Chapter

1
Linear Equations and
Inequalities

1.1 Introduction to Linear Equations

Definition 1.1.1 A linear equation in the n variables (unknowns) x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x n
is an equation that can be written in the form

a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn = b (1.1)

where the coefficients a1 , a2 , . . . , an , and constant term b are real constant and
the a ’s are not all zero.
■ Example 1.1 The following are linear equations:
#
x + 3x = 7, 2x 1 + x 2 − x 3 = 2 6
#
2x 1 − x 2 + 3x 3 + 5x 4 = 0, x1 + x2 + · + xn = 1

The following are nonlinear equations:

x + 2y 2 = 1, 3x + 2y − x y = 4
#
2 cos x − y = 3, 2 x1 − x2 = 6

Observe that a linear equation does not involve any products or roots of
variables. All variables occur only to the first power and do not appear, for
example, as arguments of trigonometric, logarithmic, or exponential functions.

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 3254 : S
12 =
0, 7: S

12 =
1, 2 = 2
1 =
2, 4: - 1

2 CHAPTER 1. LINEAR EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES

Definition 1.1.2 A solution of a linear equation (1.1) is the sequence of

n variables s 1 , s 2 , . . . , s n such that the equation is satisfied when the values
s 1 , s 2 , . . . , s n are substituted for x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x n , respectively.
The set of all possible solutions of the equation is called its solution set or
sometimes the general solution of the equation.

■ Example 1.2 Find the solution set of 2x − y = 0

Solution. To find the solution of 2x − y = 0, we can assign an arbitrary value to
x and solve for y or assign an arbitrary value to y and solve for x . For example,
not, 7: 2 t

let x = t , then y = 2t .
↓ EIR

These formula describe the solution set in term of the arbitrary parameter t .
Particular numerical solutions can be obtained by substituting specific values
fort. For example, let t = 1, we have the solution x = 1 and y = 2 and if we let
t = 0, then the solution x = 0 and y = 0. ■

Definition 1.1.3 A system of linear equations (or a linear system) is a

collection of one or more linear equations involving the same variables –
say,x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x n .

A general linear system of m equations in the n unknowns x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x n can

be written as

a 11 x 1 + a 12 x 2 + · · · + a 1n x n = b1
a 21 x 1 + a 22 x 2 + · · · + a 2n x n = b2 (1.2)
.. ..
. .
a m1 x 1 + a m2 x 2 + · · · + a mn x n = bm

where x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x n are variables and ai j , bi are constants for all i = 1, 2, . . . , m

and j = 1, 2, . . . , n .
Definition 1.1.4 A solution of a linear system (1.2) in n unknowns
x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x n is a sequence of n numbers for which the substitution
x 1 = s 1 , x 2 = s 2 , . . . , x n = s n makes each equation a true statement.

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 (1)
1.22- 4:& #

2,3154:5 -
·

: *
-

n
·
·
-1 -

1.1. INTRODUCTION TO LINEAR EQUATIONS 3

■ Example 1.3 The linear system

(2)

5x + y = 3
2x − y = 4

has x = 1, y = −2 as the solution because it is a solution of both equations. On

the other hand, x = 0, y = 3 is not a solution of the system because it satisfies
only the first equation. ■

■ Example 1.4 Solve the following system of the linear equations:

1. 2. 3.
/

x − 2y = −1 x − 2y = −1 x − 2y = −1
-

+
↓

−x + 3y = 3 −x + 2y = 3 −x + 2y = 1
ฯ: 3
Solution. &: 2 &: d

21: 3

1. Adding the two equations together gives y = 2, and then we find that
x = 3. We can check that x = 3, y = 2 is a solution of the system and it is
the unique solution. Geometrically, this means that the lines represented
by the equations in the system intersect at the single point (3, 2).

