Reproduction is the process by which organisms produce their offspring (young ones of the same kind).

There
are 2 types of reproduction; asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction.

Asexual reproduction is the type of reproduction where gametes (sex cells) are not involved. In asexual
reproduction only one parent is involved, the parent organism produces new cells by mitosis. Asexual
reproduction occurs in unicellular organism and in some plants. Examples of asexual reproduction include;
binary fission, budding, spore formation and vegetative propagation.

This is the type of asexual reproduction where a parent cell divides into two daughter cells. It usually occurs
in single celled organisms like amoeba and certain bacteria.
Binary fission (splitting) in amoeba;

First the parent cell grows bigger in size by increasing the amount of cytoplasm. The parent cell is the cell that
undergoes cell division. Then the DNA replicates and the nucleus undergoes mitosis, forming two daughter
nuclei. The cell membrane constricts, dividing the cytoplasm into two so that each nucleus is surrounded by
its own cytoplasm. Finally the two daughter cells separate. Daughter cells are the resulting two cells.

This is the type of asexual reproduction where a parent cell develops an outgrowth called a bud. The bud
increases in size and eventually detaches from the parent plant and becomes an independent organism.
Examples of an organisms in which budding occurs are yeast.

Budding in yeast;

First an outgrowth (bud) develops. The outgrowth feeds on food from the parent and grows. The outgrowth
becomes larger and breaks off to form a new individual.

This is the type of asexual reproduction where spores are formed. Spores are reproductive units; they are
produced when conditions are not favourable for sexual reproduction. This type of reproduction occurs in ferns
and fungi such as Rhizopus and Mucor.

Page 1 of 19
Importance of fungi and bacteria
Bacteria and fungi play an important role in decomposing dead organic matter. They cause decay of dead
organic matter, releasing nutrients into the soil; they also release carbon and nitrogen from the dead organisms.
Bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia and nitrates which can be absorbed from the soil and
used by plants.
Useful fungi include mushrooms and penicillin. Mushrooms are a good source of food rich in protein, dietary
fibre and vitamin B. penicillin is an antibiotic used to treat bacterial infection.
Harmful fungi cause disease such as athlete’s foot and ringworms. They also cause diseases to plants and
animals. Fungus such as moulds may destroy food granaries (large buildings for storing wheat or other similar
crops).

This is the type of asexual reproduction in flowering plants where new plants are grown from vegetative parts
(roots, stems and leaves) without involving seeds. Vegetative propagation can either be natural or artificial.

This is the type of asexual reproduction in which plants naturally propagate themselves using perennating
organs. Examples of perennating organs are; root tubers, stem tubers, corms, suckers, bulbs, runners and
rhizomes. Perennating organs possess buds and adventitious roots.
When vegetative propagation occurs naturally, it usually results from the growth of a lateral bud on a stem
which is close to or under the stem. The bud produces a complete plant with roots, stem and leaves.

Root Tuber: these are roots with food reserves. New plants develop from the auxiliary buds at the base of
the old stem. Examples of root tubers are sweet potatoes and carrots.

Stem Tuber: this is an underground stem that has become swollen because of stored food. Stem tubers have
eye buds (buds and leaf scales) that are able to grow into new plants. In suitable conditions, the bud uses the
stored food to form shoots from which roots develop. Irish potatoes are an example of a stem tuber.

Page 2 of 19
If the tubers are left underground or transplanted, the lateral buds at the base of the potato shoot produce
underground shoots (rhizomes). Sucrose is transported to underground stems through the phloem by
translocation. The sucrose is then converted to starch. The rhizomes swell up with stored food and form tubers.
The buds on the stems will produce shoots using food stored in tubers.

Corms: this is a swollen vertical underground stem with apical and axillary buds which can grow into new
shoots. Vegetative propagation takes place when a lateral bud on the stem grows into an independent plant.
Examples of corms include; cocoyam, gladiolus, crocus and colocasia.

Adventitious roots arise randomly from the stem. Shoots are produced by terminal buds. Vegetative
propagation takes place when a lateral bud grows into an independent plant.

Runners: these are horizontal stems growing above the ground. Runners have buds at nodes, which may
develop into shoots and roots. Before the roots and shoots develop, the buds obtain their food from the parent
plant. Buds develop into young plants which make their own food. When internodes of the runner decay, a
number of new plants become independent of the parent plant. Examples are strawberry plants, sweet potatoes
and lawn grass.

