DEFENITIONS

Guide shoe: 1. a short, heavy, cylindrical section of steel filled with concrete and rounded at the
bottom, which is placed at the end of the casing string. It prevents the casing from snagging on
irregularities in the borehole as it is lowered. A passage through the centre of the shoe allows drilling
fluid to pass up into the casing while it is being lowered and allows cement to pass out during
cementing operations. Also called casing shoe.

Slack off: to lower a load or ease up on a line. A driller will slack off on the brake to put additional
weight on the bit.

Skid: low platform mounted on the bottom of equipment for ease of moving, hauling, or storing.

Slip elevator n: a casing elevator containing segmented slips with gripping teeth inside.
Slip elevators are recommended for long strings of casing, because the teeth grip the casing and help
prevent casing damage from the weight of long, heavy strings hanging from the elevators. Slip
elevators may also be used as slips.

Slip velocity n: 1. the rate at which drilled solids tend to settle in the borehole as a well
is being drilled. 2. difference between the annular velocity of the fluid and the rate at which a cutting is
removed from the hole.

slips n pi: wedge-shaped pieces of metal with serrated inserts (dies) or other gripping elements, such
as serrated buttons, that suspend the drill pipe or drill collars in the
master bushing of the rotary table when it is necessary to disconnect die drill stem from the Kelly or
from the top drive unit's drive shaft. Rotary slips fit around the drill pipe
and wedge against the master bushing to support the pipe. Drill collar slips fit around a
drill collar and wedge against the master bushing to support the drill collar. Power slips are
pneumatically or hydraulically actuated devices that allow the crew to dispense with the manual
handling of slips when making a connection.

Squeeze cementing n: the forcing of cement slurry by pressure to specified points in a well to cause
seals at the points of squeeze. It is a secondary cementing method that is used to isolate a producing
formation, seal off water, repair casing leaks, and so forth. Compare plug-back cementing.
Squeeze job n: a remedial well-servicing activity whereby a cement slurry is pumped into open
perforations, split casing, or a fractured formation, to effect a blockage.
stabilizer n: 1. a tool placed on a drill collar near the bit that is used, depending on where it is placed,
either to maintain a particular hole angle or to change the angle by control- ling the location of the
contact point between the hole and the collars.

Swab: to pull formation fluids into a well bore by raising the drill stem at a rate that reduces the
hydrostatic pressure of the drilling mud below the bit.
Surge n: 1. an accumulation of liquid above a normal or average level, or a sudden increase in its flow
rate above a normal flow rate.

Swivel n: a rotary tool that is hung from the hook and the traveling block to suspend and permit free
rotation of the drill stem. It also provides a connection for the rotary hose and a passage- way for the
flow of drilling fluid into the drill stem.

Pendulum assembly n: a bottom hole assembly composed of a bit and several large diameter drill
collars and stabilizers placed to allow the bottom drill collar to bend toward the vertical. The assembly
works on the principle of the pendulum effect and is used to decrease drift angle. See pendulum effect.
Packed-hole assembly n: a bottom hole assembly consisting of stabilizers and large diameter drill
collars arranged in a particular configuration to maintain drift angle and direction of a hole. This
assembly is often necessary in crooked hole country.
Critical velocity n: the velocity at the transitional point between laminar and turbulent fluid flow. See
laminar flow, turbulent fluid flow. critical volume n: the specific volume of gas at its critical temperature
and pressure.

Crooked bole n: a well bore that has been unintentionally drilled in a direction other than vertical. It
usually occurs where there is a section of alliterating hard and soft strata steeply inclined from the
horizontal.

Bridge plug n: a downhole tool composed primarily of slips, a plug mandrel, and a rubber sealing
element that is run and set in casing to isolate a lower zone while an upper section is being tested or
cemented.

Bent sub n: a short cylindrical device installed in the drill stem between the bottom most drill collar and
a downhole motor. Its purpose is to deflect the downhole motor off vertical to drill a directional hole.
See drill stem.

Back off v: the procedure whereby one threaded piece (such as a pipe) is unscrewed from another.

Annular velocity n: the rate at which mud is traveling in the annular space of a drilling well.

Annular pressure n: fluid pressure in an annular space, as around tubing within casing.

Air hoist n: a hoist operated by compressed air; a pneumatic hoist. Air hoists are often mounted on the
rig floor and are used to lift joints of pipe and other heavy objects.

Accumulator n: 1. a vessel or tank that receives and temporarily stores a liquid used in a continuous
process in a gas plant. See drip accumulator. 2. on a drilling rig, the storage device for nitrogen-
pressurized hydraulic fluid, which is used in operating the blow out presenters. See blowout preventer
control unit.

Abnormal pressure n: pressure exceeding or falling below the pressure to be expected at a given depth.

Normal pressure increases approximately 0.465 pow1ds per square inch per foot of depth or 10.5
kilopascals per meter of depth. Thus, normal pressure at 1,000 feet is 465 pounds per square inch; at
1,000 meters it is 10,500 kilopascals. See pressure gradient.