1 -

* & / ↳

-1

M - 27 :-1

·
1 . ·

/ ↓

-; ·

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 4 CHAPTER 1. LINEAR EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES

Figure 1.1: Example 1.4

To explain the possibilities that can occur in solving systems of linear equa-
tions, consider the linear system

a1 x + b1 y = c1
a2 x + b2 y = c2

in which the graphs of the equations are lines in the x y -plane. The graphs of
these equations are lines, which we denote by l 1 and l 2 . A pair of numbers (x, y)
satisfies both equations in the system if and only if the point (x, y) lies on both l 1
and l 2 . Each solution (x, y) of this system corresponds to a point of intersection
of the lines, so there are three possibilities:

1. The lines l 1 and l 2 may be parallel and distinct, in which case there is no
intersection and consequently no solution.

2. The lines l 1 and l 2 may intersect at only one point, in which case the
system has exactly one solution.

3. The lines l 1 and l 2 may coincide, in which case there are infinitely many
points of intersection (the points on the common line) and consequently
infinitely many solutions.

A system of linear equations is said to be consistent has at least one

solution; a system is inconsistent if it has no solution. Thus, a consistent
linear system of two equations in two unknowns has either one solution or
infinitely many solutions.

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 1.2. GRAPHING LINEAR INEQUALITIES 5

Figure 1.2

1.2 Graphing Linear Inequalities

Recall that an inequality is a statement that contains one of the symbols �
<, ≤ , >, or ≥ . Inequalities in one variable, such as x + 6 < 8 and 5x + 3 ≥ 4x .
The solution set for x + 6 < 8:
21 ( 8- 6: 2

:ENG PR ( 23: ( 0, 2)

The solution set for 5x + 3 ≥ 4x :

1153), &

I >, - 3
-
2.0, 0)
We now extend that concept to linear inequalities in two variables, as we in-
troduce a procedure that is used to graph their solution sets.
Definition 1.2.1 A linear inequality in two variables is an inequality that
can be written in one of the forms

ax + b y > c, ax + b y ≤ c, ax + b y > c, or ax + b y ≥ c

where a, b, and c are real numbers and a and b are not both 0.

■ Example 1.5 The following are linear inequalities in two variables:

x + y ≤ 3, 2x − 3y > 6, y < 2x, y ≥ −2

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 6 CHAPTER 1. LINEAR EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES

Definition 1.2.2 A solution of an inequality in x and y is an ordered pair

(a, b) if a true statement results when the values a and b of the variables x
and y are substituted into the inequality.

■ Example 1.6 Determine whether each ordered pair is a solution of x − y ≤ 5.

Then graph each solution:

(a) (4, 2) (b) (0, −6) (c) (1, −4)

/ *
ป

Solution.

The graph of a linear inequality is a picture that represents the set of all
points whose coordinates satisfy the inequality. In general, such graphs are
regions bounded by a line. We call those regions half-planes, and we use a
two-step procedure to find them.

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 1.2. GRAPHING LINEAR INEQUALITIES 7

Sketching the graph of an equality in two variables

1. Replace the inequality sign by an equal sign, and sketch the graph of
the resulting equation.
(Use a dashed line for > or < and a solid line for ≥ or ≤.)

2. Test one point in each of the regions formed by the graph in Step 1. If
the point satisfies the inequality, shade the entire region to denote that
every point in the region satisfy the inequality.

■ Example 1.7 Sketch the graph of x + y ≤ 3

Solution.

a
of
mores

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 8 CHAPTER 1. LINEAR EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES

■ Example 1.8 Sketch the graph of 2x − 3y > 6

Solution.

21- 2426
my

21 - 34 56

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 1.3. SYSTEM OF LINEAR INEQUALITIES 9

■ Example 1.9 Graph each inequality:

(a) x < 3 (b) y ≥ −2

Solution.

1.3 System of Linear Inequalities

In Section 1.1, we solved system of linear equations graphically by finding the
point of intersection of two lines. Now we consider systems of linear in-
equalities such as

x + y ≥−1
x − y ≥1

Definition 1.3.1 A solution of a system of linear inequalities is an ordered

pair that satisfies each inequality.

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 10 CHAPTER 1. LINEAR EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES

To solve a system of inequalities means to find all of its solutions. This can
be done by graphing each inequality on the same set of axes and finding the
points that are common to every graph in the system.
In this case, however, we are not looking for an intersection of two lines, but
an intersection of two regions. This region represents the solution set of the
system. For systems of linear inequalities, it is helpful to find the vertices of the
solution region.
In general, to solve system of linear inequalities, we will follow these steps.
Solving system of linear inequalities

1. Graph each inequality on the same rectangular coordinate system.

2. Use shading to highlight the intersection of the graphs (the region where
the graphs overlap). The points in this region are the solutions of the
system.