Page 3 of 19
Suckers: these are underground lateral branches of stems terminal buds and adventitious roots. Examples are
bananas.

The sucker produces aerial shoots with adventitious roots. When fully grown, this new plant will produce
suckers.

Bulbs: A bulb is made of underground fleshy leaves growing from a short stem (which does not store food).
Food is stored in the leaves which are modified to form bulbs. The stored food is used by the rapidly growing
terminal bud. Terminal bulbs found at the centre of the bulb produce shoots. The food made by the leaves is
sent to the base of the leaves and stored. The leaf bases swell and form a new bulb ready for growth the
following year. Vegetative propagation occurs when the food is sent to the lateral buds and leaf bases. The
lateral bud grows inside the parent bulb and next year will produce an independent plant. Adventitious roots
arise directly from the stem. E.g. garlic and onion.

Rhizome: this is a swollen underground horizontal stem e.g. ginger. At the nodes of rhizomes are terminal
buds which form shoots, the lateral buds develop into branches, and the adventitious roots grow from the stem.
Shoots become independent when the connecting rhizome dies.

This is the growing of plants from vegetative propagative parts of plants. Examples include budding, grafting,
cutting and layering.

Page 4 of 19
Cutting
A part of the stem is cut from a parent plant and then planted. The best place to cut is just below a node. The
cutting is either put in a jar of water or in moist soil until adventitious roots appear. Leaves are removed from
the stem to prevent transpiration. Sugar cane and cassava are propagated this way.

Grafting
Grafting involves attaching part of a plant (especially the stem) onto another plant of the same species or
genus. The scion is the cut plant; it is the part that has the desired stem, leaves, fruits or flowers. The stock
(host) provides an already established root system. The stock and scion are cut with shapes that fit into each
other before being tied together; the cambia from the two plants should be brought into direct contact. Grafting
is used in growing of citrus fruits such as oranges and lemons.

Layering
This method is used to grow plants that do not produce seeds. First a branch close to the ground is selected,
and then a ring of bark is removed from a low lying branch to expose the cambium. It is then carefully bent so
that it touches the soil (moist soil to stimulate the development of adventitious roots). Then the part of the
plant touching the soil is buried and pegs are placed to keep the branch in the soil. The buried part is regularly
watered. Roots develop and once established its cut and transplanted elsewhere. Strawberry plants can be
propagated in this way.

Budding
Budding involves cutting a bud from one plant and joining it to another plant of the same or related species
with an established root system. The bud is called the scion while the plant to which the bud is joined is called
the root stock. The bud is cut in such a way that it has some cambium. The cambium from the two parts has
to be in contact. The two parts are tied together leaving the bud exposed. Citrus fruits can be propagated in
this way.

Page 5 of 19
Advantages of vegetative reproduction
1. Plants can be produced even when seed production fails.
2. It ensures that varieties of useful plants are kept unchanged as new plants are produced from one parent.
3. There is more production and population increases fast.

Disadvantages of vegetative propagation

1. Plants are not widely dispersed and as such they do not colonise new areas.
2. Plants are usually crowded and compete for light, water and nutrients.
3. Since all the plants are genetically the same, there is a danger of them being wiped out in case of disease
outbreak.

Advantages of asexual reproduction:

1. A mate is not required for offspring to be produced, so only one parent is needed.
2. No gametes are needed.
3. Large numbers of offspring can be produced within a short period.
4. Desirable features of parents are passed on to the offspring unchanged.
5. No pollination and dispersal agents for plants required.

Disadvantages of asexual reproduction:

1. Undesirable features of parents are passed on to the offspring unchanged.
2. Lack of dispersal leads to overcrowding and competition for resources (water, nutrients, light).
3. Lack of genetic variation makes it difficult to adapt to a variety of habitats.
4. If the parent has no resistance to a particular disease, none of the offspring will have resistance.

Sexual reproduction is the type of reproduction in which offspring are produced by the fusion of male and
female sex gametes. Flowers are sexual reproductive organs of plants. The male part of the flower is called
the stamen and a female part is called the carpel. The function of a flower is to make gametes and ensure that
fertilisation takes place.