Centrifuge n: a machine that uses centrifugal force to separate substances of varying densities. A
centrifuge is capable of spinning substances at high speeds to obtain high centrifugal forces. Also
called the shake-out or grind-out machine.
Centrifugal force n: the force that tends to pull all matter from the centre of a rotating mass.

Cementing head n: an accessory attached to the top of the casing to facilitate cementing of the casing.
It has passages for cement slurry and retainer chambers for cementing wiper plugs. Also called retainer
head.

Casing centralizer n: a device secured around the casing at regular intervals to allows a more uniform
cement sheath to form around the pipe

Casing head n: a heavy, flanged steel fitting connected to the first string of casing. It provides housing
for slips and packing assemblies, allows suspension of intermediate and production strings of casing,
and supplies the means for the annulus to be sealed off.

Casing tongs n pi: large wrench used fortuning when making up or breaking out casing.
Casing pressure n: the pressure in a well that exists between the casing and the tubing or the casing
and the drill pipe.
Flare line n: a line (pipe) that comes out of a mud-gas separator and carries the separated gas a safe
distance away from the rig. Usually, the gas is disposed of by burning, or flaring.

Float collar n: a special coupling device inserted one or two joints above
the bottom of the casing string that contains a check valve to permit fluid to pass downward but not
upward through the casing. The float collar prevents drilling mud from entering the casing while it is
being lowered, allowing die casing to float during its descent and thus decreasing die load on die
derrick or mast.
A float collar also prevents backflow of cement during a cementing operation.
Float shoe n: a short, heavy, cylindrical steel section with a rounded bottom that is attached to the
bottom of the casing string. It contains a check valve and functions similarly to the float collar but also
serves as a guide shoe for the casing.

Formation pressure n: the force exerted by fluids in a formation, recorded in the hole at the level of the
formation with the well shut in. Also called reservoir pressure or shut-in bottomhole pressure.

elevators n pl: on conventional rotary rigs and top-drive rigs, hinged steel devices with manual
operating handles that crew members latch on to a tool joint (or a sub).
Since the elevators are directly connected to the traveling block, or to the integrated
traveling block in the top drive, when the driller raises or lowers the block or the topdrive unit, the drill
pipe is also raised or lowered.

Spot a pill v: to place a special mixture of clay and oil, or other materials, at a specific point in the well
bore. The size of the pill is usually several barrels. For example, a rig crew may spot a 20-barrel (3,180-
litre) pill of bentonite clay and diesel oil at or near a formation into which drilling mud is escaping. By
lowering the driI1 stem to the desired depth, the pill is slowly pumped down the stem and into the
annulus. If all goes well, the pill will migrate into the formation taking the driI1ing mud and plug it
closed.

Spinning chain n: a Y -shaped chain used to spin up (tighten) one joint of drill pipe into another. In use,
one end of the chain is attached to the tongs, another end to the makeup cathead, and the third end is
free. The free end is wrapped around the tool joint, and the cathead pulls the chain off the joint, causing
the joint to spin (turn) rapidly and tighten up. After the chain is pulled off the joint, the tongs are
secured in the same spot, and continued pull on the chain (and thus on the tongs) by the cathead
makes up the joint to final tightness.

Spinning wrench n: air-powered or hydraulically powered wrench used to spin drill pipe in making or
breaking connections.

Spider n: a circular steel device that holds slips supporting a suspended string of drill pipe, casing, or
tubing. A spider may be split or solid.

Azimuth n: 1. in directional drilling, the direction of the well bore or of the face of a deflection tool in
degrees (0"-359") clockwise from true north. 2. an arc of the horizon measured between a fixed point
(such as true north) and the vertical circle passing through the centre of an object.

Dogleg n: 1. an abrupt change in direction in the wellbore, frequently resulting in the formation of a key
seat. 2. a sharp bend permanently put in an object such as a pipe, wire rope. Or a wire rope sling.

Drift angle n: the angle at which a wellbore deviates from the vertical, expressed in degrees, as revealed
by a directional survey. Also called angle of deviation, angle of drift, and inclination. See directional
survey.

Crossover sub n: a sub that allows different sizes and types of drill pipe to be joined.
Landing nipple n: a device machined internally to receive the movable locking devices used to position.
Lock, and seal subsurface production controls in tubing. A landing nipple provides a seat at a known
depth into which various types of retrievable flow control equipment can be set. Also called a seating
nipple.
Pressure surge n: a sudden and usually of short-duration increase in pressure. When pipe or casing is
run into a hole too rapidly, an increase in the hydrostatic pressure results, which may be great enough
to create lost circulation.

Pup joint n: a length of drill or line pipe, tubing, or casing shorter than range 1 (18 feet or 6.26 meters
for drill pipe) in length.

Whipstock n: a long steel casing that uses from the original borehole at a slight angle. Whipstocks are
sometimes used in controlled directional drilling, in straightening crooked boreholes, and in
sidetracking to avoid unretrieved fish.

blind ram n: an integral part of a blowout preventer. which serves as the closing element on an open
hole. Its ends do not fit around the drill pipe but seal against each other and shut off the space below
DOG LEG

ADVANTAGES (OBM)0 DISADVANTAGES

 Shale stability and inhibition.  High initial cost per barrel.

