High Altitude Operations

Introduction
FAR 61.31

• To act as P.I.C. of an airplane with a service ceiling or maximum

operating altitude greater than 25,000 ft, the following ground
training is required:
• High altitude Aerodynamics and meteorology
• Respiration
• Effects, symptoms and causes of hypoxia and other high
altitude sicknesses
• Duration of consciousness without supplemental oxygen
• Causes and effects of gas expansion and gas bubble
formation
• Preventative measures for eliminating gas expansion, gas
bubble formation and high-altitude sickness
• Physical phenomena of decompression
Capítulo G. Licencia de piloto de transporte
de línea aérea - PTL

61.340 Aplicación, 61.120 Calificaciones de

copiloto
Overview

High Altitude • To accomplish the training, we will look at

Weather these topics

High Altitude
Physiology

High Altitude
Aerodynamics
Objectives
• By the end of this course, you will be able to:
• Define atmospheric divisions and discuss their significance with
respect to jetstreams, C.A.T. and thunderstorms.
• Identify C.A.T. and thunderstorm avoidance strategies.
• Identify causes of jet upset and how to manage them.
• Discuss the importance of oxygen and nitrogen partial pressure.
• Identify the cause, effects and remedies of hypoxia,
hyperventilation and decompression sicknesses.
• State the various oxygen requirements needed to safely and legally
operate above 10,000 feet.
• Discuss the aerodynamic characteristics of transonic flight,
including undesirable aspects.
High Altitude Meteorology

● In this section we will look at

atmospheric divisions and their
characteristics, in particular those
divisions concerned with high
altitudes. We will examine Jet
streams and look at weather
phenomena associated with high
altitudes, specifically clear air • Atmosphere
turbulence and thunderstorms.
• Jet Stream
• Clear Air
Turbulence
• Thunderstorms
The Atmosphere
● The two atmospheric divisions that we will concern ourselves with are
the troposphere and the stratosphere. As well, we will look closely at
the division line between these two spheres called the tropopause.

Troposphere

Tropopause

Stratosphere
The Troposphere
● The troposphere is the lowest layer where most of the weather occurs. Its height
varies considerably from poles to equator. The troposphere can be as high as
65,000ft at the equator and 20,000ft or lower at the poles.

● Atmospheric temperatures decrease rather steadily in the troposphere. Generally

there is a 3 to 4º F (2ºC) loss per 1000 feet. An important note to keep in mind is
that the height of the troposphere changes seasonally where it is higher in the
summer than in the winter.

Troposphere
• 0-20,000’ at Poles
• 0-65,000’ at Equator
• 3 to 4°F (2°C) loss
per 1,000’
Stratosphere
● The stratosphere is the next layer of atmosphere, which is located
directly over the troposphere. This layer is typified by relatively small
changes in temperature with height except for a warming trend near the
top.

● The stratosphere temperature remains fairly constant at -67ºF (-55ºC).

Troposphere

Stratosphere
• Fairly constant
temperature of -67 °F
(-55 °C)
Tropopause
● The tropopause is the transitional line or boundary between the
Troposphere and the Stratosphere and is found at average
altitudes of 65,000ft over the equator and 20,000 feet over the
poles. The average height of the tropopause over the United
States is about 36,000 feet.

Troposphere

Tropopause
• 20,000’ at Poles
• 36,000’ over USA
• 65,000’ at Equator
• Varies daily and seasonally
Stratosphere
Tropopause
● The height of the tropopause varies daily, as well as seasonally, and can
change from 20,000 to over 45,000 ft. In general the height of the
tropopause is affected by the temperature of air. Heights will be greater over
warm air than over cold air.
● The tropopause is of particular interest to pilots because temperature and
wind vary greatly in this vicinity. In fact, the tropopause is where maximum
windspeeds are found. These high winds create the strongest wind shears,
creating zones of clear air turbulence.
● These variations affect the efficiency, comfort, and safety of flight.
20,000’ - Winter

45,000’ - Summer
• Tropopause height varies
daily and seasonally

• Temperature and winds

vary greatly

• Location of maximum
wind speeds
Scenario
● Looking at a profile of a flight from Vancouver, Canada to Cali, Columbia we
can easily see the impact of the atmospheric make-up and position of the
tropopause in relation to the flight path depending on the season.
● In this example, Given that most all weather occurs within the troposphere,
a summer flight could result in more off-track course changes to avoid
weather. Flight would often be in ISA+ conditions resulting in higher fuel
burns and lower altitude capabilities. Conversely, a flight in winter in the
stratosphere would put the flight above most of the weather, in ISA
conditions or lower and higher altitude capabilities resulting in lower fuel
burns.
20,000’ - Winter

45,000’ - Summer
• Tropopause height varies
daily and seasonally

• Temperature and winds

vary greatly

• Location of maximum
wind speeds
Jet Streams
● Sometimes the tropopause extends unbroken from the equator to the poles,
but a break in it at mid- latitudes is more the usual situation. Both the polar
and tropical portions of the tropopause lie in gradual slopes and sometimes
overlap a considerable distance.
● Intensified temperature gradients (lapse rates) usually increase where the
tropopause breaks or overlaps. This is where we see the maximum wind
speeds and the formation of the jet stream.

● Turbulence/chop indicates proximity to the jet core.

60,OOO
Tropical Tropopause

• Occurs in areas of intensified

Jet
temperature gradients (Lapse rate)
40,OOO Stream • Lapse rate usually increases where
tropopause breaks/overlaps (mid
latitudes)
Polar Tropopause
• Maximum winds
20,OOO
• Turbulence/chop indicates proximity
Jet Streams
● Jet streams are relatively narrow, rapidly flowing, ribbon-like streams of air
embedded within the main airflow. A jet stream may be 1,000 to 3,000 miles
long, 100-400 miles wide and a 3,000-7,000 thousand feet thick.
● The jet stream forms just below the tropopause and moves south in the
winter and low pressure areas usually follow along the jet stream.

1000 - 3000 miles long

3000 to 7000 feet thick

100 - 400 miles wide

Jet Streams
Jet Core
● Jet stream winds are, by definition, at least 50 knots in strength and can be
in excess of 200 knots. Wind speeds drop off abruptly outside the jet core.
● Jet streams are at their strongest around mid latitudes. Time of year also
plays an important role in wind speeds and latitudinal location.
● Looking downwind, the air in the jet-core slowly rotates in counter-
clockwise fashion. If the air is moist, the jet stream cirrus takes very
characteristic forms of hooked shaped cirrus lying under the warm air
tropopause.