Page 6 of 19
Functions of flower parts:
Flower stalk (pedicel): supports the flower, attaches the flower to the stem and conducts water, nutrients and
hormones between the stem and the flower.
Receptacle: provides attachment for other floral parts.
Sepals: these are leaf like structures, they enclose the flower in the bud stage and protect it from desiccation
(drying up) and from mechanical damage. They are usually green; if green they photosynthesize, if colourful
they attract insects for pollination.
Petals: are brightly coloured and sometimes scented in insect pollinated flowers Petals also enclose and protect
the male and female parts against mechanical damage. At the base of petals are nectary glands which make
nectar. Nectar is a liquid which insects feed on. Petals are collectively referred to as corolla.
Stamen : these are male parts of a flower. They comprise of:
a. Anther: this is the male organ where pollen grains are produced. It contains pollen sacs in which pollen
grains are formed. Pollen grains contain male gametes that are used for fertilisation.
b. Filament: this is a flexible stalk supports the anther and also holds the anther in position for pollen
distribution, they also conduct water and nutrients to the anthers.
Carpel (Pistil): these are female parts of the flower, they comprise of:
a. Stigma: receives pollen grains during pollination and induces their germination of pollen tubes.
b. Style: holds the stigma in position to receive pollen grains and links the stigma it to the ovary, allows
growth of pollen tube during fertilisation.
c. Ovary: this is the female organ where ovules are formed. Ovules contain female gametes, which are
fertilised after pollination. The ovary develops into the fruit after fertilisation. Ovules develop into seeds
after fertilisation.
Structure of an embryo sac;

Antipodal cells are nutritive in function, they nourish the embryo sac. Polar nuclei fuse with the male gamete
nucleus to form a triploid endosperm nucleus which divides to form the endosperm. Synergids guide the
growth of pollen tubes by secreting chemicals.

Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or another flower
but of the same species. There are two types of pollination; self-pollination and cross pollination. Self-
pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to the stigma of the same flower. Cross pollination
is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower on one plant to the stigma of a flower on another
plant of the same species.

Differences between self-pollination and cross pollination

Self-pollination Cross pollination
Anthers and stigma may mature at the same time Anthers and stigma usually mature at different times
Stamen are short Stamens are usually long
May produce chemicals that hinder self –pollination Do not produce such chemicals
Most flowers face up Most flowers face down

Page 7 of 19
Disadvantages of self-pollination:
1. It is a form of inbreeding and this may result in loss of resistance to pathogenic and deficiency diseases.
2. Plants may transmit undesirable characteristics to their offspring.
3. It may give rise to sterile seeds which may not germinate.

Disadvantages of cross pollination:

1. It is difficult to maintain a pure breed since different genetic materials are exchanged.
2. Pollination may be hindered if species are separated by geographical barriers such as mountains, rivers
and seas.

Agents of pollination include insects and wind.

Differences between insect pollinated flowers and wind pollinated flowers:

Insect pollinated flower Wind pollinated flower
Generally large to be seen by insects. Generally small.
Large brightly coloured and scented petals Small dull coloured non-scented petals.
Have nectaries to secrete nectar No nectaries
Pollen grains are large, sticky and heavy to enable Pollen grains are small, smooth and light to be
them to stick on the body of an insect. blown easily by wind.
Stigmas are sticky and feathery Stigmas are large and feathery
Stigma lies within the petals. Stigma located outside the flower
Have small anthers Have large anthers
Anthers are enclosed within petals Anthers hang outside the flower
Filaments are short and firm. Filaments are long and dangling
Anthers are firmly supported Anthers are loosely supported

Fertilisation
Fertilisation is the fusion of the female and male gametes to form a zygote.

After pollination, the pollen grain absorbs water from the stigma and germinates on the stigma to form a pollen
tube which develops and penetrates the stigma, it then grows through the style and ovary until it reaches the
embryo sac inside the ovule. After reaching the micropyle (an opening in the wall of the ovule), the tube
nucleus disintegrates to release the two nuclei. One male gamete fuses with a female gamete resulting in
formation of a zygote. The other male gamete fuses with the two polar nuclei giving rise to a triploid nucleus
which forms the primary endosperm nucleus. The endosperm acts as a food storage tissue.

Page 8 of 19
After fertilisation has taken place, further changes take place leading to fruit and seed formation. First the
floral parts such as the style, stigma, petals and sepals dry and fall off. The zygote inside the ovule divides by
mitosis forming the embryo composed of a radicle (embryonic root) and plumule (embryonic shoot) with one
or two cotyledons. The primary endosperm nucleus divides by mitosis and eventually forms the endosperm.
The ovule develops into the seed which is composed of the embryo and endosperm. The integuments (ovule
wall) develop into the seed coat or testa. The ovary develops into fruit.