3. As an informal check, pick a point from the region where the graphs
intersect and verify that its coordinates satisfy each inequality of the
original system.

■ Example 1.10 Graph the solution of the system

x + y ≥−1
x − y ≥1

Solution.

· 2 ·

· 1 -

( / # ·:
&
-

-2 -

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 1.3. SYSTEM OF LINEAR INEQUALITIES 11

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 12 CHAPTER 1. LINEAR EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES

■ Example 1.11 Graph the solution of the system

y > 3x
2x + y < 4
a>&
Solution. 7) &
-
Y 3 33
-

-ร

<

↳
->

& -ร

- -

-ร
&

↳ I
#

-
#
-

·
-ร

·
-ร

*
-ร
·

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 1.3. SYSTEM OF LINEAR INEQUALITIES 13

■ Example 1.12 Graph the solution of the system

x ≤ 1
y ≤ 2
2x − y ≤ 4

Solution.

↓
·> 2

I ·

- 2 9 ·

· 4

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MMA103 Applied Linear Algebra for Management 65

Chapter 3
Systems of Linear Equations

3.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations

Definition 3.1.1 A linear equation in the n variables (unknowns) x1 , x 2 ,..., x n is an

equation that can be written in the form
a1 x1  a2 x 2   an x n  b

where the coefficients a1 , a2 ,..., an , and constant term b are real constants and
not all a i equal zero.

Example 3.1.1 The following are linear equations:

3.5 x  2.8 y  15 z   sin   x  3 y  15
2 x1  3 x 2  x 3  5 x 4  1 2a  3b  10c  5
The following equations are not linear equations:
3x 2  2y  1 3 xy  2 y  z  1
y
3 sin x  2e  1  0 3 x  2y  5

Observe that a linear equation does not involve any product of variables, a square of
a variable, or a square root of a variable. All variables occur only to the first power
and do not appear as argument for trigonometric, logarithmic, or exponential
function.

A solution of a linear equation a1 x1  a2 x 2   an x n  b is the sequence

of n variables s1 , s2 ,..., sn such that the equation is satisfied when we substitute
x1  s1 , x2  s2 ,..., x n  sn . The set of all solutions of the equation is called its
solution set or sometimes the general solution of the equation.

Example 3.1.2 Find the solution set of 3 x  y  0

Solution: To find the solution of 3 x  y  0 , we can assign an arbitrary value to x
and solve y or assign an arbitrary value for y and solve for x . For example,

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MMA103 Applied Linear Algebra for Management 66

let x  t , we then have y  3t

These formula describe the solution set in term of the arbitrary parameter t .
Particular numerical solutions can be obtained by substituting specific values for t .
For example, let t  1 , we have the solution x  1, y  3 and let t  0 we have
the solution x  0  y .

A system of linear equations (or a linear system) is a finite set of linear equations
in the variables x1 , x 2 ,..., x n .

An arbitrary system of m linear equations in n variables will be written

a11 x1  a12 x 2    a1n x n  b1
a21 x1  a22 x 2    .a2 n x n  b2
 
am1 x1  am2 x 2    amn x n  bm
where x1 , x 2 ,..., x n are variables and aij , bi are constants for all i  1,2,..., m and
j  1,2,..., n .

A sequence of numbers s1 , s2 ,..., sn is called solution of a system of linear equation

if x1  s1 , x2  s2 ,..., x n  sn is a solution of every equation in the system.

Example 3.1.3 The linear system

2x  3y 1
x  2y  0
has x  2, y  1 as the solution because it is a solution of both equations. On the
other hand x  0, y  0 is not a solution of the system because it satisfies only
the second equation.
Example 4 Solve the following systems of linear equations:
(a) x  y  5 (b) x  y 5 (c) x  y 5
x  y 1 2 x  2 y  10 xy 1

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Solution
(a) Adding the two equations together gives 2 x  6 , so x  3 , and then we find
that y  2 . We can check that x  3 , y  2 is a solution of the system and it
is the unique solution.
(b) The second equation in this system is just twice the first, so the solutions of
the system are the solutions of the first equation. Thus, this system has
infinitely many solutions.
(c) The sum of x and y cannot have a difference 5 and [Link], this system
has no solutions.