50 kts
100 kts

Jet Core
150 kts
Jet Streams
Locations
● Generally, jet streams are much stronger at more southerly latitudes in the
winter than they are in the summer. A second jet stream is not uncommon,
and three at one time are not unknown. The arctic stratospheric jet is
caused by the development of a strong westerly thermal wind component
during the winter months. This jet stream normally occurs at 70-75 degrees
north from 60,000-80,000 feet.
Jet Streams
Locations
● The Sub-tropical jet stream is not associated with fronts. A very strong solar
heating in equatorial regions produces a belt of ascending air. This air turns
polward at very high levels. The coriolis force then turns it to the right into a
strong westerly jet. The sub-tropical jet predominates in the winter and lies
near 25 degrees north at around 45,000 feet. If the polar front moves
exceptionally far south the polar front jet stream may merge with the sub-
tropical jet stream.
Slowdown or Stall at High Altitudes
Weather Effects
● Know performance limits of the airplane
● The jet-stream – upper air currents -
significant
– Velocities – can be very high
– Windshear can cause severe turbulence
– Windshear – Substantial airspeed decay
Pilot Tip
With upper air currents of decreasing velocity wind shear – the backside
of the power curve may be encountered.
Pilot Tip: The pilot will have to either increase thrust or decrease angle of attack to
allow the airspeed to build back to normal climb/cruise speeds. This may
require trading altitude for airspeed to accelerate out. Failure to accelerate
out of the backside of the power curve may result in the aircraft stalling.
High Altitude Threats
Operating Near Maximum Altitude

● Airplane Icing
● Clear air turbulence
● Convective turbulence
● Wake turbulence
● Mountain wave
● High Level windshear
● Thunderstorms

Pilot Tip
High altitude weather can cause favorable conditions for upsets. Thorough
route analysis is key to avoiding conditions that could lead to an upset.
Clear Air Turbulence
● As discussed, maximum wind speeds are found at the boundary layer
between the troposphere and stratosphere known as the tropopause. Jet
streams stronger than 110 knots (at the core) are apt to have areas of
significant turbulence near them in the sloping tropopause above the core,
in the jet stream front below the core, and on the low-pressure side of the
core.

Areas of Possible
Severe Turbulence Tropical
Tropopause

Jet Core
110 kts +

Polar
Tropopause

Area of Maximum
Severe Turbulence
Clear Air Turbulence
● Because of the frequent presence of strong wind shears in the vicinity of the
tropopause, this boundary zone often is a region of turbulence. Since this
zone is often devoid of clouds, this turbulence is known as clear air
turbulence. Although CAT can be present at any altitude, CAT experienced
at high altitude can cause aircraft control problems.

Areas of Possible
Severe Turbulence Tropical
Tropopause

Jet Core
110 kts +

Polar
Tropopause

Area of Maximum
Severe Turbulence
Significant Weather Chart
● CAT on a significant weather chart, turbulence is highlighted by the area
surrounded by dashed lines.

● In example 1, over the north eastern United States, moderate turbulence is

present between FL300 and F400 feet.

● In example 2, north east of the British Isles, moderate turbulence is present

between FL320 and FL370.

Example 2
Example 1
200 mb chart
● On charts for standard isobaric surfaces, such as 300 millibars, if 20-knot
isotachs are spaced closer than 150 nautical miles (2.5 degrees latitude),
there is sufficient horizontal shear for CAT. This area is normally on the
poleward (low-pressure) side of the jet stream axis, but in unusual cases
may occur on the equatorial side.

Area of possible CAT

due to close proximity
of isotachs
200 mb chart
● Please note the area highlighted on this 200mb chart is the same area as
seen in example 1 on the Significant Weather chart (previous slide). Note
also that this area of turbulence is mostly on the poleward (low pressure)
side of the jet stream. Turbulence is also related to vertical shear. From the
tropopause height/vertical windshear chart, determine the vertical shear in
knots-per-thousand feet. If it is greater than 5 knots per 1,000 feet,
turbulence is likely.

Area of possible CAT

due to close proximity
of isotachs
Satellite Images
● Weather satellite pictures are useful in identifying jet streams associated
with cirrus cloud bands. CAT is normally expected in the vicinity of jet
streams. Satellite imagery showing wave-like or herringbone cloud patterns
are often associated with mountain wave turbulence. Pilots should avail
themselves of briefings on satellite data whenever possible.
Satellite Images
● If turbulence is expected because of penetration of a sloping tropopause,
watch the temperature gauge. The point of coldest temperature along the
flight path will be the tropopause penetration.

● Turbulence will be most pronounced in the temperature-change zone on the

stratospheric (upper) side of the sloping tropopause.
Mountains
● Windshear and its accompanying CAT in jet streams is more intensive
above and to the lee of mountain ranges. CAT should be anticipated
whenever the flight path traverses a strong jet stream in the vicinity of
mountainous terrain.

● Both vertical and horizontal windshear are, of course, greatly intensified in

mountain wave conditions. Therefore, when the flight path traverses a
mountain wave type of flow, it is desirable to fly at turbulence-penetration
speed to avoid flight over areas where the terrain drops abruptly, even
though there may be no lenticular clouds to identify the condition.

Rotors
Winds
● High pressure ridges & fronts are often turbulent.

● If turbulence is encountered with a direct head wind or tail wind,

change course or flight level.

● If jetstream turbulence is encountered in a crosswind don’t

change course

● If turbulence is encountered in an abrupt wind shift associated

with a sharp pressure trough line, establish a course across the
trough rather than parallel to it.

● Monitor radio and file PIREPs

Thunderstorms
● The vertical growth of thunderstorms is generally no higher than the
tropopause. The anvil tops or cirrus blow-off is capped at or below the
tropopause height. Keeping in mind that the tropopause height varies daily
and seasonally, the tops of thunderstorms can range from 20,000 to over
45,000 feet.

● In some cases thunderstorms can push through to the stratosphere.

Meteorologists refer to this as an overshooting thunderstorm. These storms
are known to produce severe weather at both the surface and high altitude
of the storm.

Tropopause
Thunderstorm Hazards
● Under no circumstance should an aircraft be flown into a thunderstorm at
any altitude, regardless of how benign the storm appears. Even the smallest
and most innocent looking storm can contain air motions significant enough
to destroy an aircraft.

Thunderstorm avoidance requires you to circumnavigate the storm. There are

three prevalent hazards to consider when circumnavigating a thunderstorm:
• Hail
• Airflow Disruption
• Flight Over Storm
?

Tropopause
Hail
● The first major hazard is hail. Although radar can detect the storm, hail can
go undetected. Hail can be encountered when circumnavigating a
thunderstorm at an altitude below the anvil or blow-off. Even if the pilot is
maintaining the recommended distance from the storm (20 to 25 NM),
passage beneath the downwind extending cloud can produce a hail
encounter, sometimes up to 10 miles or more downwind of the storm.

● Other precipitation that can be encountered from the storm is water from
heavy rain falling from the outward bulge near or below the anvil base. This
water can erode acrylic windshields or strip paint from the aircraft. Most
recommended turbulence penetration speeds will reduce this type of
damage.

WIND
WIND
WIND

Circumnavigate Upwind
Hail 10 or more
miles ahead of
storm
Airflow Disruption
● The second major hazard with the tops of thunderstorms is the airflow
disruption produced by the upper portion of the storm.

● Placing the upper portion of the storm in a moving stream of air blocks the
flow and diverts the air around the storm. This change in flow pattern results
in extreme to severe turbulence around the edges of the storm and further
downwind from the storm as that flow comes back together.

● This turbulent flow can upset the aircraft as well as produce structural
damage.

Eddy currents
around top of
storm can
result in
severe
turbulence
Airflow Disruption
● Turbulent airflow around a thunderstorm's upper portions can extent as far
as 20 nautical miles. As indicated below, the proper distance to
circumnavigate from the edge of cloud can be determined by wind speeds.
Please note these wind speeds and distances for future reference.

> 50 knots
Circumnavigate 20-25 NM

30-50 knots Eddy currents

Circumnavigate 15-20 NM around top of
storm can
< 30 knots result in
Circumnavigate 10-15 NM severe
turbulence
Airflow Disruption
● In addition, the storm should be circumnavigated on the upwind side rather
than the downwind side for two reasons:
● Turbulent airflow can be considerably stronger on the downwind side
● The risk of encountering hail or water from the anvil or blow-off.
● Even when circumnavigating around the upwind side, the pilot should be
aware of other disturbances in the area. It is recommended to check on-
board radar or PIREPS. If thunderstorms are in a line and less than 40 NM
separate the individual storms, penetration through a gap should not be
attempted. If the gap between storms is not sufficient, the flight could end in
disaster.