FRUITS
A fruit is an ovary after fertilisation containing seeds.
Fruits may be classified as follows:
1. Succulent fruits
2. Dry fruits
3. True fruits
4. False fruits
5. Simple fruits
6. Composite/aggregate fruits

Structure of a fruit;

Succulent fruits:
These are fruits that are fleshy or juicy. They can be further classified into:
a. Berries: these are fruits with many seeds embedded in the endocarp. Both endocarp and mesocarp are
fleshy. Examples include; tomatoes, oranges, lemons, guavas, water melons etc.
b. Drupes: these are fruits with a hard and dry endocarp enclosing only one seed. The mesocarp is usually
fleshy. Examples include; mango, plums, avocados, coconuts, peach etc.
c. Pomes: these are fruits whose succulent part is formed from the receptacle. Examples include; apples,
pears, quince etc.
Dry fruits:
These are non-succulent fruits. They can be classified as:
a) Dehiscent fruits: these are dry fruits whose pericarp splits open when mature and dry to release seeds. They
include bean pod, pea pod etc.
b) Indehiscent fruits: these are dry fruits with pericarps that do not split open to release seeds. They include
maize grain, wheat grain, cashew nuts, jacaranda etc.
True fruits:
These are fruits that develop from the ovary without other parts being modified to become part of the fruit.
Examples: oranges, lemons, tomatoes, bean pod, mangoes etc.
False fruits:
These are fruits that develop from the ovary together with other floral parts modified to become part of the
fruit. Floral parts such as the receptacle. They include: pineapples, apples, pears etc.
Simple fruits:
These are fruits that develop from a single ovary e.g. avocado and mango.
Composite / aggregate fruits:

Page 9 of 19
These are fruits that develop from several ovaries, e.g. strawberries, raspberries.

FRUIT AND SEED DISPERSAL

Dispersal is the scattering of fruits or seeds from the parent plant to other places. Fruits are adapted to disperse
their seeds as effectively as possible. Agents of dispersal include: wind, water, animals and self-dispersal
(explosive mechanism).

Wind –dispersed seeds:

1. Tend to be small and light so they can easily be carried by air current and float easily.
2. They have wing-like structures for flight and to increase the surface area for buoyancy (being able to float).
E.g. jacaranda and sycamore.
3. Some have hair-like structures that increase buoyancy in the air current. These hairs act like a parachute.
E.g. dandelion
4. Are loosely attached to the stalk so they can detach easily when shaken by wind.

Examples of wind- dispersed fruits are sycamore and dandelion.

Water – dispersed seeds:

1. Some have a fibrous pericarp that enables them to float in water. The fibrous mesocarp traps air and
increases buoyancy. E.g. coconut.
2. The epicarp is waterproof to protect the seed against soaking.
3. They are also air light to enable them float in water.

Animal- dispersed seeds:

1. Some have hooks or are sticky to cling to bodies of animals. E.g black jack.
2. Some are succulent to attract animals. E.g. mangoes
3. Some are brightly coloured to attract animals. E.g. oranges
4. Some are scented to attract animals. E.g. oranges
5. The seed coat is resistant to digestive enzymes of the animal. The undigested seeds are passed out. E.g.
guavas

Self – dispersed/ explosive mechanism:

1. They have dry pods that split open along the line of weakness. E.g. bean pod, pea pod.

Page 10 of 19
Frogs use external fertilisation (fertilisation occurs outside the body). Frogs require water in order to
reproduce; this is because they lay their eggs in water and larval stages are adapted to obtain oxygen from
water. During copulation, the female frog produces eggs which are simultaneously fertilised by the male. The
eggs are then left to develop. After 10 days the embryo is ready to hatch and is called a larva or a tadpole.
The tadpoles are well adapted for life in water, they use gills for gaseous exchange, they eat water plants and
small aquatic animals, and they also have muscular tails to help them swim. When tadpoles develop into frogs
they develop lungs and lose their gills and tail.

Human bodies have gonads (sex organs) used for reproduction. Male and female gametes occur as part of the
reproductive system.

The Male Reproductive System:

The function of the male reproductive system is to produce sperm, testosterone ( the male sex hormone) and
to deliver sperms into the vagina.

