on that target task was combined with additional
stimulation. Learning was enhanced regardless of whether the periods of additional
stimulation were interleaved with or provided exclusively before or after target-task
performance, and even though that stimulation occurred during the performance of an
irrelevant (auditory or written) task. The additional exposures were only beneficial when
they shared the same frequency with, though they did not need to be identical to, those
used during target-task performance. Their effectiveness also was diminished when they
were presented 15 min after practice on the target task and was eliminated when that
separation was increased to 4 h. These data show that exposure to an acoustic stimulus can
facilitate learning when encountered outside of the time of practice on a perceptual task. By
properly using additional stimulation one may markedly improve the efficiency of perceptual
training regimens.

Q3. What is meant by Halo effect? Explain.

Ans. The halo effect is a well documented social-psychology phenomenon that causes

people to be biased in their judgments by transferring their feelings about one attribute

of something to other, unrelated, [Link] example, a tall or good-looking person will

be perceived as being intelligent and trustworthy, even though there is no logical reason to

believe that height or looks correlate with smarts and [Link] term "halo effect"

(a.k.a. halo error) was first introduced into psychological-research circles in 1920 in a paper

authored by Edward Thorndike titled “A Constant Error in Psychological Ratings.” Through

empirical research, Thorndike found that when people were asked to assess others based on

a series of traits, a negative perception of any one trait would drag down all the other trait

scores.

The halo effect works both in both positive and negative directions:

• If you like one aspect of something, you'll have a positive predisposition toward

everything about it.

• If you dislike one aspect of something, you'll have a negative predisposition toward

everything about it.

A negative halo effect is sometimes called the "devil effect" or the "pitchfork

effect," but that seems to be taking the metaphor too far. We recommend using the term

"halo effect" for both positive and negative biases

The term "halo" is used in analogy with the religious concept: a glowing circle that can be

seen floating above the heads of saints in countless medieval and Renaissance paintings.
The saint's face seems bathed in heavenly light from his or her halo. Thus, by seeing that

somebody was painted with a halo, you can tell that this must have been a good and worthy

person. In other words, you're transferring your judgment from one easily observed

characteristic of the person (painted with a halo) to a judgment of that person's character.

Thus, the name has nothing to do with the video game Halo.

Q4. Explain contingency approach.

Ans. The contingency approach is a management theory that suggests the most appropriate
style of management is dependent on the context of the situation and that adopting a
single, rigid style is inefficient in the long term. Contingency managers typically pay
attention to both the situation and their own styles and make efforts to ensure both interact
efficiently.

The contingency approach contrasts with other forms of leadership, such as trait-based
management, whereby personality and individual make-up predict patterns of management
and responses to given situations over time. Another management approach is style-based
app

Contingency theory is beneficial to organisations because of the potential for learning from
specific situations and using these lessons to influence future management of the same or
similar situations. The ability to adapt to external pressures and changes is also an
advantage. Contingency theory may also produce more well-rounded leaders who are able
to develop their skills in multiple areas.

Q5. Compare among the three modes of resolving inter-group conflict.

Ans. To understand conflict resolution among groups it is helpful first to consider the role of
conflict in and among groups. Conflict analysis of groups is divided between the study
of intragroup conflict, that which happens within a group among its members,
and intergroup conflict, that which happens between one or more groups where the conflict
is viewed as involving the group as a whole. The study of these phenomena is closely
related to the study of both group dynamics and cross-cultural relations. A further
distinction is made according to the group level being studied. Here the separation is
generally between group conflicts and international conflicts. Group conflicts include both
communal group conflicts and workplace conflicts. Communal group conflicts can involve
just about any group that provides people with social identity. Social identity is itself a
group-level concept, since it is defined as the identity we gain from being part of a
collectivity, a group. Since most of the hours of our days are organized around group
membership, the study of groups and their interactions is central to the work of sociologists.
When groups are in conflict, the very presence of the group intensifies and changes the way
conflict between individuals is perceived. Membership in the group affords the individual two
perceptions that impact on the conflict: (1) that the individual is right and justified to
engage in and attempt to win the conflict and (2) that the individual will be evaluated and
either further embraced or rejected based on his or her performance in a conflict situation.
Within groups, conflict often results in patterns of splintering or perhaps a coup d'état and
expulsion. Between groups, conflict can encourage deindividuation, ethnocentrism, and
diabolical imaging of the enemy. Groups often provide individuals with a way to rationalize
their involvement in a conflict and perhaps to take actions they might otherwise avoid.
Conflict resolution is likewise changed in a group situation.

Defining exactly what a conflict is has also been an important part of the analysis of conflict
and its resolution. There are generally two accepted ways of defining "conflict": (1) realistic
and (2) perceived. The former involves tangible, verifiable competing interests. The latter
refers to situations where it is believed by one or both parties that the other stands in the
way of achieving what is desired. Conflicts occur over resources, power distribution, and
values. They are classified as latent (yet to be noticed) or manifest. A final method of
defining "conflict" is as destructive or constructive. Although viewed by most people as risky
and something to be avoided, conflict is often seen differently by conflict analysts. Most who
study conflict and its resolution argue that conflict holds the potential to be constructive, to
create positive social change. These theorists and practitioners argue that how one copes
with conflict is the important distinction. If the proper structures exist (such as skilled
trainers or participants), conflict can actually have creative and constructive outcomes.