> 50 knots
Circumnavigate 20-25 NM

30-50 knots Eddy currents

Circumnavigate 15-20 NM around top of
storm can
< 30 knots result in
Circumnavigate 10-15 NM severe
turbulence
Flight Over Storm
● The third major hazard is flight over [Link] air can be encountered
when an aircraft is flying at an altitude higher than the thunderstorm tops.
This turbulence can also upset or cause structural damage to an aircraft.
● Sufficient vertical clearance above the physical top of the storm must be
maintained. A rule of thumb to use is to over-fly the top of the storm by
5,000 feet for any windspeed up to 50 knots.
● Add an additional 1,000 feet of clearance for each 10 knots above a
windspeed of 50 knots

6,000 ft clearance
60 knots

• Up to 50 knots windspeed,
clear tops by 5,000 ft
• Add 1,000 ft per additional 10
knots windspeed
High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques
Icing
Use of Anti-Ice on Performance
● Icing Conditions
Know anti-ice equipment limitations (flight manual requirements)
– Temperature limitations
– SAT (Static Air Temperature)
– Changing environmental conditions
● Thermal anti-ice – bleed penalty
Negative effect on the ability to recover from decaying airspeed
– Airplane may not maintain cruise speed or cruise altitude
Pilot Tip
The bleed penalty for anti-ice results in a reduction of available thrust -
increase in specific fuel consumption.
 High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques
In-Flight Icing Stall Margins
● Ice accumulation increases aircraft
weight / drag
● Airplane may exhibit stall onset
characteristics before stick
shaker activation
● Automation during icing encounters
– Autopilot and Auto-throttles can mask
the effects of airframe icing
– Autopilot can trim the airplane up to a stall
thus masking heavy control forces
– Pilots have been surprised when the
autopilot disconnected just prior to a stall
Pilot Tip In-flight icing - Serious Hazard - stalls at much higher speeds and lower
angles of attack. If stalled, the airplane can roll / pitch uncontrollably.
High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques
In-Flight Icing Stall Margins (continued)
● Adverse Weather Conditions: Stay Alert – Avoidance/Monitor

● Thunderstorm, clear air turbulence, and icing

Avoid potential upset conditions
– Monitor significant weather
– Update weather information
– Important - Trend monitoring
of turbulence
– Review turbulence charts
Pilot Tip Adverse weather avoidance is crucial. It is most important that proper
airspeed is maintained. Keep an adequate margin above stall, remember
that indicated stall speed is increasing and stall alpha is lowering. There
are no reliable rules of thumb for icing speeds.
Pilot Considerations
High altitude weather can cause favorable conditions for upsets. Thunderstorm, clear
air turbulence, and icing are examples of significant weather that pilots should take
into consideration in flight planning. Careful review of forecasts, significant weather
charts, turbulence plots are key elements to avoiding conditions that could lead to an
upset.

There have been other recent accidents where for various reasons (trying to top
thunderstorms, icing equipment performance degradation, unfamiliarity with high
altitude performance, etc.) crews have gotten into a high altitude slowdown situation
that resulted in a stalled condition from which they did not recover. There have been
situations where for many reasons (complacency, inappropriate automation modes,
atmospheric changes, etc.) crews got into situations where they received an approach
to stall warning.
Once established in cruise flight, the prudent crew will update weather information for
the destination and en-route. By comparing the updated information to the preflight
briefing, the crew can more accurately determine if the forecast charts are accurate.
Areas of expected turbulence should be carefully plotted and avoided if reports of
severe turbulence are received. Trend monitoring of turbulence areas is also
important. Trends of increasing turbulence should be noted and if possible avoided.
Avoiding areas of potential turbulence will reduce the risk of an upset.
High Altitude Weather
Summary
● In this section we have looked at atmospheric divisions and their
characteristics, in particular we have examined the tropopause
and the phenomena which occur at this division, such as jet
streams, clear air turbulence and thunderstorms.
● We discussed C.A.T. and thunderstorm avoidance strategies.

● We also looked at ice effects on the airplane

• Atmosphere
• Jet Stream
• Clear Air Turbulence
• Thunderstorms
• Icing
Flight Physiology
● When operating turbine powered
aircraft much higher altitudes are
attainable. This can create physiological
problems for the human body;
therefore, it is extremely important that
anyone piloting these aircraft be able to
recognize the symptoms of these
difficulties and take corrective actions
when necessary.
• Atmospheric composition
● In this section we will discuss
• Respiration
atmospheric composition, respiration,
hypoxia/hyperventilation, • Hypoxia/hyperventilation
decompression sickness and oxygen • Decompression sickness
requirements.
• Oxygen requirements
Atmospheric Composition
● The atmosphere is made up of oxygen, nitrogen, and smaller amounts of
other gases.

● The percentage of these gases is fairly constant in the atmosphere up to an

altitude of 70,000 feet.

● What is of concern are changes in pressure and temperature of the air

during ascent. These two factors are the cause of all physiological problems
encountered by pilots.

1% other

21% oxygen

up to
78% nitrogen
70,000 feet
Physiological Divisions of the Atmosphere
● There are several divisions of the atmosphere. The two of most
concern to the pilot flying modern turbine airplanes are:
• Physiological Zone
• Physiological Deficient Zone

Physiological Zone

Physiologically Deficient Zone

Physiological Zone
● The physiological zone extends from sea level to approximately
10,000 feet. Within this zone only minor problem may exist in
pilots who operate in this area for long periods of time. These
problems include:
• Shortage of breath
• Headache
• Sinus and middle ear problems
• Dizziness
Physiological Zone
0-10,000 ft. MSL
Physiological Deficient Zone
● The physiological deficient zone extends from approximately 10,000 feet to
around 50,000 feet. Within this zone serious problems may exist in pilots
who are exposed to this area even for short periods of time. These problems
include:
• Decompression sickness
• Hypoxia

Physiologically Deficient Zone

10,000 - 50,000 ft. MSL
Partial Pressure
● As stated earlier, the percentage of oxygen, nitrogen and other gases in the
atmosphere is fairly constant below 70,000 feet. What we must concern
ourselves with is the partial pressures of each gas not the percentage of gas
in the total mixture.

● Note in the table below that while the percentage of each gas in the
atmosphere remains constant, the partial pressure of each gas decreases
as we increase in altitude. From sea level to 18,000 feet, partial pressures
are reduced by nearly half. It is this decrease in the partial pressure of each
gas that causes concern. In the next section on respiration, we will examine
the effects of this reduction in partial pressure on the human body.

Altitude Total Atmospheric Composition of Gas Partial Percentage of RATIO

Pressure Pressure Atmosphere (Atmosphere)
(mm HG) (mm Hg) (to 70,000’)
Sea Level Nitrogen 593 78%
760 1
Oxygen 160 21%
14.7 psi
Other 7 1%
10,000 feet Nitrogen 407 78%
522 Oxygen 110 21%
Other 5 1%
18,000 feet Nitrogen 296 78%
1/2
380 Oxygen 80 21%
4 7.3 psi
Other 1%
27,000 feet Nitrogen 197 78%
1/3
252 Oxygen 53 21%
2 4.9 psi
Other 1%
Nitrogen 139 78%
35,000 feet 179 Oxygen 39 21% ¼
Other 1 1% 3.5 psi
Respiration
● As Respiration includes the two-directional exchange of gases between the
body and the environment. The body inhales oxygen and exhales carbon
dioxide. The body has a dual regulation system to ensure proper levels of
both oxygen and carbon dioxide.