Page 11 of 19
Functions of parts of the male reproductive system:
Testes: produce sperms and the hormone testosterone. Testes are found outside the abdominal cavity in a
special skin like sac called a scrotum.
Scrotum: holds the testes outside the body, keeping them cooler than the body temperature. A low temperature
is more effective for sperm production and storage. Sperm production is very sensitive to heat, if it’s too hot
sperms will not be formed.
Epididymis: temporary stores sperms; it also conducts sperms between the seminiferous tubules (in the testes)
and the vas deferens.
Vas deferens (sperm duct): it links the testis to the urethra to allow transportation of semen containing sperms
from the epididymis to the urethra during ejaculation.
Urethra: it passes through the penis and may conduct either semen containing sperm from the sperm duct
through the penis; or carry urine from the bladder at different times.
Penis: deposit semen into the vagina during sexual intercourse.
Prostate gland: secretes a fluid which activates sperms and adds nutrients/ nourishes sperm to form semen.
Semen aids in movement of sperms.
Cowper’s gland: produces a clear secretion (mucus) which forms the fluid part semen. This fluid also cleans
the system (by neutralising urine) before ejaculation. The fluid secreted by the Cowper’s gland also provides
some lubrication for the tip of the penis during sexual intercourse.
Seminal vesicle: secretes a fluid which contains nutrients which nourish the sperm and aids sperm mobility.
Secretions of the prostate gland, Cowper’s gland and seminal vesicle increase the bulk of semen and provide
nourishment to the sperms.

The female reproductive system:

The function of the female reproductive system is to produce ova and deliver them to oviducts, produce sex
hormones oestrogen and progesterone and to prepare the uterus wall for implantation and embryo
development.

Page 12 of 19
Functions of parts of the female reproductive system:
Ovaries: they are responsible for the formation of ova (eggs), release of eggs and production of oestrogen and
progesterone.
Oviduct (fallopian tube): transports ova from the ovary to the uterus; it is also the site for fertilisation. Oviduct
is lined with ciliated cells which aid in movement of ovum. Funnel of oviduct collects eggs after ovulation.
Uterus: is a highly elastic organ. It is the site for implantation of the zygote after fertilisation and embryo
development. It also nourishes and protects the foetus during pregnancy. Muscles of the uterus contract and
push the foetus down the vagina during child birth.
Cervix: separates the vagina from the uterus; it contracts during pregnancy and dilates prior to child birth.
It produces watery mucus which helps the sperm to swim through to the uterus; mucus also lubricates the
vagina during sexual intercourse. The cervix is usually closed during pregnancy to prevent the foetus from
being expelled before full development.
Vagina: is a tube where the penis is inserted during copulation (sexual intercourse), it receives sperms during
copulation; it is also the birth canal.

Primary sexual characteristics:

Primary sexual characters refer to the sex organs (uterus, vagina, penis and testes) and reproductive systems;
that a person is born with.
Formation of gametes:
The lining of the seminiferous tubules in the testes consists of rapidly dividing cells; these cells grow long
tails (flagellae) and become sperms.
At birth, a girl has approximately 1 million eggs in her ovaries, meaning no more ova are formed during the
female’s lifetime. At puberty, she is capable of producing mature ova. Between ages of 10 & 14, the egg cells
start to mature and are released one at a time about every 4 weeks from alternate ovaries.
Secondary sexual characteristics:
Secondary sexual characteristics refer to other visible changes that mark adult maturation; they develop during
puberty. Puberty is the stage in the human life during which adolescents reach sexual maturity and become
capable of reproduction.

Male secondary sexual characteristics:

 Sperm production.
 Enlargement of penis and testicles.
 Development of pubic hair around the genital parts and hair in the arm pits.
 Development of beards and hair on the chest.
 Deepening of voice.
 The body becomes more muscular.
 Pimples may appear on the face.
Female secondary sexual characteristics:
 Menstrual cycle begins.
 Enlargement of breasts.
 Widening of hips.
 Development of pubic hair around genital parts and hair in the armpits.
 Enlargement of vagina.
 Pimples may appear on the face.

The menstrual cycle is a recurring process in which the lining of the uterus is prepared for pregnancy, and if
pregnancy does not occur, the lining is shed at menstruation. Menstruation is the shedding of the uterus lining
together with some blood through the blood if the ovum is not fertilised.