 Temperature stability.  Mechanical shear required.
 Lubricity  Reduced kick detection ability.
 Resistance to chemical contamination  Pollution control required.
 Gauge hole in evaporite formations.  High cost of lost circulation.
 Solids tolerance.  Disposal problems.
 Reduced production damage.  Solids control equipments based on
 Reduced tendency for differential sticking. centrifugation does not work effectively.
 Drilling under-balanced.  Hole cleaning.
 Re-use.  Rig cleanliness.
 Reduced cement cost  Special skin care for personnel may be require
 High penetration rate.  Hazards vapor.
 Flexibility.  Effect on rubber.
 Reduced of stress fatigue.  Fire hazard.
 Reduced corrosion.  Special logging tools required.
 Gas stripping.

TYPES OF STUCK
TRIP SHEET
LAG TIME CALCULATION
TVD CALCULATION
SANDSTONE, SHALE, EVAPORITES,LIMESTONE(SEDIMENTRY ENVIRONMENT,HOW
DOES IT DEPOSITED)
FUNCTIOS OF DRILLING FLUIDS
 MUD PARAMETERS
HKL,SPP,TRQ,...... (CAPACITY@ITS LOCATION)
DRAW THE PVT CURVE DURING PUMPING CEMENT
TYPES OF FLOW
THE BEST MUD TYPE IN PAY ZONE

DRILLING PARAMETERS USED TO INDICATE AN ABNORMAL PRESSURE ZONE :

1- RATE OF PENETRATION :
The increase of ROP indicates abnormal pressure zone .
A rule of thumb is that a uniform decrease in ROP of shales normally occurs with depth.
This decrease in ROP results from the increase of compaction and density of the shales.
To understand the action during drilling , when a bits tooth penetrates hard formation it forms a
cone of crushed rock immediately beneath the tooth. The formation of cracks alone will not make a
hole, so the cuttings must be removed as they are formed. The most effective force for the removal of
cuttings is high velocity jetting by the bit. (PS : In plastic formations the material will be gauged
rather than crushed).
The ease with which cuttings are removed (and hence picking up ROP )depends upon the differential
pressure across bottom.
Differential pressure = is the difference between bottom hole circulating pressure (ECD) formation
pore pressure (or formation balance gradient FBG )
If circulating pressure is much larger than formation pressure (overbalance) cuttings will be held
down against bottom by the excess differential pressure .
As the overbalance is decreased , these effects are reduced , cuttings will be removed easily and ROP
will increase .
In drilling overpressured zone the formation pressure is sufficiently exceeding the circulating pressure
(underbalance) ,the mud filter cake ceases to form, and the cuttings are forced away from the
formation , and thus increase in ROP occurs .
PS : It can be seen that the ROP can be controlled by differential pressure alone.
In most drilling situations it is desirable to maintain the mud density slightly higher than FBG
(formation pressure PPG).
The resulting differential pressure can be calculated as follows
= (W * D * 0.0519 ) – ( FBG * D * 0.0519 )
= P
where W = mud density PPG
D = depth ft
FBG = formation pressure gradient PPG
P = differential pressure
NB 1:
Substituting ECD for W gives differential pressure while drilling .
NB 2 :
P should be positive during all drilling operations.
NB 3 :
If FBG > hydrostatic pressure , influx occurs .
Generally we can not count on ROP only as there are other parameters affects the ROP such as:
A – Lithology changes B – Bit weight C- Bit type
D –Bit condition E – Rotary speed F –Drilling fluid properties
G –Hydraulics (bottom hole cleaning)

2 - VARINACE IN SHAPE AND SIZE OF SHALE CUTTINGS :

Shale cuttings from an abnormally pressured zone are larger than those from a normally pressure
zone.
They are characterized by sharp and angular edges and needle like shape , while normal pressured
cuttings are generally small and flat with rounded edges .
The variables which determine the size and shape of shale cuttings are :
a- Mineralogical , chemical and physical properties .
b- Type of drilling fluid .
c- Hole geometry .
d- Down hole agitation .

3 - CHANGE IN ROTARY TORQUE :

During normal drilling operation , rotary torque gradually increase with depth due to the effect of
wall contact of the drillstring on the well bore also the action of formation on bit rotation Any abrupt
changes from this trend indicates :(a twist of in the drill string , a locked cone on the bit , a wash out in
the drill string , a change in formation pressure)
Increase of pre pressure causes larger amount shale cuttings to come into the well bore ,and the bit
teeth will take larger bites into the formation.
The increased amount of shale tends to stick or impede bit rotation.
Rotary torque can not be an indicator for abnormal zones in deviated holes.

4 – CHANGE IN DRAG AND OVERPULL :

When drilling in a balanced or near balanced situation, an increase in drag and over pull can occur
while making a connection in abnormally pressured zone.
This increase in over pull and drag is due to :
a- Plastic nature of some pressured shales, which may cause close of shale around the drillcollars and
bit.
b- Swelling action of shale
c- Extra pressured shale cuttings which enter the well pore when keeping abnormal pressure.