● The first regulatory system is controlled by the brain, which responds to

carbon dioxide partial pressure. If the carbon dioxide level is too high the
brain increases the respiration rate, causing more carbon dioxide to be
exhaled. If the carbon dioxide rate is too low, the opposite occurs; breathing
rate decreases to allow a build up of carbon dioxide.

● The second system is a back-up respiratory control system, which monitors

oxygen partial pressure. This system, located in the large arteries close to
the heart, adjusts respiratory rate to ensure the proper oxygen supply.
Brain
Dual Regulation system

Arteries • Brain
• controls CO2 partial pressure
Lungs
• Arteries (backup)
Heart • controls oxygen partial pressure
Respiration Abnormalities
● Should either of these systems detect abnormalities beyond its
regulatory controls, the body would enter either of the following
states:
• Hyperventilation, associated with an excessive loss of carbon
dioxide partial pressure.
• Hypoxia associated with a deficiency of oxygen partial
pressure.

● Let's look at each of these states and discuss how we may avoid
or prevent them.
Hyperventilation Symptoms
● As stated, hyperventilation is caused when the body loses a
disproportionate amount of carbon dioxide, causing a chemical imbalance
in the body.

● Symptoms of hyperventilation include blurring of vision,nausea,

lightheadedness, dizziness, increased sensation of body heat and/or a
tingling in fingers and toes.

• Blurring of vision
• Nausea
Brain
• Lightheadedness
• Increased sensation of body heat
Arteries
Lungs • Tingling in fingers and toes

Heart
Combating Hyperventilation
● To compensate for this imbalance, a decrease in the rate and volume of
respiration is needed, allowing the body to build up a normal carbon dioxide
level. In extreme cases breathing in a paper bag will accelerate a return to
normal carbon dioxide levels.

● If no action is taken nausea and loss of consciousness may occur.

• Decrease rate and volume of

respiration
Brain
• In extreme cases, breath into paper
bag
Arteries
• If no action is taken, nausea and loss
Lungs of consciousness may occur
Heart
Hypoxia
● Hypoxia is the greatest single danger to pilots and passengers at
high altitude.
● Hypoxia occurs when there is a lack of sufficient oxygen to the
body tissue caused by either an inadequate supply of oxygen, an
inadequate transport of oxygen or the inability of the body tissue
to use oxygen.
● There are four forms of Hypoxia:

• Hypoxic (altitude) Hypoxia

• Hypemic (anemic) Hypoxia
• Stagnate Hypoxia
• Histotoxic hypoxia
Hypoxic Hypoxia
● This form of hypoxia is caused by insufficient oxygen partial pressure. For
example, when we ascend through 10,000 feet oxygen partial pressure
drops considerably, creating a situation where hypoxic hypoxia becomes a
reality.

• Hypoxic (altitude) hypoxia

– insufficient oxygen partial pressure
Brain

Arteries
Lungs
Heart
Hypemic Hypoxia
● Hypemic hypoxia is caused by an inability of the blood to carry proper
amounts of oxygen. Excessive smoking or exhaust fumes can cause
hypemic hypoxia.

• Hypemic (anemic) hypoxia

– reduction in the oxygen carrying
Brain capacity of the blood

Arteries
Lungs
Heart
Stagnant Hypoxia
● Stagnate hypoxia is defined as an oxygen deficiency in the body due to poor
circulation of blood. This type of hypoxia can be caused by positive
pressure breathing for long periods and excessive head to toe G-forces.

• Stagnate hypoxia
– oxygen deficiency in the body due to
Brain
poor circulation

Arteries
Lungs
Heart
Histotoxic Hypoxia
● Histotoxic Hypoxia is defined as the inability of the body cells to utilize
oxygen due to the impairment of cell respiration. Alcohol consumption
among other things, is responsible for impairment of cell respiration.

• Histotoxic hypoxia
– impairment of cellular respiration
Brain
circulation

Arteries
Lungs
Heart
Symptoms of Hypoxia
● The first symptoms of hypoxia resemble those affects associated with mild
intoxication from alcohol. Other symptoms are listed below.

• Increased rate of breathing

• Headache
• Fatigue
• Light headed or dizzy sensations, listlessness
• Tingling or warm sensations, sweating
Brain • Poor coordination, impairment of judgment
• Loss of vision or reduced vision
Arteries • sleepiness
Lungs • Cyanosis: discoloration at the fingernail beds
• Behavior changes, feeling of well being,
Heart euphoria
Symptoms of Hypoxia – Exposure Time
● Regardless of the type of hypoxia, the symptoms are always the same. The
table below highlights hypoxia symptoms in relation to time of exposure and
altitude.

Altitude (Feet) Time of Exposure Symptoms

10,000 to 14,000 Several Hours Headache, fatigue, listlessness, non-specific

deterioration of physical and mental performance.

15,000 to 18,000 30 minutes Impairment of judgement and vision, high self-

confidence, euphoria, disregard for sensory
perceptions, poor coordination, sleepiness,
dizziness, personality changes as if intoxicated,
cyanosis (bluing).

20,000 to 35,000 5 minutes Same symptoms as a t 15,000 to 18,000 feet except

more pronounced with eventual unconsciousness.

35,000 to 40,000 15 to 45 seconds Immediate unconsciousness (with little or no

warning).
Symptoms of Hypoxia – Exposure Time
● Effective Performance Time (EPT) or Time of Useful Consciousness (TUC) is
the amount of time in which the pilot is able to effectively fly an airplane
with an insufficient supply of oxygen. As the table below indicates, as
altitude increases time decrease.

● Hypoxia, by its nature, is a grim deceiver and makes its victims feel
confident that they are doing a better job of flying than they really are. Pilots
who are older, overweight, out of condition, or smoke heavily should limit
themselves to flight ceilings of 8,000 to 10,000 feet unless supplemental
oxygen is available.
Combating Hypoxia
● When combating hypoxia, apply supplemental oxygen, descend below
10,000 MSL, try to determine cause and if unable to correct condition (clear
your head), land as soon as possible

● A realization or recognition of hypoxia symptoms should be followed by the

immediate use of supplemental oxygen in order to combat hypoxia
successfully. In most cases, all faculties are regained within 15 seconds
after oxygen is administered.

● Although recovery is rapid following the administration of oxygen, a word of

caution is necessary. The individual recovering from a moderate to severe
hypoxia incident is usually quite fatigued and may suffer a measurable
deficiency in mental and physical performance for many hours.
Apply supplemental oxygen

Descend to 10,000 feet MSL

Determine cause

Cannot correct condition,

land as soon as possible
Decompression
● In any discussion of high altitude operation, the possibility of
decompression must be considered.

● Decompression is defined as the inability of the aircraft's

pressurization system to maintain its designed pressure schedule.
This can be caused by a malfunction in the pressurization system
or structural damage to the aircraft.

● The more rapid the decompression, the greater the expansion

force of gases contained in the lungs and intestine. Physiological
decompression may be expressed as either explosive or rapid.
• Explosive Decompression
• A change in cabin pressure faster than the
lungs can decompress. Therefore, it is
possible that lung damage can occur.
• Rapid Decompression
• Lungs can decompress faster than the cabin
Decompression Rate
● The effects of decompression depend on Cabin size, size of the
hole, differential pressure and flight altitude.