Page 13 of 19
The human menstrual cycles are very variable but the “model” cycle lasts 28 days in which a woman
experiences ovulation and menstruation, one after the other. The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones
produced by the pituitary gland (Follicle Stimulating Hormone and Luteinising hormone) and ovaries
(Oestrogen).
On the first day of the menstrual cycle the pituitary gland secretes Follicle Stimulating hormone and luteinising
hormone. The follicle stimulating hormone promotes the growth of eggs in the ovaries. The follicle stimulating
hormone also stimulates development of the follicle. Follicle stimulating hormone and luteinising hormone
also stimulate the ovaries to produce oestrogen.
Oestrogen brings about repair of the uterus lining and it promotes thickening of the uterus lining. Oestrogen
also inhibits production of follicle stimulating hormone. It also stimulates the release of the luteinising
hormone. It also causes change in cervical mucus.
The pituitary gland produces Luteinising hormone which is responsible for the release of ova and promotes
development of the corpus luteum.
When the follicle is fully developed; it projects from the surface of the ovary like a blister. Ovulation occurs
and the ovaries stop secreting oestrogen. Finally, the follicle bursts and releases the ovum (ovulation).
Ovulation is the release of ovum from the ovary. The empty follicle is now called a corpus luteum. After the
ovum is released it is wafted down the oviduct by the action of cilia.
The corpus luteum produces progesterone which also promotes thickening of the uterus lining. If the ovum is
fertilised, the corpus luteum continues secreting progesterone until the embryo sinks in the uterus wall, then
the placenta starts secreting progesterone through pregnancy maintaining the uterus lining and prevents
menstruation from occurring during pregnancy. If the egg is not fertilised, the corpus luteum gradually
disappears, no more progesterone is secreted so the uterus lining breaks down and menstruation occurs.
A new follicle starts to develop in the ovary and the cycle begins again.

At menopause, the ovaries cease to produce ova and hormones, the menstrual periods cease, the woman can
no longer have children, menstrual cycles become irregular, sexual desire is gradually reduced.

Fertilisation is the fusion of the male and female gamete to form a zygote. Fertilisation occurs in the oviduct.

Page 14 of 19
The egg; The sperm;

The nucleus of the ovum fuses with the sperm nucleus to form a zygote during fertilisation.
The head of the sperm has enzymes which dissolve the zona pellucida during fertilisation. The middle piece
contains mitochondria which provide energy the sperm needs for swimming. The tail is used for swimming to
the ovum before fertilisation can occur.

Differences between an egg cell and a sperm cell

1. Eggs are produced in the ovaries while sperms are produced in the testes.
2. Eggs are larger while sperms are smaller.
3. Only one egg is produced in a month while many sperms are produced all the time.
4. Eggs cannot move on their own while sperms are able to move using a tail.

After fertilisation, the zygote travels through the oviduct towards the uterus and repeatedly divides by mitosis
to form an embryo. Once it reaches the uterus, the embryo undergoes implantation. Implantation is the process
by which an embryo gets attached to the wall of the uterus.

Twins
Twins can be identical or non – identical. Sometimes a mother may have twins, triplets or even more children
at a time. Having twins tends to run into families.
Identical twins result when the ball of cells formed from the zygote divides completely into two soon after
fertilisation. Each ball of cells then grows into a separate embryo although they often share the same placenta.
The two embryos have each developed from the same egg and sperm, so they have they exact same genes,
they are the same sex and are often very difficult to tell apart.
Non – identical twins are formed when two separate eggs are fertilised by two separate sperms. This can only
happen when more than one egg is released from the ovaries at the same time. Each embryo has its own
placenta. The two embryos are no more alike than normal brothers and sisters, because each has developed
from a separate egg and sperm.

As the embryo develops it forms a temporal organ known as the placenta, some cells of the embryo develop
into amniotic membrane. By the eighth week, vital organs develop and the embryo is now referred to as a
foetus. As the embryo grows, the uterus enlarges to contain it.