5 - SHALE DENSITY :
Shales which are normally pressured have undergone normal compaction and thus densities
increase uniformly with depth, this uniform increase allows shale density to be predicted.
Any significant reduction in shale density (due to improper compaction and occupying of more fluids
than usual) indicates an overpressured zone.

6 - INCREASE IN CHLORIDE IONS IN MUD ABOVE 10,000 mg/l :

7 - DECREASE OF FLOWLINE TEMPERATURE :

A normal trend for flow line temperature should be plotted or recorded .
Any significant decrease in flow line temperature (6F or above)indicates overpressured zone. But still
this parameter has to be compared with some other parameters be positive of presence of an
overpressured zone .
8- GAS CONTENT OF DRILLING FLUID :
Increase of gas content of drilling fluid was recommended an indicator for detecting abnormal
pressured zones.
Since the gas cutting is not always a result of an underbalance condition, so correct interpretation
of gas cutting trends is recommended .
Also a trend for background gas and connection gas is recommended . So as when having any
abnormal significant increase in gas it can be referred to presence of an abnormal pressured zone .
# Gas may be entrained in mud column as a result of the following conditions :
a - When a formation containing gas is drilled, and while circulating cuttings containing gas up
the hole , gas in these drilled particles expanded and released to the drilling fluid system causing
cut in the mud weight .
in such cases , increasing [Link] will not stop the gas cutting.
This condition can be verified by reducing drilling rate or by stopping drilling and circulating
bottoms up.
b- While drilling a pressured formation the differential pressure between the ECD and formation
pressure is reduced to be very close.
I.e. : ECD is very slightly higher than formation.
But when stopping circulation the static hydrostatic fluid column pressure is nearly equal or even
less than formation .
So on making a connection or trip the piston effect of upward pipe movement can swap formation
gases and fluids into the well bore causing cut in [Link] especially gas which will expand on
circulating up causing gas cut.
Ps :
If differential pressure increases but from negative side .
I.e. formation become > hydrostatic pressure
So the influx activity of the formation content bore hole increases and might exceed to cause a
kick.
# To detect the amount of gas entering the mud system as follows :
Gv =(d/24) * (#*R/60) *porosity *Sg * 7.48
Where Gv = rate of gas entering the mud system at reservoir pressure (gal/min)
R = rate of penetration (ft/hr)
d = hole diameter (inch)
Sg = gas saturation
EG : If d =8.5 porosity = 25%
R = 85 Sg = 70%
With a reservoir pressure at 15,000ft of 7,000 psi
Gv = (8.5/24) (3.14*85/60) * 0.25 * 0.7 * 7.48
= 0.731 GPM @7,000 ft
the gas volume each minute at atmospheric pressure(14.7 psi) using ideal gas low (neglecting
temperature effect) is :
Gva =Gv *(P/14.7)
=0.731 *(7,000/14.7) = 348 GPM @ atmospheric pressure
when the gas reaches the surface the volume of gas flowing with mud is about 350 GPM.
If the normal flow of mud is 280 GPM using a [Link] of 9.2 PPG , the gas mixed with mud at that
GPM will result in a mud density of :
W1 =[GPM (mud) / GPM (mud) + GPM (gas)] *W2
Where W1 =gas cut mud density PPG
W2= uncut mud density PPG
W1 =[280 / (280+350)] * 9.2 = 4.1 PPG.
NB : Increasing the mud density will not reduce gas cutting as the hydrostatic pressure of 9.2 PPG
mud @ 15,000 ft is7162 psi . i.e., 162 psi greater than reservoir pore pressure.
The pressure reduction caused by mud cutting :
P = 14.7 * [(W2-W1) / W1] * Ln [(3.53*W2*D) / 1,000]
P = pressure reduction caused by mud cutting psi
W1= gas cut mud density at the flow line PPG
W2=uncut mud density PPG
D =depth of gas zone ft
Using information from previous example :
P =14.7[(9.2-4.1) / 4.1] * Ln[(3.53*9.2*15,000) / 1,000 ]
= 113 psi
So the actual mud gradient @ 15,000 ft is :
W = [hydrostatic pressure – P ] / D * 0.0519
= [7162 – 113] / 15,000 *0.0519 = 9.0+ ppg

PS : The decrease in bottom pressure in deep wells is small as shown in previous example, But in
shallow wells it is a major problem .
EG : Hole diameter = 12.25”
Drilling rate = 500 ft/hr
Depth = 1,000 ft
Formation has 30 % porosity
Formation has 70 % gas saturation.
Formation pressure = 467 psi (9 PPG).
[Link] = 9.2 PPG
Pump rate = 450 GPM
Amount of gas entering the mud system =(12.25/ 24) *[ (3.14 * 500) / 60 ] * 0.3*0.7*7.48
= 10.7 GPM @ 467 psi.
Gas volume each minute at atmospheric pressure = 10.7*[467/14.7]= 340 GPM.
The resultant mud density = [450/(450+340)] * 9.2 = 5.2 PPG.