To explain the possibilities that can occur in solving systems of linear equations,
consider a linear equation in two variables x and y has the form ax  by  c .
When one of a and b is nonzero, this is the equation of a line in the xy  plane.
Thus a system of two linear equations in the variables x and y consists of a pair of
equations
a1 x  b1 y  c1 (a1 , b1 not both zero )
a2 x  b2 y  c 2 (a2 , b2 not both zero )
The graphs of these equations are lines, say l1 and l2 . Since a point ( x , y ) lies on a
line if and only if the numbers x and y satisfy the equation of the line, the solution
of the system of equations will correspond to points of intersection of l1 and l2 .
There are three possibilities:
(a) the lines l1 and l2 may be parallel, in which case there is no intersection and
consequently no solution to the system; (see Figure 1(a))
(b) the lines l1 and l2 may intersect at only one point, in which case the system
has exactly one solution; (see Figure 1(b))
(c) the lines l1 and l2 may coincide, in which case there are infinitely many
points of intersection and consequently infinitely many solutions to the
system. (see Figure 1(c))

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(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1

Every system of linear equations has either no solution, exactly one solution,
or infinitely many solutions.

A system of linear equations is called consistent if it has at least one solution. A

ผล เฉลย
system with no solutions is called inconsistent. ผล เฉลย

Figure 1(b) and Figure 1(c) show consistent systems, while Figure 1(a) shows
inconsistent system.

A system of m linear equations in n variables;

a11 x1  a12 x 2    a1n x n  b1 321-
24 + 2 = 1

a21 x1  a22 x 2    .a2 n x n  b2 21 - 4

12 : @

  3- 2: 1

am1 x1  am2 x 2    amn x n  bm

-::: ↑
will be written in matrix form;
 a11 a12  a1n   x1   b1  1
2-
&

 a21 a22 a2 n   x 2   b2  /
     
      
a    
 m1 am2  amn   x n  bm 
 x1   b1 
 x2   b2 
or AX  B where A  [ aij ]mn , X    and B    .
   
x  b 
 n  m
:A. 1: B
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MMA103 Applied Linear Algebra for Management 69

The coefficient matrix contains the coefficients of the variables;

 a11 a12  a1n 
 a21 a22 a2 n 
 
   
a 
 m1 am2  amn 
The augmented matrix is the coefficient matrix augmented by an extra column
containing the constant terms;

 a11 a12  a1n b1 

 a21 a22  a2 n b2 
 
    
a a m2 a mn bm 
 m1

For example, the system

3x  y  6z  1
x
 x  2y



8z
z



15
0 · :Tel:
the coefficient matrix is

/
3 1 6
 
1 0  8
 1 2  1
 
the augmented matrix is
3 1 6 1
  -
1 0 8 18*

 1 2
1 0 
 
Remark When constructing an augmented matrix, the variables must be written in
the same order in each equation.

Not that if a variable is missing (as y is in the second equation), its coefficient 0 is
entered in the appropriate position in the matrix.

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3.2 Solving a System of Linear Equations

Two linear equations systems are called equivalent if they have the same
solution sets. For example, ↓
x  y 1
:: lid
x  y 1
It is li
xy 3
and
y  1
are equivalent, since they both have the same solution, x  2, y  1 .
Yer1, m:2
2.2 , y = 1

Our aim to solving a system of linear equations is to transform the given

system into an equivalent one that is easier to solve. The triangular pattern of the
following example is what we will aim for.

Example 3.2.1 Solve the system

x  y  z  2
2y  z  7
3z  3
C :jl
Solution Starting from the last equation, we have z  1 . Next substitute z  1 into
the second equation yield y  3 and then substitute the first equation yield x  4 .
So the unique solution is x  4, y  3, z  1 .