Page 15 of 19
The placenta: it is attached to the embryo by the umbilical cord; however there is no direct contact between
the mother’s blood and the foetus’ blood they are separated by the wall of the placenta. The placenta prevents
mixing of maternal blood and foetal blood. It also serves as a medium of exchange of dissolved food and
oxygen between the mother and foetus. It also removes waste products from the foetus. It also supplies
antibodies to the foetus hence providing passive immunity to certain diseases to the foetus. It also protects the
foetus from the mother’s high blood pressure. The placenta also produces progesterone which maintains the
lining of the uterus wall during pregnancy, by preventing menstruation and breakdown of uterus lining.
Umbilical cord: it contains blood vessels (umbilical artery and umbilical vein). The umbilical artery takes
blood from the embryo to the placenta; it mainly carries metabolic wastes from the embryo to the placenta.
The umbilical vein returns blood to the embryo; carries dissolved food and oxygen from the placenta to the
embryo.
Amnion: the amnion is a strong membrane surrounding the embryo. The amnion is responsible for enclosing
the amniotic fluid, producing amniotic fluid and it prevents entry of bacteria.
Amniotic fluid: the amniotic fluid protects the foetus from mechanical shock. It also prevents unequal
pressures from acting on the foetus. It acts as a lubricant as the foetus moves. It also maintains a constant
temperature around the environment of the foetus. It also protects the foetus from drying out (dehydration)
Uterus: It is the site for implantation of the zygote after fertilisation and embryo development. It also nourishes
and protects the foetus during pregnancy. Muscles of the uterus contract and push the foetus down the vagina
during child birth.

Growth of the foetus requires a good supply of nutrients and oxygen, the foetus gets all the nutrients required
from the mother so she needs to pay particular attention to what she consumes. She also needs to bear in mind
that harmful substances can also cross the placenta. The harmful substances affect the foetus negatively.
Harmful substances include; cigarette smoke, alcohol and viruses. Carbon monoxide in cigarette smoke
reduces the amount of oxygen available to cells of the foetus; this leads to low birth weight. Alcohol
consumption can cause foetal alcoholic syndrome (FAS) which is characterised by mental retardation and
deformation of the baby. Viruses may affect the foetus and cause still birth or abortion. Viruses can also cause
defects to the eyes, ears and nervous system.

The care a woman receives during pregnancy is crucial for her own health as well as the health of her unborn
child. Antenatal (before birth) care is a routine care for the healthy pregnant woman. It incorporates the way a
woman should look after herself during pregnancy, so that the birth will be safe and her baby healthy. Antenatal
services are available at clinics and hospitals.

Page 16 of 19
The mother-to-be should ensure that she eats properly so the foetus can develop properly. She needs more
iron, proteins, calcium, carbohydrates, vitamins and other minerals. She needs Iron to prevent anaemia and for
formation of foetal red blood cells. She needs Amino acids for healthy growth and development of the foetus.
She needs more calcium for development of foetal skeleton. She needs more carbohydrates for growth and
energy. She needs vitamins and other minerals for proper regulation of metabolic processes.
She should avoid smoking, alcohol and caffeine. She should not take any drugs unless they are strictly
necessary and prescribed by the doctor.
A pregnant woman needs to exercise as physical activity will keep her muscles strong. She should also give
birth at a health facility.

Gestation period refers to the period of time between fertilisation and birth. In humans, gestation period takes
about 9 months/ 266-270 days/ 38 weeks.
Birth happens at the end of a pregnancy when a baby is pushed out from a woman’s uterus. Normal birth
occurs through the vagina. If birth cannot happen naturally, the baby will be taken out of the mother’s uterus
by caesarean section.
First the pituitary gland secretes the hormone oxytocin. This hormone initiates contraction of the uterus wall
(labour). The cervix becomes dilates until it is wide enough to allow the baby’s head to pass. Pressure caused
by contractions of the uterus causes the amnion to burst, releasing the amniotic fluid. The vagina also stretches
for the passage of the baby. The baby is expelled from the uterus due to contractions of the uterus and
abdominal muscles. The umbilical cord will then be cut as the baby no longer needs the placenta. The final
stage is the expulsion of the placenta after it detaches from the uterus through the vagina (after birth).

Infertility can be defined as the inability to reproduce.

Causes of infertility in men:

In males, infertility is caused by problems that affect either sperm production or transportation of sperm. These
include:

1. Sperm production problems; this could be as a result of undescended testicles, infections, radiation,
smoking, and varicocele (varicose veins in the testes). Undescended testicles may produce abnormal sperm
which may have an unusual shape, making it harder to move and fertilise an egg. Varicose veins in the
testes may prevent natural cooling of the testes and as a result may affect sperm production. Smoking
deteriorates the quality and count of sperm.
2. Sperm transport problems; this could be as a result of blockage or damage of tubes that carry sperms from
the testes to the penis, this would cut out the flow of sperms. Blockage or damage may be as a result of
infections, physical damage and prostate related problems.
3. Sexual problems such as erection and ejaculation.
4. Hormonal problems; pituitary gland may fail to communicate effectively to testicles, causing lower
production of testosterone and lack of sperm production by the testes.
5. Alcohol can also affect fertility by altering sperm count, size and motility.
6. Injury or infection in the epididymis.
7. Sexually transmitted diseases which cause inflammation in the scrotum.