● Cabin size, size of the hole and pressure differential determine

the time required for decompression while pressure differential
and flight altitude govern the expansion ratio for gases within the
cabin and various body cavities.

● Rate of decompression dependent on:

• Cabin size
• Size of hole
• Pressure Differential
• Flight altitude
Explosive Decompression Cabin Effects
● If the hole in the aircraft is large enough, explosive
decompression can affect the cabin by causing an explosive
noise, a sudden rush of air and debris toward the hole, a sudden
decrease in cabin temperature and pressure, and a fogging due
to moisture condensation in the expanding cabin atmosphere.
● Signs of explosive decompression:

• Explosive noise
• Rush of air toward hole
• Sudden decrease in cabin temperature and pressure
• Fogging
Physiological Effects

● The physiological effects of decompression include:

• Rapid chest expansion

• Cheek and lip flutter
• Pain in the ears and sinuses
• Abdominal pain
• Difficulty communicating
• Hypoxia
Decompression Sickness

● If decompression does occur, another hazard exists, that of

dysbarism or decompression sickness. Decompression sickness
is classified into either trapped gas or evolved gas.

Trapped Gas

Evolved Gas
Trapped Gas
● Under normal circumstances gas is present in various body
cavities, including the middle ear, nasal sinuses, teeth, stomach
and intestines.

● Under certain conditions, following a decompression, trapped gas

expands. If the pilot or passengers cannot pass this gas out of the
containing cavity, severe pain can result.

Trapped Gas
- Gas expansion within a cavity
Trapped Gas Disorders
● Trapped gas disorders develop rapidly

● Effects of trapped gas include Ear Block, Sinus block, tooth ache
and abdominal pains.

Trapped Gas
- Gas expansion within a cavity
- Develop rapidly
Ear block
Sinus block
Tooth ache
Abdominal pains
Trapped Gas Prevention
● To prevent against trapped gas:

• Avoid foods that produce gas

• Don't chew gum
• Eat within 12 hours of flight
• Eat slowly
Evolved Gas

● When the ambient pressure falls, diluted gases (typically nitrogen)

tend to come out of solution and form gas bubbles. When these
bubbles form in the body, severe pain and bizarre neurological
symptoms may result.

Evolved Gas
Evolved Gas

● Symptoms related to evolved gas formation do not occur very

rapidly and rarely below 20,000 feet.

● At altitudes of 35,000 to 40,000 feet it would take approximately

20 minutes for the average individual to develop severe or
incapacitating symptoms.

Evolved Gas
Evolved Gas Disorders
● Bends - Characterized by pain in and about the joints. If ascent is
continued pain will worsen.
● Chokes - Caused by nitrogen bubbles blocking the pulmonary
blood vessels. This causes a mild burning sensation beneath the
sternum and progresses to an uncontrollable urge to cough.
Immediate descent is necessary to recover.
● Paresthesia - Characterized by a tingling of the skin. Itchy and
blotchy rashes may appear.
● Central nervous system disorders - May see spots or lines and
parts of your field of vision disappear headaches are associated
with visual problems. Other effects include partial paralysis and
sensory disturbances, both of which are transient.

Evolved Gas
Evolved Gas Prevention
● Rapid descent to altitudes lower than FL 200 is the most effective
way of combating evolved gas symptoms.

● It is advisable to avoid exercise or strenuous movements as they

will only worsen evolved gas symptoms.

● It is highly recommended to avoid scuba diving for at least 24

hours before a flight as this activity increases nitrogen partial
pressure in the blood.

Evolved Gas
Effects of Alcohol
● As per FAA regulations, no consumption of alcohol is allowed
within 8 hours of flight. Alcohol, smoking and illegal drugs have
the following effects on the body and can complicate recovery
from hypoxia (especially histotoxic hypoxia) and decompression
sickness:
● A dulling of critical judgment and a decreased sense of
responsibility
• Diminished skill reactions and coordination, resulting in
decreased speed and strength of muscular reflexes
• Slowing of eye movement during reading, resulting in an
increase in the frequency of technical and tactical errors

X
X
X
Oxygen
Flight Crew Requirements

● Oxygen systems installed on most high-altitude turbine-powered

airplanes today are for use in the unlikely event of a rapid
decompression.

● FAR 91.211 requires the use of some type of supplemental

oxygen at and above 12,500. Specifically;

● Flight crew:

• 12500’ - 14000’ cabin pressure altitude operation without

supplemental oxygen cannot exceed 30 minutes.
• Above 14,000 ft, supplemental oxygen is required at all times
Oxygen
Passenger Requirements

● At cabin pressure altitudes greater than 15,000 ft, passengers are

to be provided with supplemental oxygen.
Oxygen
Pressurized Cabin

● Above FL250 - A minimum of a 10 minute supply of supplemental

oxygen for each occupant is required.

● Above FL350 - One pilot must wear & use a mask that is secured
and sealed if cabin pressure altitude exceeds 14,000 ft., except:
• For 2 pilot crews at less than 41,000’ with two quick donning
oxygen masks. These masks must be able to be donned using
one-hand within 5 seconds.
• If one crew member leaves the controls, the other crew
member must don mask.
Oxygen
Pressurized Cabin FAR 25
● Cabin pressure altitudes warning systems will indicate when the
cabin pressure altitude exceeds 10,000 feet.

● If in the event of a decompression and cabin altitude reaches

between 13-15,000 feet, in most cases passenger and crew
oxygen masks will be activated automatically.

● Auto passenger Oxygen mask dispensing device must present

masks before cabin pressure reaches 15,000 feet.
Oxygen – Pre-flight
Oxygen – Pre-flight (cont)

Where can you find this?

Oxygen – Pre-flight (cont)
Flight Physiology
Summary

● In this section we discussed atmospheric composition, respiration

and the importance of oxygen and nitrogen partial pressures, the
effects of reduced partial pressures (i.e.: hypoxia/hyperventilation)
decompression and decompression sickness and oxygen
requirements as per FAR 91.211 and FAR 25.
High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles

● High altitude operations require:

1. An understanding of high altitude
aerodynamics
2. Translate that knowledge into a skill
base that provides a safety margin
3. Techniques - High altitude upset
recovery training
High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles
Overview

● First we’ll review some basic aerodynamic principles

● Then we’ll look at some operational considerations

● Finally we’ll close with a few flight techniques

High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles
Speed of Sound
● The speed of sound is the rate at which small pressure
disturbances are transmitted through the air. The transmitted
speed is solely a function of air temperature, which decreases
with altitude in the troposphere.

Temperature Speed of
Altitude
(C) Sound (knots)
Sea Level 15 661.7

10,000 -4.8 638.6

20,000 -24.6 614.6

30,000 -44.4 589.6

40,000 -56.5 573.8

50,000 -56.5 573.8

High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles
Mach Indicator
● In light of these undesirable characteristics, the question then
arises: How do you accurately identify airspeed relative to the
speed of sound, if the speed of sound is a function of
temperature, without having to continually correct the indicated
airspeed for altitude and temperature?

• The Mach indicator will perform this task.