Thus the pressure reduction at 1,000 ft

P =14.7*[(9.2-5.2)/5.2] * Ln [(3.53*9.2*1,000)/1,000]
= 39 psi
although the pressure reduction appears to small, only 39 psi, but the resultant mud gradient @ 1,000
ft = [9.2*1,000*0.0519]-39 =438 psi
[438 / (1000*0.0519)] = 8.4 PPG
The mud gradient is reduced from 9.2 PPG to 8.4 PPG by a reduction of 39 psi @ 1,000 ft.
If formation pressure gradient is 9.0 PPG @ 1,000 ft, the well will kick if this situation is permitted to
occur.
NB :
Gas cut mud @ shallow depths may be extremely hazardous as a severe kick and loss of well control
can result !
These calculations do not take into account the effect of temperature and compressibility has a small
effect on gas expansion when compared to effect of pressure .
But due to difficulty of estimating formation temperature and obtaining realistic values for gas
compressibility . The calculation only takes pressure into account.
On surface the temperature effect is insignificant .
NB1:
Circulating gas out without controlling gas expansion causes reduction in annulus hydrostatic column
and thus cause disturbance in differential pressure (formation pressure comes to be >hydrostatic
pressure ) as pervasively mentioned causing more gas influx into the well bore leading to gas kick .
NB 2 :
Deferential pressure is one of the major factors that affect the amount of gas that enters the mud Other
factors effecting the gas influx are porosity and permeability of the formation and also gas saturation.
NB 3 :
Negative differential pressure can be shown by increasing background gas .
NB 4 :
Large cutting can be produced under conditions of very high underbalance from beneath the bit.
NB 5 :
Negative differential pressure during tripping may result in swabbing , kick and severely gas cut mud
upon recirculation.
NB 6 :
On stopping circulation ,differential pressure small or close to zero can cause connection gases to be
produced from gas bearing permeable formations.
NB 7 :
Connection gases produced from clays are indicative of reasonable high negative differential pressure.

9 - DRILLING EXPONENT :
The rate at which a formation can be drilled is controlled by a number of drilling parameters which
are :
a- Bit size .
b- WOB .
c- Tooth shape and distribution and tooth efficiency .
d- Drilling hydraulics .
e- Differential pressure .
f- Matrix strength .
g- Formation compaction .
h- RPM .
Since DXC is a function of those drilling parameters . So by mean of plotting a normal trend for DXC
of the area.
So any deviation from that trend is an indication for abnormal formation.
DXC = { Log(R/60N) / Log(12W/1000B) } .
Corrected DXC = DXC *[ N. FBG/ECD]
R = rate of penetration (ft/hr)
N = rotary speed (RPM)
B = hole diameter
N. FBG =normal formation balance gradient (PPG)
ECD = effective circulating density (PPG)
W = weight on bit (1,000 lbs.)
For metric system :
DXC ={Log(R/18.29N) / Log (W/14.88B)} * (N. FBG / ECD)
R in m/hr
B in cm
N in RPM
N. FBG and ECD in g/cc
W in tones (1,000 kg)

10- PALEO INFORMATION :

Abnormally high pore pressured zones are frequently related to certain environmental conditions
within a given geologic time period. This depositional environment is marked by presence of certain
fossils.

CAUSES OF A KICK :
1- Insufficient mud density .
2- Swab and surge pressures.
When the pipe is tripped from the hole it acts like a piston so swab occurs causing bottom hole
pressure reduction.
As the pipe moves upward, frictional forces between the pipe, mud and bore hole wall will cause a
pressure reduction .
The maximum effect of this pressure reduction on mud density will be immediately below the bit. The
maximum over pull pressure reduction will occur at the bottom of the hole .
NB :
An open drillstring will allow some fluid to flow through the jets allowing some degree of pressure
relief. But if the drillstring has a float or down hole BOP swabbing pressure will be at a maximum .
As a rule of thumb , this pressure reduction can be at least the same as the annular pressure loss. Swab
values will depend on pipe pulling speeds and hole condition.
A safe weight to trip can be determined from the annular pressure losses using :
W trip < W- [annular pressure losses psi] / [0.0519*D]
Pressure reduction due to swabbing can be serious when drilling geopressured intervals, as the
dropping of the BHCP/ECD may cause the will to flow.
Large changes in mud density or effective mud density should avoided as these changes cause
unexpected in magnitude which may lead to severe hole problems.