The procedure used to solve Example 3.2.1 is called back substitution

Example 3.2.2 Solve the system

x  y z  2
3 x  3 y  2 z  16
2x  y  z  9
Solution To transform this system into the triangular structure, we first need to
eliminate the variable x from equation 2 and equation 3. Next, eliminate the
variable y from equation 3. Observe that we are operating on the coefficient, not on
the variables, so we also can operate on the corresponding augmented matrix.

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x  y  z  2 1 1 1 2
 
3x  3y  2z  16 3 3 2 16
2x  y  z  9 2 1 1 9 

Subtract 3 times the first equation Subtract 3 times the first row
from the second equation from the second row.
x  y  z  2 1 1 1 2
 
5z  10 0 0 5 10 
2x  y  z  9 2 1 1 9 


Subtract 2 times the first equation Subtract 2 times the first row
from the third equation from the third row

x  y  z  2 1 1 1 2
 
5z  10 0 0 5 10 
y  3z  5 0 1 3 5 


Interchange equations 2 and 3 Interchange rows 2 and 3

x  y  z  2 1 1 1 2
 
y  3z  5 0 1 3 5
5z  10 0 0 5 10 


Using the back substitution, we obtain x  3, y  1, z  2 is the solution

set.

Observe that the final matrix is the augmented matrix for the final system. So we will
work with matrices in stead of equations since it is simple matter to reinsert the
variables before proceeding with the back substitution method.

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Theorem 3.2.1 Let AX  B and CX  D be two systems of m linear equations in

n variables if  A | B and C | D  are row equivalent then they have the same
solution sets

The procedure for reducing a matrix to row echelon form is called Guassian
elimination. The procedure produce a reduced row echelon is called Guass -Jordan
elimination.

Example 3.2.3 Solve the following system by

↓11 - 1 -2 -S I

(a) Gaussian elimination ภ2 3 ⑧

a 1
&

23 ( S 02 3 ⑧

(b) Guass-Jordan elimination I 1 - -2 -S

-CRntRy 1 - 1 - 2 - S

1. -
& / / 3

2 y  3 z  8 1,5> Ry ="
~

S * & & 2

 3y  z  5
&23 ⑧
2x 1
The
corresponding system is

-1. 2 -S 22-
4- 22=- S
 y  2z   5
-24,0R2
x 5 S IS
&

3
·7+
2 =
& 2 3 ⑧
2 : 2
2. 1 1
2

3 &
K=
0, 4:1,
 x2  2 x3  3x4  4
2 3 3 - 1 3 2:2

x1 3 - 4 I 3

042 -
 3x2  3x3  x4  3
2 3
-2R, 1

2 x1 -SR, URy
0

&
1 - - - -
2 14- 14-
S

15

 7 x2  4 x3  x4  5 rnc- eusasantet
s
5 x1
:ห,
-2 R2 + R ·1 1 2 3 4
3
0 1 - - - - 5

#posted
& ·44 -
5

3.
by no
ไ
2 ↳

 2y  z  3
1

x 23 - 1

3- 2 - 1
- a

2x  5y  z  4
- -
↳

-24, 5R2 - .. fe

3x  2y  z  5 R, 5 R3
-3 4
3- 8- 4-

23
ORctRy -, 2
↳ -2RctR, ?? - la

4. 0

&
1

0
-

-
3
18
-I d

-8 4 &4 3

x  y  2 z  4t  5 -21 + 23

&
Sky + RC 1 0 0

& /

2x  2y  3z  t  3 R, + R,
-7
o a 1 3

3x  3y  4 z  2t  1 :12 = 2 , 3 : 1, 2 :3

1 1- 2 4 S
2 2 -3
3
3 3- 4- 2
1

4 5
-24, FR
11 -
2
2
set: t=w, then 2: - > + > W
& & 1 - T -

set: 5, then 3 WeC- T+ 7W) - 4 n

-3 R, 2Rey & 4 : set = 5-
& 2 - 14 ~1 4

siritcarren
2 4 5 45 : 5
-ERROR, -
1 1 :- 1 54 - 22 x

& 9 1- 7 -T 2- 7 += - > [Link] Jantarakhajorn

0: 0.

y
a o . &
are
nous so we
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MMA103 Applied Linear Algebra for Management 73

Solution 1. The augmented matrix for the system is

0 2 3 8
 
 2 3 1 5 
1  1  2  5 
 
Next, we reduce this matrix to row echelon form.