Mach indicators measure the ratio of the
aircraft's true airspeed relative to the
speed of sound at flight altitude. Mach
numbers do not need to be corrected for
altitude and temperature, because the
existing temperature at flight level
determines the speed of sound at flight
level. This speed of sound compared to
your indicated airspeed gives us a ratio
or a Mach number
High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles
Subsonic Flight
● As an airfoil moves through the air mass, velocity and pressure
changes occur which create disturbances in the airflow
surrounding the airfoil.
● These disturbances are transmitted outward at the speed of
sound.
● If the airfoil is traveling below the speed of sound, these
disturbances are transmitted ahead of the object, and the
pressure field of the object influences the airflow immediately
ahead of the object.
High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles
Transonic Flight
● Transonic Flight (0.75-1.2 MACH)
There is a speed at which the local airflow over the top of the airfoil will
reach the speed of sound before the airfoil since the flow over the top is
faster than the airfoil. This speed is called the critical mach of the airfoil
and it varies from aircraft to aircraft depending on wing design.
● At this speed a local shock wave forms on the top of the wing. The
transonic regime is defined as those speeds at which FLOW on the
aircraft components are partly supersonic. Pressure disturbances behind
this region are still subsonic and cannot travel forward. They “pile up”
behind the supersonic region creating a shockwave.
Shock Wave

Supersonic
Flow
Airflow Separation
MACH 0.82
High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles
Transonic Flight
Shock Wave
● It is important to remember that as the airfoil speed is increased
the area of supersonic flow is increased, the area of supersonic
flow enlarges, airflow separation increases, buffet and drag
increase and the shock wave moves aft. When this occurs,
several undesirable characteristics, such as control surface buzz,
Mach tuck, and drag rise, are manifested.

Shock Wave

Supersonic Flow

Airflow Separation
MACH 0.95
High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles
Flight Characteristics
Drag Rise
● When an aircraft approaches the speed of sound, shock waves
develop on the airfoil. The development of these shock waves can
have an effect on the aircraft's controllability.
● Drag rise will occur at approximately the same time that the
critical mach number is reached and the shock wave starts to
form. As the shock wave gets larger and moves aft, drag
increases. The effect of a shock wave is much like the effect of
opening a door on top of the wing and can cause drastic
increases in fuel requirements
Increase in Drag

Critical Mach +
High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles

Flight Characteristics
Control Surface Buzz
● Control surface buzz will occur at high Mach numbers on
airplanes that have reversible or non-powered flight controls.
● The buzz is caused by the interaction of the shock wave and the
control surface.
● Powered control surfaces eliminate this buzz by holding the
control surface rigid thus eliminating the interactions between the
shock waive and the control surface.
shock wave moves

Supersonic Flow

Airflow Separation
High Mach Numbers
High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles
Flight Characteristics
Mach Tuck
● Mach tuck occurs when the shock wave moves aft with the
resultant center of lift moving aft on both the wing and stabilizer,
which results in a nose down tendency. this nose down tendency
is corrected in modern aircraft by the Mach trim system.

Shock Wave

Supersonic Flow

Airflow Separation
MACH 0.95

Center of lift
 Design Improvements
Thinner Airfoil
● A thinner airfoil with less camber causes less of an increase in
speed of the air over the surface of the wing. This results in a
higher speed before supersonic airflow occurs.
 Design improvements
Swept Wing

● The swept wing design decreases the effectiveness of camber

and increases the critical mach number therefore decreasing drag
and allowing the aircraft to fly at a higher speed before getting into
the critical mach number.
 Design improvements
Vortex Generators

● Vortex generators delay the onset of shock-induced airflow

separation by producing higher airflow velocities downstream of
the shockwave thus increasing the strength of the boundary layer
reducing airflow separation.
Design improvements
Wing Fence

● Wing fences are installed on some aircraft to reduce the span-

wise flow and improve control effectiveness at lower speeds.
Without a wing fence, span wise flow causes the wing to have a
tendency to stall from the tips inboard. This is undesirable since
there is less warning of an impending stall and because this is
usually the area of the aileron, reductions in lateral control
effectiveness can occur.
Design improvements
Stall Strips

● Since sweptback wings have a tendency to stall from the tips

inboard, it would be advantageous to change the stall pattern to a
more desirable inboard to outboard pattern. This helps to retain
aileron effectiveness during a stall warning phase. To affect this
pattern stall strips are placed on the leading edge near the wing
root to begin the stall pattern in this area at a higher speed to the
tip stall.
High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles
L/D Max
The lowest point on the total drag curve – also known as Vmd
(minimum drag speed)

Pilot Tip
●Airspeed slower than L/D max
known as: The “back side of the
power-drag curve” or the “region
of reverse command”
●Airspeed faster than L/D max is
considered normal flight or the
“front side of the power-drag curve”
●Normal flight – Speed stable
Stable Flight - Airspeed disturbance (i.e. turbulence) - Airspeed will return
to the original airspeed when the total thrust has not changed
High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles
L/D Max (continued)
Pilot Tip
Slower cruising speeds are a concern (approaching L/D max).
There will be less time to recognize and respond to speed
decay during high altitude cruise.
●Slow flight (slower than L/D max) – Unstable

●Lower speed – Result: increased drag

●Increased drag – Result: decrease in airspeed

Ultimate uncorrected result – stalled flight condition

Pilot Tip Flight slower than L/D max at high altitudes must be avoided. Proper
flight profiles and planning will ensure speeds slower than L/D max
are avoided
High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles
Optimum Altitude
● Calculated for minimum cost when in the ECON mode
– Optimum Altitude increases when you decrease the cost index
● Calculated for minimum fuel burn when in the Long-range cruise
(LRC) or pilot-selected modes
– Optimum Altitude increases when speed decreases
● Aircraft weight affects Optimum altitude
– decrease in weight raises the Optimum Altitude
● Temperature also affects Optimum altitude
– increase in temperature lowers the Optimum Altitude
Pilot Tip
When flying at Optimum Altitude, crews should be aware
of temperature to ensure performance capability.
High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles
Optimum Climb Speed Deviations
● Optimum climb speed charts and
speeds – AFM, FCOM, and FMS
● For increased rates of climb:
– ensure speed is not decreased
below L/D max
(Incident Data: Primary reason for slow
speed events. Improper use of vertical
speed modes during climb)
Pilot Tip
Enroute climb speed is automatically computed by FMC:
• Displayed - Climb and progress pages
• Displayed - Command speed when VNAV is engaged
High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles
Thrust Limited Condition and Recovery
● Be aware of outside temperature and thrust available

● Most jet transport aircraft are thrust limited, rather

than slow speed buffet limited - especially in a turn
● Use Flight Management Systems/reduced bank angle
– Real-time bank angle protection
– Routine bank angle limit (10°-15°) for cruise flight
Pilot Tip If a condition or airspeed decay occurs, take immediate action
to recover:
• Reduce bank angle
• Increase thrust – select maximum continuous thrust (MCT) if the
aircraft is controlling to a lower limit
• Descend
High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles
Maximum Altitude
● Highest altitude at which an airplane can be operated - Lowest of:
– Maximum certified altitude (Structural) - Determined during
certification and is usually set by the pressurization load limits
on the fuselage
– Thrust Limited Altitude (Thrust) – Altitude at which sufficient
thrust is available to provide a specific minimum rate of climb
Note: Depending on the thrust rating of the engines – Thrust
Limited altitude may be above or below the maneuver altitude
capability. This altitude also changes with changing temp.
– Buffet or Maneuver Limited Altitude (Aerodynamic) – Altitude
at which a specific maneuver margin exists prior to buffet onset
(FAA operations: 1.2g 33° Bank) (CAA/JAA operations: 1.3g 40° Bank)

Next Slide: Figure 2 – Optimum vs. Maximum Altitude

 Figure 2
Typical Optimum vs. Maximum Altitude
Note: As ISA Temp increases – Altitude capability is reduced. This is a
situation where maneuver buffet margins are ok but temperature is
affecting thrust capability to sustain airspeed at the higher altitudes.
43000

Maximum certified altitude (Structural)

41000
Buffet limited
maximum altitude (1.3g)
(Aerodynamic)
39000

Optimum altitude (Min Cost @ ECON )

Altitude 37000

Thrust-limited maximum altitude (100 FPM)

35000

33000

31000
Gross weight
(Increasing)
High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles
Maneuvering Stability
● Flight Characteristics:
Constant Airspeed – same control surface movement
High altitude Low altitude
● Higher pitch rate ● Lower pitch rate
● Less aerodynamic damping ● More aerodynamic damping
● Greater angle of attack ● Less angle of attack
Pilot Tip
High altitude flight normally has adequate maneuver margin
at optimum altitude. Maneuver margin decreases significantly
approaching maximum altitude.