Causes of infertility in women:

In females, the most common causes of infertility are associated with ovulation, damage to fallopian tubes or
uterus. Age can also be a contributing factor, because as a woman ages her fertility naturally tends to decrease.
They include:
1. Ovulation problems; they may be caused by hormone imbalance, tumour or cyst, eating disorders, alcohol
or drug use, excess weight, stress and extremely brief menstrual cycles.
Page 17 of 19
2. Damage to oviduct caused by pelvic inflammatory disease and fibroids. Inflammatory disease can be as a
result of sexually transmitted diseases.
3. Damaged ovaries caused by physical damage or infection of the ovaries.
4. Endometriosis; this is the abnormal growth of tissues outside the uterus. It can affect the ovaries, uterus,
eggs and fallopian tubes.
5. Abnormal cervical mucus; it can prevent sperm from reaching the egg or make it difficult for the sperm to
penetrate the egg.

This is the action people take in order to prevent pregnancy. Birth control methods can also be called
contraceptive methods. Birth control methods can either be natural or artificial.

Natural methods include; withdrawal method and rhythm method.

Withdrawal method: this is the withdrawal of the penis from the vagina just before ejaculation. This method
is unreliable because fluids that a man releases before ejaculation contain traces of sperm.
Rhythm method: couples only have sexual intercourse during safe periods of the menstrual cycle when
fertilisation is less likely to occur. This method is unreliable because ovulation period cannot be easily
predicted.

Artificial methods can be chemical, mechanical and surgical.

Chemical methods: they include; contraception pill, contraception injection and spermicides.
Contraception pill and injection: hormones such as oestrogen and progesterone are administered in form of
pills and injections to prevent ovulation and implantation. They are both very effective if taken according to
prescription. Very reliable though they have side effects such as interfering with the pattern of the menstrual
cycle, nausea and weight gain or cervical cancer.
Spermicides: these are chemical substances that are applied inside the vagina before sexual intercourse.
Spermicides kill or immobilise sperm. It is a reliable birth control method but should only be used with
diaphragm.
Mechanical (barrier) methods: these include; condom, diaphragm and intra-uterine device.
Condoms: this is a thin rubber sheath placed on an erect penis before intercourse. It traps semen prevents them
from being deposited directly into the vagina. It also prevents transmission of sexually transmitted infections.
Condoms are reliable when used right.
Diaphragm (cap): is a flexible rubber cap fitted over the cervix so as to block sperm from entering the uterus.
It is more reliable if inserted correctly and if used with spermicides. The diaphragm must be fitted by the
doctor.

Intra – uterine device (IUD): this is a T – shaped plastic or metal that is placed inside the uterus by the doctor
into the wall of the uterus where it probably prevents implantation of the fertilised ovum. It is very effective
but there is a small risk of uterine infections.
Surgical methods: these include tubal ligation and vasectomy.
Tubal ligation (laparotomy): oviducts are tied, blocked or cut. This method is very reliable and irreversible.
The ovaries are unaffected, sexual desire and menstruation continues as before, but sperm can no longer reach
the ova.
Vasectomy: this is the cutting and tying of vas deferens (sperm ducts) to block passage of sperm from the
testicles. This method is reliable but can hardly be reversed.
Benefits of using contraceptives (birth control):
1. Helps prevent unwanted pregnancies.
2. Women are empowered to decide when they are ready to have a baby.
3. Contraceptives such as condoms prevent unwanted pregnancies

Page 18 of 19
Risks of using contraceptive:
1. Disturbed menstrual cycle.
2. Weight gain.
3. Hormonal imbalance.

Differences between sexual and asexual reproduction:

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
Brought about by cell division, binary fission, Brought about by sexual reproductive organs
spore formation and vegetative propagation. in plants and animals.
Only one parent plant is required. Two parent plants are required.
No sex cells are required. Male and female sex cells are required.
Undergoes mitosis. Undergoes meiosis.
Offspring are genetically identical to parent. Offspring are genetically different from both
parents.
Rate of reproduction rapid under favourable Rate of reproduction takes long.
conditions.
Population increases rapidly. Population increases slowly.
No zygote is formed. Fertilisation forms a zygote.
Occurs in unicellular organisms and in some Occurs in plants and more complex
plants. organisms.

Page 19 of 19