The following items act to increase swabbing effect :

a- Thick filter cake.
b- Bit balling.
c- If nozzles are blocked and back pressure value in the drillstring .
d- The speed at which pipe is pulled has a great effect on swabbing.
e- High gel and viscosity (as both have a large effect on swabbing)
NB :
If swab does occurs pipe should be run back to bottom and circulation out invaded fluids or gases.
Surge pressure when running into the hole (pipe or casing )may be sufficient to overcome the fracture
pressure of weak formations , So the pipe run into the hole should be at a speed that produces a surge
pressure, below the minimum fracture pressure.
This is important to be taken into our consideration any where in the bore hole as pressures are
transmitted to the bore hole even when the bit is inside the casing.
3- LOW DIFFERANTIAL PRESSURE :
The majority of kicks occur when the bit is off bottom while tripping. When the pumps are shut
down prior to tripping. There a pressure reduction in the bore hole equals to the annuals pressure
loss(annular friction pressure loss) .
If the pore pressure is nearly equals the mud hydrostatic pressure or even higher , flow may occurs
when circulating stops and may lead to a kick .
4- DROP IN LENGTH OF DRILLING FLUID COLUMN IN BORE HOLE :
In case of loss circulation with presence of failure to keep the hole full, the fluid level in the hole
will drop and thus result in loss in hydrostatic pressure due to decrease in length of drilling fluid
column. If not controlled this hydrostatic pressure loss , this may lead to disturbance balancing
formation pressure, and thus allowing influx of formation fluids into bore hole.
5- RISER EFFECT :
The mud density used must be capable of balance the formation pressure. when the marine riser is
removed.
It is important to determine pressure reduction resulting from removal of riser on running casing job :
EG :
Water depth = 250 ft
Air gap = 45 ft to RKB
RKB to flow line = 5 ft
Set 30” casing @ 600 ft
Total depth = 1500 ft
[Link] = 9.2 PPG
NB : Gas shows were recorded at 800 ft and 1100 ft.
Calculate the hydrostatic pressure !
- at 600 ft =9.5*(600-5)*0.0519 =293 psi
- at 800 ft = 9.5*(800-5)*0.0519=392 psi
- at1100ft =9.5*(1100-5)*0.0519=540 psi
- at 1500ft=9.5*(1500-5)*0.0519=737 psi
In order to pull the riser it is necessary to displace it with sea water of density 8.5 PPG.
So the resulting pressure would be:
- at sea bed = (250+45-5)*8.5*0.0519 = 128 psi
- at 600 ft =[9.5*(600-290)*0.0519]+128 = 281 psi
- at 800 ft =[9.5*(800-290*0.0519]+128 =379 psi
- at 1100ft =[9.5*(1100-290)*0.0519]+128=527psi
- at 1500ft =[9.5*(1500-290)*0.0519]+128=726psi
From results a reduction in EQMD =
- at 600 ft = 9.1 PPG
- at 800 ft = 9.15PPG
- at1100ft = 9.25PPG
- at 1500ft =9.3 PPG
 If gas zones at 800 ft and 1100 ft are permeable and with that big difference between 9.5 PPG on
having riser and 9.1 and 9.15 PPG on removing riser, we might have a gas flow to bore hole.
On removing riser, the fluid level in riser falls to sea level causing further reduction pressure.
So the hydrostatic pressure will be :
- at sea bed = 8.5*250*0.0510 =110 psi
- at600 ft =[9.5*(600-290)*0.0519]+110 = 263 psi
- at 800 ft =[9.5*(800-290)*0.0519]+110 = 361 psi
- at 1100ft =[9.5*(1100-290)*0.0519]+110=509psi
- at 1500ft =[9.5*(1500-290)*0.0519]+110=708psi
So from results an other reduction in EQMD =
- at 600 ft =8.5 PPG
- at 800 ft =8.75PPG
- at1100 ft=9 PPG
- at 1500 ft=9.1PPG
To keep a 9.5 PPG gradient at 1100 ft will be necessary to increase the mud density into hole before
disconnecting riser, the new mud weight can be calculated as follows :
New [Link] =[(D*W) –8.5*(Dw –BOPl)] /[D-Dw-A+BOPl ]
D =vertical depth of hole(ft) from flow line
W =mud density in hole (PPG)
Dw=water depth (ft)
BOPl =height of BOP stack from sea bed to riser conductor (ft) = eg 35 ft
A =distance from flow line to sea level (ft)
8.5 = density of sea water (PPG)
So the new [Link] ={[(1100-5)*9.5]-8.5*(250-35)} /(1100-5)-250-40+35 = 10.2 PPG.
So the new Mwt must be = 10.2 PPG to keep a 9.5 PPG gradient @ 1100 ft.

KICK RECOGNITION :

1- Increase in flow rate.

2- Increase in pit volume.
3- Well flowing with pumps off.
4- Increase in chloride content of drilling fluid at flow line (above 100k mg/l).
5- Gas cutting.
6- Circulating pressure drop because of the unbalance between the hydrostatic column in the drill
pipe and annuals after penetrating an abnormal zone, it may take less pump pressure to circulate
the fluid. Flow rate and pit volume increase would normally be observed before a circulating
pressure decrease.
7- Hole not taking proper quantity of fluid while tripping pipe out due to formation fluid invasion into
bore hole.(swab).
8- Drag while tripping in .