Pilot Tip Do not over control airplane with large control movements – use
small control inputs. Be smooth with pitch and power to correct
speed deviations.
High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles
Maneuvering Stability (cont)
● Flight Characteristics:
● For the same control surface movement at constant airspeed, an
airplane at 35,000 ft experiences a higher pitch rate than an airplane at
5,000 ft because there is less aerodynamic damping.
● Therefore, the change in angle of attack is greater, creating more lift and
a higher load factor. If the control system is designed to provide a fixed
ratio of control force to elevator deflection, it takes less force to generate
the same load factor as altitude increases.
● An additional effect is that for a given attitude change, the change in rate
of climb is proportional to the true airspeed. Thus, for an attitude change
for 500 ft per minute (fpm) at 290 knots indicated air speed (KIAS) at sea
level, the same change in attitude at 290 KIAS (490 knots true air speed)
at 35,000 ft would be almost 900 fpm. This characteristic is essentially
true for small attitude changes, such as the kind used to hold altitude. It
is also why smooth and small control inputs are required at high altitude,
particularly when disconnecting the autopilot.
High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles
Buffet-Limited Maximum Altitude
● Two kinds of buffet to consider in flight:
1. Low speed buffet
2. High speed buffet
● As altitude increases:
– Indicated airspeed (IAS) for
low speed buffet increases
– High speed buffet speed decreases
Result: Margin between high speed and low speed
buffet decreases
Pilot Tip
Respect buffet margins - Proper use of buffet boundary charts or
maneuver capability charts and FMC calculations allows the
crew to determine the maximum altitude.
High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles
Buffet-Limited Maximum Altitude

● High altitudes - excess thrust is limited

– If needed - Select maximum available/continuous thrust
at any time
Important: If speed is decaying (airplane getting slow)
– Select Max Available Thrust
Pilot Tip
Select MCT to provide additional thrust. To prevent further
airspeed decay into an approach to stall condition a descent
may be necessary. Use proper descent techniques.

Pilot Tip Selecting MCT may be insufficient in extreme airspeed

decay conditions.
High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles
High Altitude Threats
Operating Near Maximum Altitude
Early Turbo-Jet Airplanes – “Coffin corner”
● As the altitude increases - pilot is always trying to maintain a
safe airspeed above the stall and a safe airspeed below the
Vmo/Mmo
● Difference between the stall and the max speed narrows
– Coffin corner
● Stall Warning Systems
– “Stick Shakers”, “Pushers”, “Audio Alarms”
– Know your airplane - systems installed and function

Pilot Tip Airplane Buffet is often a first indicator – Stay Alert!!

High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles
High Altitude Threats
Operating Near Maximum Altitude (continued)
Although limits are checked by FMC:
● Available thrust may limit ability to maneuver
● The amber band limits do not provide an indication of sufficient
thrust to maintain the current altitude and airspeed
High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles
High Altitude Threats
Operating Near Maximum Altitude (continued)

The danger in operating near maximum altitude is the

potential for the speed and angle of attack to change due
to turbulence or environmental factors that could lead to a
slowdown or stall and subsequent high altitude upset.

Pilot Tip Decelerating the airplane to the amber band may create a situation where it is
impossible to maintain speed and/or altitude. When speed decreases, the airplane
drag may exceed available thrust – especially in a turn.
High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles
Amber Band
Amber bands
● Displays the range
of reduced maneuver
capability
● Provides 1.3g/40° of
bank angle (default)
margin to buffet
● Constant regardless of
ambient temperature
Pilot Tip
The amber band does
not give any indication
of thrust limits.

Pilot Tip The minimum maneuver speed indication does not guarantee the ability
to maintain level flight at that speed.
 Figure 3
Drag vs. Mach Number
For normal cruise speeds there is excess thrust available at this fixed weight and
altitude. When trying to turn at 30 degrees of bank the drag exceeds the normal cruise
thrust limit. If the pilot selects MCT then there is enough thrust.

Max Continuous Thrust (MCT)

Drag (Increasing)

Drag produced at 300 Bank - exceeds Cruise Thrust Thrust

Capability

Cruise Thrust
0
Drag - 30 Bank

Drag – Level Flight Current

Airspeed

.60 .65 .70 .75 .80 .85

Mach Number
 High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles
Weight & Balance Effects on Handling Characteristics
• Airplane Handling - Airplanes loaded with an aft CG improves en-route
performance. The further aft an airplane is loaded, the less effort is required
by the tail to counteract the nose down pitching moment of the wing. The less
effort required by the tail results in less induced drag on the entire airplane
which results in the most efficient flight.
• But, Aft loading - controls are more sensitive and the airplane has less
longitudinal stability.
• At high altitude, an aft loaded airplane is more susceptible to upset since it is
less stable than a forward loading. Some airline load planning computers
attempt to load airplane as far aft as possible to achieve efficiency. Some
advanced airplanes use electronic controls to help improve airplane handling
with aft loading.
• Loading toward nose –CG moves forward and Longitudinal stability increases

Pilot Tip: Airplane that is loaded outside the weight and balance envelope will result
in aircraft handling that is unpredictable. Stall recovery may be severely
impeded. This problem may be magnified at high altitude.
 High Altitude Aerodynamics - Principles
Stalls
● An airplane wing can be stalled
– Any airspeed, any altitude, any attitude
Pilot Tip
If the angle of attack is greater than the stall angle, the surface will stall.
Attitude has no relationship to the aerodynamic stall. Even if the airplane is in
a descent with what appears like ample airspeed - the surface can be stalled.
Effective stall recovery requires a deliberate and smooth reduction in wing
angle of attack.
The elevator is the primary pitch control in all flight conditions, not thrust.

● Understand the difference between:

1. “Approach” to stall recovery
2. Stall recovery Dramatic difference in recovery technique
Know the Difference
High Altitude Aerodynamics
Flight Techniques
High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques
Remember the High Altitude Basics

At altitudes where the operational envelope is reduced:

● Be alert!! No time for complacency

● Recognize and confirm the situation

● Do not over control…Do not use large

control movements – use small control
pressures
● Be smooth with pitch and power to
correct speed deviations
High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques
Altitude Exchange for Energy
Stall Recovery
● Stall Recovery is the Priority
– Altitude recovery is secondary to stall recovery
● Characteristics of stall:
– Buffeting, which could be heavy at times
– A lack of pitch authority
– A lack of roll control
– Inability to arrest descent rate
– These characteristics are usually accompanied
by a continuous stall warning
Pilot Tip: Stall recovery is the priority. Only after positive stall recovery, can altitude
recovery be initiated. At high altitudes swept wing turbojet airplanes may
stall at a reduced angle of attack due to Mach effects.
High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques
Altitude Exchange for Energy
Stall Recovery (continued)
Pilot Tip Stall recovery requires that the angle of attack must be reduced
below the stalling angle of attack. The elevator is the primary pitch
control in all flight conditions… not thrust.