0 2 3 8 1  1  2  5 
   
 2 3 1 5  R1  R3  2 3 1 5 
1  1  2  5  0 2 3 8 
  
1  1  2  5 
 
 2R1  R2  R2 0 5 5 15 
0 2 3 8 

1  1  2  5 
1R  
5 2  0 1 1 3 
0 2 3 8 

1  1  2  5 
 
 2R2  R3  R3 0 1 1 3
0 0 1 2 


The augmented matrix is in row echelon form. The corresponding system is

x  y  2z   5
y 
z  3
z  2
and back substitution gives z  2 , then y  3  z  3  2  1 , and finally
x  5  y  2 z  5  1  4  0 . That is x  0, y  1, z  2 .

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Homogeneous Systems of Linear Equations

A system of linear equations is said to be homogenous if all the constant terms are
zero.

That is, the system is in the form

a11 x1  a12 x 2    a1n x n 0

a21 x1  a22 x 2    .a2 n x n 0

 
am1 x1  am2 x 2    amn x n 0

Every homogenous system of linear equations is consistent, since all such systems
have x1  ...,. x2  ...,....,
.x 
n .... as a solution. This solution is called trivial
.

solution; if there are other solutions, they are called nontrivial solution.

For a homogenous system of linear equations, exactly on of the following is true:

1. The system has only the trivial solution
2. The system has infinitely many nontrivial solutions in addition to the trivial
solution.

We can investigate whether the linear equations system has solution by considering
the rank of its augmented matrix, coefficient matrix and the number of variable.

Definition 3.2.1 The rank of a matrix A , denoted by rank(A) , is the number of

nonzero rows in the row echelon form of A .
For examples,

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 2 1 0 0 1
0 2 0 1 1
3 1 6 1 0 2 0   
    0 0 0 1 0
A  0 1  8 B  0 1 0 0  C
0 0 0 0  3
0 0  1 0 0 0 1   
    0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 

4 0 1 2 0
0 0 2 4  2
D 
0 0 2 4 2 
0 0 0 0 2 


We have
3 3 .....
4 ..... rank (D)  ..........
3 ..... rank (B)  .......... ..... rank(C )  ..........
rank( A)  ..........

Theorem 3.2.2 1. rank (0)  0

2. rank (In )  n
3. rank ( A)  rank ( AT )
4. If A is a m n matrix, then rank ( A)  min{m, n}

Theorem 3.2.3 Let A is a n n matrix. A is invertible if and only if rank( A)  n .

Theorem 3.2.4 If a matrix A is row equivalent to a matrix B , then

rank( A)  rank(B)

Theorem 3.2.5 Let AX  B is a linear equations system of m equations and n

variable, then exactly on of the following is true:
1. If rank ( A)  rank [ A | B ] then AX  B is inconsistent .
2. If rank ( A)  rank [ A | B ]  n then AX  B has exactly one solution.
3. If rank ( A)  rank [ A | B ]  n then AX  B has infinitely many solutions.

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Example 3.2.1 Solve the following linear systems

1.
2 x  8 y  6 z  20
4x  2y  2z   2 Ans. (2,-1,4)
3x  y  z  11
2.
x  2y  2z   1
3x  y  2z  7 Ans. no solution
5x  3y  4z  2
3.
x  2y  3 z  4t  2
2x  4y  5 z  7t  7 Ans. infinitely many solution
 3x  6y  11 z  14 t  0
4.
x  2y  3 z  4t  2
2x  5y  2 z  t  1 Ans. no solution
5x  12 y  7 z  6t  7

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MMA103 Applied Linear Algebra for Management 77

3.3 Cramer’s Rule

In this section we present new techniques for solving a square linear equations
system. In the previous section, we solve them by using row reduction. In this
section, we will solve them by determinants.