WELL CONTROL AND KILL PROCEDURES

1- Record predetermined kill rate (SPM), and kill rate pressure[Other names :Slow Circulating
Pressure](SCP) or Reduced Circulating Pressure (RCP) ] .
A predetermined slow rate for circulation out a kick is recorded each tour. This is done to stand on
any change in slow rate pressure due to chock line friction or kill line friction. also to compensate for
changes in depth or any fluid weight changes.
This slow rate is recommended to be ½ of the normal rate or even less to prevent any excessive well
bore pressure, when circulating out a kick through chock lines or kill lines.
2- Position Kelly and tool joint , so that tool joint are clear of sealing elements .
3- Stop pumps and check for flow.
4- If flow is noted, close will in without delay.
5- Record shut-in drill pipe pressure (SIDP) and shut-in casing pressure (SICP) .
The drill pipe pressure gauge or pump pressure gauge is in reality a bottom hole pressure.
After a well kick , and when the pump is off and the well is shut-in the drill pipe is then a large gauge
stem that reaches to the bottom of the hole . So the drill pipe pressure gauge reads in a some how the
bottom hole pressure as seen from the gauge stem.
PS :
If the drill pipe was empty the surface gauge would read bottom hole pressure. But the drill pipe is
filled with the drilling fluid, which is normally not contaminated so the gauge reading shows the
difference between bottom hole pressure and the hydrostatic pressure of mud column in the drill pipe.
The SIDP (or kick pressure)is the difference between the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the mud
column in the drill pipe and the bottom hole pressure exerted by formation (formation pressure).
Formation pressure = stand pipe gauge reading after stopping the pump (SIDP) +the hydrostatic
pressure of the drilling fluid column inside the drill pipe .
NB :
Casing pressure will normally always be higher than drill pipe pressure , because kick gas or water
well normally be lighter than the mud and by turn cuts [Link] in annulus . This makes the mud column
pressure in the annulus less than the full non contaminated column of the mud in the drill pipe. So the
formation pressure acting against the hydrostatic pressure of mud column in annulus will be much
easier than acting against the hydrostatic mud column inside the drill pipe and thus the annulus surface
pressure will be higher than the drill pipe pressure.
Shut-in drill pipe pressure can be determined by :
a- Read directly from gauge if there is no back pressure value in the string .
b- If a back pressure value in the string then :
- Start pump slowly , continue until fluid moves or pump pressure increase suddenly .
- Watch casing pressure , stop pump when the annular pressure starts to increase.
- Read drill pipe pressure at this point.
- If casing pressure increase above its original pressure when closing the well this would indicate
trapped pump pressure must be subtracted from drill pipe pressure reading at the point when
stopping circulation. This is the SIDP .
These procedures should be repeated until having the same value two consecutive times .

OR :
If predetermined slow rate and slow rate pressure have been recorded.
- Open chock and start pump slowly .
- Hold casing pressure at the same level as the SICP .
- Bring pump speed up to predetermined slow rate , keeping casing pressure constant.
- Read new circulating pressure at predetermined slow rate from stand pipe gauge (at this kick
situation) .
- Then subtract predetermined circulation pressure at predetermined slow rate from the new
circulating pressure in this kick situation at the same predetermined slow rate.
The difference will be the amount of underbalance or SIDP .
6- Check BOPs and manifold for any leaks .
7- Check accumulator pressure.
8- Check flow line and check exhaust lines for flow .
9- Record volume gain and mark pits.
10- Fill up kill sheet .
11- Calculate well kill calculations .
a- Initial circulating pressure = slow circulation pressure + SIDP .
As previously mentioned a predetermined slow circulation rate (usually ½ the normal drilling
rate)and corresponding pressure loss versus depth and variation in [Link] should recorded each tour .
This recorded pressure plus the SIDP will equal the initial circulating pressure (ICP) .
If no predetermined slow rate has been recorded the SICP can be used as a reference point .
Open the chock slightly and bring the pump up to a slow rate while maintaining the original SICP
at all times .
When a satisfactory slow rate has been reached and the casing gauge still reads original pressure ,
the initial circulating pressure can be read from the drill pipe gauge .
b- Calculate required [Link] increase =SIDP / (0.0519*depth)
EG :
[Link] =12 PPG
SIDP =260 psi
TVD =10,000 ft
[Link] increase =260 /(0.0519*10,000) = 0.5 PPG
c- Calculate required [Link] (kill [Link]) to equalize formation pressure
= required [Link] increase + original [Link]
So the new [Link] to equalize formation pressure =12 + 0.5 = 12.5 PPG.
d- Final circulation pressure (FCP) :
With the new [Link] at slow circulating rate = ICP-SIDP*(Mwt2 / Mwt1)
=SCP*(new [Link] / old [Link])
e- Maximum allowable casing pressure :
So as at any time not to reach that value .
I.E : Always keeping casing pressure under maximum allowable casing pressure with a satisfactory
value . Otherwise causing changing to the casing if its pressure increases .
= (Fracture [Link] – Present [Link]) * Casing depth * 0.0519 .

