Matrices

Definition:

If each entry of a matrix is a real number, then the matrix is called a real matrix.

We may represent matrices in any one of the following ways:

Examples:

Definition of Equality of Matrices

Problem:
𝑥 5 −1 5
Consider the following two matrices, 𝐴 = [ ],𝐵 = [ ]. If 𝐴 = 𝐵, then find 𝑥 and 𝑦.
0 3𝑦 0 9

A matrix that has only one column, is called a column matrix (or column vector).
Example:

A matrix that has only one row, is called a row matrix (or row vector).
Example:

Definition of Matrix Addition

Examples:
(01)

(02)

(03)

Definition of Scalar Multiplication

Note: Real numbers are referred to as scalars.

Observe that we can define subtraction of matrices 𝐴 − 𝐵 using scalar multiplication,
𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝐴 + (−)𝐵
Examples:
Problems:
(01)
1
Find 𝐴 + 𝐵, 𝐴 − 𝐵, 2𝐴 − 𝐵 and 𝐵 + 2 𝐴.

(02)

(03)

Observe that matrix addition is commutative: 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴

Definition of Matrix Multiplication

Observe:

Examples:
(01)
(02)

(03)

(04)
(05)

Observe that, in general matrix multiplication is not commutative!

𝐴𝐵 is not necessarily equal to 𝐵𝐴.

Problem:
(01)

Definition of a Diagonal Matrix

is called a diagonal matrix if all entries that are not on

the main diagonal are zero.

Problem:
(02)
Find the product 𝐴𝐴 for the diagonal matrix,

(03) Prove that if 𝐴 and 𝐵 are diagonal matrices of the same size, then 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴.
Definition:
The trace of an 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐴 is the sum of the main diagonal entries.
That is,

Problem:
 Properties of Matrix Operations

Theorem: Properties of matrix addition and scalar multiplication

Definition of Zero Matrix 𝑶𝒎𝒏

An 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix consisting entirely of zeros is called a zero matrix and is denoted by 𝑂𝑚𝑛 .
It serves as the additive identity for the set of all 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices.
That is

Theorem: Properties of Zero Matrices

I property 2 above, −𝑨 is the additive inverse of 𝑨.

Example:

Problem:

Theorem: Properties of Matrix Multiplication

Example:
Note that there is no general cancellation property for matrix multiplication. i.e., if 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐵𝐶,
it is not necessarily true that 𝐴 = 𝐵.
Example:

Problems:
(01) Demonstrate that if 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂, then it is not necessarily true that 𝐴 = 𝑂 or 𝐵 = 𝑂 for the
following matrices.
(02) Explain why the following formulas are not valid for matrices.

Definition of Identity matrix 𝑰𝒏 :

The square matrix of order 𝑛 that has 1’s on the main diagonal and 0’s elsewhere is called the
identity matrix and is denoted by 𝐼𝑛 .

Examples:

Theorem: Properties of the Identity Matrix

Observe that 𝑰𝒏 serves as the identity for matrix multiplication.

Problems:
(03) Perform the indicated operations when

The Transpose of a Matrix

Examples:

Observe that the matrix 𝐶 above is equal to its transpose.

Theorem: Properties of Transposes

Examples:
(01)
(02)
 Properties of Matrix Operations

Theorem: Properties of matrix addition and scalar multiplication

Definition of Zero Matrix 𝑶𝒎𝒏

An 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix consisting entirely of zeros is called a zero matrix and is denoted by 𝑂𝑚𝑛 .
Example:

It serves as the additive identity for the set of all 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices.

That is

Theorem: Properties of Zero Matrices

In property 2 above, −𝑨 is the additive inverse of 𝑨.

Example:

Problem:
(01)
Theorem: Properties of Matrix Multiplication

Example:

Note that there is no general cancellation property for matrix multiplication. i.e., if 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐵𝐶,
it is not necessarily true that 𝐴 = 𝐵.
Example:

Problems:
(02) Demonstrate that if 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂, then it is not necessarily true that 𝐴 = 𝑂 or 𝐵 = 𝑂 for the
following matrices.

(03) Explain why the following formulas are not valid for matrices.

Definition of Identity matrix 𝑰𝒏 :

The square matrix of order 𝑛 that has 1’s on the main diagonal and 0’s elsewhere is called the
identity matrix and is denoted by 𝐼𝑛 .
Examples:

Theorem: Properties of the Identity Matrix

Observe that 𝑰𝒏 serves as the identity for matrix multiplication.

Problem:
(04) Perform the indicated operations when
The Transpose of a Matrix

Examples:

Observe that the matrix 𝐶 above is equal to its transpose.

A square matrix is called skew symmetric if

Theorem: Properties of Transposes

Examples:

(01)
(02)

Problems:

(05)

(06)
Determine whether the below matrices are symmetric, skew-symmetric or neither.

(07)
(08)
 The Inverse of a Matrix

Definition: Inverse of a matrix

A is invertible or nonsingular AB = BA = In
Observe that
• nonsquare matrices do not have inverses (Why?)
• not all square matrices posses inverses
A is invertible matrix, then its inverse is unique.