Theorem 3.3.1 (Cramer’s Rule) If AX  B is a system of n linear equations in n

unknowns such that det( A)  0 , then the system has a unique solution. This
solution is
det A1  det A2  det An 
x1  , x2  , , x n 
det( A) det( A) det( A)
th
where A j is a matrix obtained by replacing the entries in the j column of A by
the entries in the matrix
 b1 
b2 
B 

b 
 n

Example 3.3.1 Use the Cramer’s Rule to solve

x1  2 x3  6
 3 x1  4 x2  6 x3  30
 x1  2 x2  3 x3  8
Solution:
1 0 2 6 0 2
   
A   3 4 6 A1  30 4 6
 1  2 3 8  2 3
   
 1 6 2 1 0 6
   
A2   3 30 6 A3   3 4 30
  1 8 3  1  2 8 
   
Therefore,

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det( A1 )  40  10 det( A2 ) 72 18
x1    x2   
det( A) 44 11 det( A) 44 11
det( A3 ) 152 38
x3    .
det( A) 44 11

To solve a system of n equations in n unknowns by Cramer’s Rule, it is necessary

to evaluate n  1 determinant of n  n matrices. For system with more than
three equations, Gaussian elimination is more efficient, since it is only necessary
to reduce one n   n  1 augmented matrix. However, Cramer’s Rule does give
a formula for the solution.

Example 3.3.2 Use the Cramer’s Rule to solve

5 x1  2 x 2  x 3  1
1 4
3 x1  2 x2  3 (Ans. x1  , x 2  1, x 3  )
3 3
x1  x2  x3  0
Solution:
1 (
5 -2

3 2 & 3

& / -

&

- 2 ·
&

/ S
-2

5 - 2

A: , it
Pet CA) : 3 2 & Y 2.

& 1 - 1 I (
is

4 +6
↳- 2 +
+ & t
- &

: (3- 2) - (- 1) (
Id +6) = 13 =- - 15

A: : to
Pet CA,

A: ,
il ai GetCAe): ( 194) | 3 grescribed
↳ =- 35 (+) ( IS-< s: - 15

21 : LetAs): :
By :
Get CA,

Get CAT :fe:

4 re: "", ratches, co

Get ( AS
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der): its: 1 *
ue:
Set LA)
MMA103 Applied Linear Algebra for Management 79

Exercise 3.3
1. Solve each of the following systems by Gaussian elimination.
x1  x 2  2 x 3  8
(a)  x1  2 x2  3 x3  1 ans. ( x1  3, x 2  1, x 3  2 )
3 x1  7 x2  4 x3  10

2 x1  2 x2  2 x3  0
(b)  2 x1  5 x2  2 x3  1 ans. ( x1   71 , x 2  71 , x 3  0 )
8 x1  x2  4 x3  1

x  y  2z  w  1
2 x  y  2 z  2w   2
(c)
 x  2y  4z  w  1
3x  3w   3
ans. ( x  s  1, y  2r , z  r , w  s )
 2b  3c  1
(d) 3a  6b  3c   2 ans. Inconsistent.
6a  6b  3c  5
2. Solve each of the systems in Exercise1 by Gauss-Jordan elimination.

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3.4 Solving Linear System by Matrix Inversion

In this section, we will provide a new method for solving system of linear
equations.

Theorem 3.5.1 If A is an invertible n n matrix , then for each n  1 matrix B ,

the system of equations AX  B has exactly one solution, namely, X  A1B

Observe that this method is good for solving a sequence of linear systems
AX  B1 , AX  B2 , AX  B3 ,....., AX  Bk

Each of which has the same coefficient matrix A . If A is invertible, then the
solutions X  A1B1 , X  A1B2 , X  A1B3 ,....., X  A1Bk can be obtained
with one matrix inversion and k matrix multiplications.