At High Altitude, recovery requires reducing the angle of attack

● The elevator is the primary control to recover from a stalled
condition
– Loss of altitude (regardless of close proximity to the ground)
– Thrust vector may supplement the recovery - not the
primary control
– Stall angles of attack - drag is very high
– Thrust available may be marginal, the acceleration could
be slow
High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques
Altitude Exchange for Energy
Stall Recovery (continued)

Although stall angle of attack is normally constant for a given

configuration, at high altitudes swept wing turbojet airplanes may stall at
a reduced angle of attack due to Mach effects.

The pitch attitude will also be significantly lower than what is

experienced at lower altitudes. Low speed buffet will likely precede an
impending stall. Thrust available to supplement the recovery will be
dramatically reduced and the pitch control through elevator must be
used.

The goal of minimizing altitude loss must be secondary to recovering

from the stall. Flight crews must exchange altitude for airspeed. Only
after positive stall recovery has been achieved, can altitude recovery be
prioritized.
High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques
Primary Flight Display Airspeed Indications
● Modern aircraft are equipped
with speedtape
– Help you maintain a safe
airspeed margins
– Airspeed trending

Important
These displays do not indicate
if adequate thrust is available
to maintain the current
airspeed and altitude
 High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques
Flight Techniques of Jet Aircraft
Automation During High Altitude Flight
● Automation during cruise
– Attempts to maintain altitude and airspeed
– Thrust will increase to selected cruise limit
– Select MCT (Max Cont Thrust) - to increase available thrust
and stop airspeed decay
● Airspeed continues to deteriorate - the only option is to descend

Pilot Tip Pilot must take action before excessive airspeed loss
● The pilot’s action - pitch down - increase the airspeed while being in an automation
mode that keeps the throttles at maximum thrust
● Autopilot engaged - select a lower altitude - use an appropriate mode to descend
● If the aircraft is not responding quickly enough you must take over manually
● Re-engage autopilot once in a stable descent and the commanded speed has
been reestablished
High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques
Flight Techniques of Jet Aircraft
Automation During High Altitude Flight (continued)

● Vertical Speed Mode (VS) at high altitude - must be clearly

understood
– Energy management, available thrust is reduced at high altitude
– Fundamental to energy management is to control speed either
on elevator or with thrust
– VS mode, airplane speed controlled by thrust
– Use of VS has considerable risk during high altitude climb
– VS mode prioritizes the commanded VS rate
– Speed can decay, thrust available is less than thrust required
– Improper use of VS can result in speed loss
 High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques
Flight Techniques of Jet Aircraft
Automation During High Altitude Flight (continued)

Pilot Tip General guideline - VS mode should not be used for climbing at high altitudes

Pilot Tip VS can be used for descent - selecting excessive vertical speeds can result in
airspeed increases into an overspeed condition

Pilot Tip Using a mode that normally reduces thrust, when the need arises to descend
immediately, may not be appropriate for a low speed situation
High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques
Human Factors and High Altitude Upsets
● The Startle Factor
– Dynamic buffeting and large changes in airplane attitude
● When not properly avoided, managed, or flown
– Assures a self-induced upset
High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques
Human Factors and High Altitude Upsets
(continued)
● Pilot training – conventional
– Typical crew training
– Trained to respond to stall warnings – “Approach to Stall”
– Usually limited to low altitude recovery
● High altitude - stalls
– Low speed buffet mistaken
for high speed buffet
– Actual full “Stall Recovery”
– Higher altitudes
Available thrust is insufficient
Reduce the angle of attack
Trade altitude for airspeed.
● Recognition for recovery is sometimes delayed
High Altitude Aerodynamics – Flight Techniques
Human Factors and High Altitude Upsets
(continued)
Reasons for delayed recovery
1. Concern for passenger and crew safety following large
control movements
2. Previous training emphasized altitude loss
3. Anxiety associated altitude violations and other ATC concerns
4. Less experience with manual flight control at high speed /
altitude
5. Lack of understanding - Unaware of the magnitude of altitude
loss as it relates to the recovery from the upset condition
6. On the other side there is the concern of accelerating into high
speed buffet during the recovery if the airplane is allowed to
accelerate too much.
Further Information

For further information on upset

recovery, see the FAA Airplane
upset recovery aid
High Altitude Operations
Additional Considerations
 High Altitude Operations – Additional Considerations
Multi-Engine Flame Out
Demands Immediate Action
● Prompt recognition of the engine failures – utmost importance
● Immediately accomplishment of the recall items and/or
checklist associated with loss of all engines
– Establish the appropriate airspeed (requires a manual pitch
down) to attempt a windmill relight
– Driftdown will be required to improve windmill starting
capability
– Inflight start envelope is provided to identify proper windmill
start parameters
Pilot Tip Regardless of the conditions and status of the airplane - strict adherence to
the checklist is essential to maximize the probability of a successful relight.
Pilot Tip Recognition tip – autopilots and A/T may disconnect or indications of
electrical problems may exist with a multi-engine flameout.
High Altitude Operations – Additional Considerations
Corelock

● Turbine engine – abnormal thermal event (e.g flameout at low

airspeed)
Result - the “core” of the engine stops or seizes
● Insufficient airspeed - insufficient airflow through the engine
● Engine – restart capability only when seized engine spools begin
to rotate
Pilot Tip After all engine flameouts
• The first critical consideration is to obtain safe descent speed
• Determine engine status
• If engine spools indicate zero - core lock may exist/mechanical
engine damage
• Crews must obtain best L/DMax airspeed instead of accelerating
to windmill speed
● Critical: The crew must follow the approved flight manual
procedures, maintain sufficient airspeed to maintain core rotation
High Altitude Operations – Additional Considerations
Rollback

● Turbine engine rollback - uncommanded loss of thrust

– Reduced N1 RPM - increase in EGT
– Many causal factors:
– Moisture
– Icing
– Fuel control issues
– High angle of attack disrupted airflow
– Mechanical failure

Pilot Tip If airspeed stagnation occurs, check appropriate thrust level. This is
important as well as increasing airspeed in the case of an engine has
rollback.
High Altitude Basics

At altitudes where the operational envelope is reduced:

● Be alert!! No time for complacency

● Recognize and confirm the situation

● Do not over control…Do not use large

control movements – use small control
pressures
● Be smooth with pitch and power to correct
speed deviations
 High Altitude Aerodynamics
Summary
● In this section we discussed the
speed of sound and its relation to
temperature, aerodynamics of
subsonic and transonic flight, flight • Speed of sound
characteristics of transonic flight,
including undesirable aspects • Aerodynamics of subsonic
associated with transonic flight and flight
some of the aircraft design • Aerodynamics of transonic
improvements that have increased flight
efficiency, comfort and safety of • Flight characteristics of
flight at high altitudes and high transonic flight
speeds.
• Aircraft design improvements
● We also looked at flight handling • Aircraft handling techniques
characteristics and techniques
The End