Theorem: Uniqueness of an Inverse Matrix

Proof:

Example:
Solution:

Remark:
If 𝑨 and 𝑩 are both square matrices of order 𝒏 and 𝑨𝑩 = 𝑰𝒏 , then it can be shown that
𝑩𝑨 = 𝑰𝒏 .

Problem:
(01) Show that 𝐵 is the inverse of 𝐴.

Using a system of equations to find the inverse of a matrix

Example:
Now we will generalize the method used in above example.
To do this we need some knowledge in elementary row operations.

Elementary Row Operations

 Remark:
In (c) above, adding -2 times the first row to the third row, does not change row one.
It only changes row three.

Finding the Inverse of a Matrix

.
Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method Adjoining matrix I to A A:I

Consider the previous example once again. Notice first that the two systems of linear equations:

have the same coefficient matrix. Rather than solve two systems represented by

1. Adjoining A:I
2. using elementary row operation
Finding the inverse result I : A -1 if it is not possible, then
A is noninvertible
 -1 -1
3. check AA = I = A A

If 𝐴 cannot be row reduced to 𝐼𝑛 , then 𝐴 is noninvertible (or singular).

Example:

Solution:
Example: A singular (noninvertible) matrix
Solution:

Problem:
(02) Find the inverses of the matrices given below (if they exist).
Inverse of a 𝟐 × 𝟐 matrix:

Remark:

Examples:

Solution:
Theorem: Properties of Inverse Matrices

Proof:

Problem:
(03) Prove properties 2 and 4 in above theorem.
Example:

Solution:

Problems:
(04) Use the inverse of the matrices to find
(05) Find 𝑥 such that the matrix is equal to its own inverse.

(06) Find 𝑥 such that the matrix is singular.

Theorem: The inverse of a Product

Proof:

Remark:

Example:
Theorem: Cancellation Properties

Proof:

Remark:
The above cancellation properties apply only if 𝐶 is invertible.

Problems:
(07) Prove that the inverse of a symmetric nonsingular matrix is symmetric.
(08)
(09)

(10)
(11)
 Elementary Matrices

The three elementary row operations:

Definition: Elementary Matrix

Remark:

Examples:
With Elementary matrices we can use matrix multiplication to perform elementary row
operations.

Examples:
(Interchanging two rows)
(Multiplying a row by a nonzero constant)

(Adding a multiple of a row to another row)

Theorem: Representing Elementary Row Operations

Remark:
Problems:
(01) Determine whether the matrix is elementary and if it is, state the elementary row operation
used to produce it.

(02) Given

Definition: Row-Echelon Form of a Matrix

Examples: Row-echelon form

Reduced row-echelon form

Example:

Solution:
Remark: This method is however not practical for performing Gaussian Elimination.

Definition: Row Equivalence

Theorem: Elementary matrices are invertible

Examples:

Problems:
(03) Find inverses of the following elementary matrices
(a)

(b)

(c)

Theorem:
Example:

Solution

Remark:
Problems:
(04) Find the inverse of matrices using elementary matrices

(05) Factor the following matrix into a product of elementary matrices

(06)

(07)

Definition:

Problems:
(08) Determine whether the matrix is idempotent
(09)

(10)
 Determinants

Definition: Determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix

Remark:
It is common practice to delete the matrix brackets and write

Examples:
Solution:

Remark:
The determinant can be negative, zero or positive

Now we extend this definition to higher order matrices:

Definition: Minors and Cofactors

Example:

Example:

Solution:
Definition: Determinant of a matrix

Example:

Solution:
Remark:

Theorem: Expansion by Cofactors

Example:

Solution:
Triangular Matrices

Definition:
A square matrix is called upper triangular if it has all zero entries below its main diagonal.

A square matrix is called lower triangular if it has all zero entries above its main diagonal.

Observe that a diagonal matrix is both upper and lower triangular.

Observe the following:
The determinant of

Theorem: Determinant of a triangular matrix

Examples:

Solution:

Problems:
(01) Solve for 𝑥.

(02) Find values of 𝜆 for which the determinant is zero.

(03)

The effects of Elementary Row Operations on a Determinant

Theorem:

Example: Evaluating a determinant using elementary row operations.

Solution:
Theorem:

Observe that the above theorem does not give the only conditions that produce a determinant of
zero. The following is an example to demonstrate this:

Examples:
Solution:

Solution:
 Properties of Determinants
Observe the following example:

Solution:

Theorem:
Theorem:

Example:

Solution:

Problems:

(01)
In the following problem find
Then verify that
(02)

(03)

(04)

Definition:
An invertible square matrix 𝐴 is called orthogonal if 𝐴−1 = 𝐴𝑇 .

Problem:
Determine whether the matrix is orthogonal
Determinants and the Inverse of a Matrix

Theorem:

Example:

Solution:

Theorem:
Proof:

Example:

Solution:

Theorem:

Example:
Solution:

The Adjoint of a Matrix

If 𝐴 is a square matrix, then the matrix of cofactors of 𝐴 has the form

Example:
Solution:

Theorem:
Example:

Solution:

Remark:
The above theorem is not very efficient for calculating inverses, it is theoretically useful,
however, because it gives a concise formula for the inverse of a matrix.