Example 3.5.1 Solve the following systems

1. 2.
x1  x 2  x 3  0 x1  x2  x3  2
x1  x2  x3  2 x1  x2  x3  6
 x1  x2  x3  4  x1  x2  x3  0
Solution:
& ↳ -
I a d

I / & 1 &
-

-
/ I do

- R, rRa / -| | a & I Ra 1 1 1 1 0 &

& - 2 2 1 &
$ 1- I I "I &
R,2R3
~1

& & ·I
& 2 & I a

* * ( /9

x 1 &
,
a &
0
I
& /
Ry + R2
-

" Pa
·0 1
&
/ -

· - & ·

& & &

2. eccells is
1 .
B:
( -

I a
↳
-IR, 0
Ru
&
~ &
-

& & &

&1
-

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MMA103 Applied Linear Algebra for Management 81

Example 3.5.2 Solve the following systems

(a) (b)
x1  2 x 2  3 x 3  4 x1  2x2  3x3  1
2 x1  5 x 2  3 x 3  5 2 x1  5x2  3x3  6
x1  8 x3  9 x1  8x3  6
Solution: Exercise

Theorem 3.5.2 If A is an n n matrix, then the following statements are

equivalent.
1. A is invertible
2. AX  0 has only trivial solution, that is X  0
3. A is row equivalent to I n
4. AX  B is consistent for every n  1 matrix B

The following fundamental problem will occur frequently in various contexts.

A Fundamental Problem. Let A be a fixed m n matrix. Find all m  1 matrices B

such that the system of equations AX= B is consistent.

If A is an invertible matrix, Theorem 3.5.1 completely solves this problem by

asserting that for every m  1 matrix B , AX  B has the unique solution X  A1B .
If A is not square, or if A is square but not invertible, then Theorem 3.5.1 does not
apply. In these case the matrix B must satisfy certain conditions in order for
AX  B to be consistent. The following example illustrates how Gaussian elimination
can be used to determine such conditions.
Example 3.5.3 What conditions must b1 ,b2 , and b3 satisfy in order for the system
of equations
x1  x 2  2 x 3  b1
x1  x3  b2
2 x1  x2  3 x3  b3
to be consistent.

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Solution: The augmented matrix is

1 1 2 b1 
 
 1 0 1 b2
2 1 3 b3 
 
which can be reduced to row –echelon form as follows:
1 1 2 b1  1 1 2 b1 
   R1  R2  R2  
 1 0 1 b  0  1  1 b  b
2  2R1  R3  R3  2 1 
2 1 3 b3  0  1  1 b3  2b1 
   
1 1 2 b1 
 
 R2  0 1 1 b 1  b2 
0  1  1 b3  2b1 
 
1 1 2 b1 
 
R2  R3  R3  0 1 1 b1  b2 
 0 0 0 b3  b2  b1 
 
It is now evident from the third row in the matrix that the system has a solution if
and only if b1 ,b2 , and b3 satisfy the condition
b3  b2  b1  0 or b3  b2  b1
Then AX  B is consistent if and only if B is a matrix of the form
 b1 
 
B   b2  where b1 ,b2 , and b3 are arbitrary. 
b1  b2 
 

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Exercise 3.5
1. Solve each of the following systems by Gauss-Jordan and Gaussian
elimination
(a)
x1  x 2  2 x 3  8
 x1  2x2  3x3  1 Ans. (3,1,2)
3 x1  7x2  4 x3  10
(b)
2 x1  2 x2  2 x3  0
1 1
 2 x1  5x2  2 x3  1 Ans.   , ,0 
 7 7 
8 x1  x2  4 x3  1
(c)
x  y  2z  w   1
2 x  y  2 z  2w   2
 x  2y  4z  w  1
3x  3w   3
Ans.  x  s  1, y  2t , z  t , w  s 
2. Solve each of the following systems by Cramer’s Rule, where it applies.
(a)
4 x1  5 x 2  2
3 2 1
11 x 1  x 2  2 x 3  3 Ans.  , , 
 11 11 11 
x1  5 x 2  2 x 3  1
(b)
x1  3 x 2  x 3  4
30 38 40
2 x1  x 2   2 Ans.   , , 
 11 11 11 
4 x1  3x3  0
(c)

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3 x1  x2  x3  4
 x1  7 x2  2 x3  1 Ans. Cramer’s Rule does not
2 x1  6x2  x3  5
apply.
3. Find the condition that b’s must satisfy for the system to be consistent.
(a)
6 x1  4 x 2  b1
3 x1  2 x2  b2

x1  2 x2  5 x3  b1
(b) 4 x1  5 x2  8 x3  b2
 3 x1  3 x2  3 x3  b3

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