OIL BASE MUD

Introduction :
The most important feature of any drilling fluid is that there no interaction between the fluid and the
drilled formation which if present will affect the mechanical properties of the formation .
If a water based system is used the water will inter the formation causing change in its mechanical
properties and thus cause instability of this formation(this can be minimized by using a system like
Kcl-polymer mud).
However the only way to prevent the water wetting of the pores of the rock is to contact the formation
with a fluid thus will not wet the rocks and thus will not enter the pores and cause a change in the
mechanical properties of the rocks. These fluids having oil to be the continuos phase of the drilling
fluid .

Sedimentary depositional environment

In geology, sedimentary depositional environment describes the combination of physical, chemical
and biological processes associated with the deposition of a particular type of sediment and, therefore,
the rock types that will be formed after lithification, if the sediment is preserved in the rock record. In
most cases the environments associated with particular rock types or associations of rock types can be
matched to existing analogues. However, the further back in geological time sediments were
deposited, the more likely that direct modern analogues are not available (e.g. banded iron
formations).

Contents
[hide]
 1 Types of depositional environment
 2 Recognition of depositional environments in ancient sediments
 3 References

 4 External links

[edit] Types of depositional environment

Continental

 Alluvial
 Aeolian
 Fluvial
 Lacustrine

Transitional

 Deltaic
 Tidal
  Lagoonal
 Beach

Marine

 Shallow water marine

 Deepwater marine
 Reef

Others

 Evaporite
 Glacial

[edit] Recognition of depositional environments in ancient sediments

Depositional environments in ancient sediments are recognised using a combination of sedimentary

facies, facies associations, sedimentary structures and fossils, particularly trace fossil assemblages, as
they indicate the environment in which they lived.

[edit] References

CONTINENTAL SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS

ALLUVIAL FAN FLUVIAL LACUSTRINE DESERT (DUNES)

Rock Type Breccia, Conglomerate, Siltstone, shale, limestone, or Quartz arenite

conglomerate, sandstone, evaporites (gypsum) (sandstone) or
arkose siltstone, shale gypsum

Composition Terrigenous Terrigenous Terrigenous, carbonate, or Terrigenous or

evaporite evaporite

Color Brown or red Brown or red Black, brown, gray, green Yellow, red, tan,
white

Grain Size Clay to gravel Clay to gravel Clay to silt or sand Sand
(Fining upward) (Coarsening upward)

Grain Shape Angular Rounded to angular --- Rounded

Sorting Poor Variable Variable Good

Inorganic Cross-bedding and Asymmetrical Symmetrical ripples, Cross-bedding
Sedimentary graded bedding ripples, cross- lamination, cross-bedding,
Structures bedding, graded graded bedding, mudcracks,
bedding, tool marks raindrop prints

Organic or --- Tracks, Tracks, trails, burrows, rare Tracks, trails

Biogenic trails,burrows stromatolites
Sedimentary
Structures

Fossils --- Rare freshwater Freshwater shells, fish, bones, ---

shells, bones, plant plant fragments
fragments

Table 2

TRANSITIONAL SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS

DELTA BARRIER BEACH LAGOON TIDA

Rock Type Sandstone, siltstone, Quartz arenite, coquina Siltstone, shale, limestone, Siltstone, s
shale, coal oolitic limestone or gypsum calcilutite,
gypsum

Composition Terrigenous Terrigenous or carbonate Terrigenous, carbonate, or Terrigenou

evaporite or evaporit

Color Brown, black, gray, White to tan Dark gray to black Gray, brow
green, red

Grain Size Clay to sand Sand Clay to silt Clay to silt

(Coarsening upward

Grain Shape --- Rounded to angular --- ---

Sorting Poor Good Poor Variable

Inorganic Cross-bedding, graded Cross-bedding, Lamination, ripples, cross- Lamination

Sedimentary bedding symmetrical ripples bedding ripples, cro
Structures

Organic or Trails, burrows Tracks, trails, burrows Trails, burrows Stromatoli

Biogenic tracks, bur
Sedimentary
Structures

Fossils Plant fragments, shells Marine shells Marine shells Marine she

Table 3

MARINE SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS

REEF CONTINENTAL SHELF CONTINENTAL SLOPE AND RISE ABYS

Rock Type Fossiliferous Sandstone, shale, Litharenite, siltstone, and shale (or Shale, c
limestone siltstone, fossiliferous limestone) chalk, d
limestone, oolitic
limestone

Composition Carbonate Terrigenous or Terrigenous or carbonate Terrigen

carbonate carbona

Color Gray to white Gray to brown Gray, green, brown Black, w

Grain Size Variable, Clay to sand Clay to sand Clay

frameworks, few to
no grains

Grain Shape --- --- --- ---

Sorting --- Poor to good Poor Good

Inorganic --- Lamination, cross- Graded bedding, cross-bedding, Laminat

Sedimentary bedding lamination, flute marks, tool marks
Structures (turbidites)

Organic or --- Trails, burrows Trails, burrows Trails, b

Biogenic
Sedimentary
Structures

Fossils Corals, marine Marine shells Marine shells, rare plant fragments Marine
shells microsc