Building Supporting Skills GRAMMAR REVIEW: CLAUSES AND SENTENCE STRUCTURE Sentences are made up of clauses. A clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a verb, Independent clauses Independent clauses contain a subject and verb and convey a complete idea. Three types of sentences contain independent clauses: simple sentences, compound sentences, and complex sentences. Simple sentences are made up of one independent clause with one subject and one verb. Read the examples below: sv The cat ran. sv Last night the fat black cat ran swiftly under the speeding blue sports car Compound sentences are made up of two (or sometimes more) independent clauses that are joined by a conjunction such as and, but, of, nor, or yet: sv soy ‘The cat ran and the dog chased it soy sv Kelly wanted to take the geometry course, but it was offered at the same time as her biochemistry lab. sv sv We could trade in our old car, or we could keep it as a second car. Complex sentences are made up of one or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. A dependent clause is an incomplete sentence. It needs to be connected to an independent clause. For more information about dependent clauses, see below: ‘OEPENDE! s[romuse | v ‘The cat that I saw ran. DEPENDENT 8 OLAUSE v Last night, the fat black cat that I saw in the street ran under the speeding [DEPENDENT CLAUSE ——>, blue sports car as the big shaggy dog chased after it. 87Part 1 Building Supporting Skills 88 Dependent clauses Dependent clauses have a subject and a verb, but they do not form complete sentences. They must be connected to an independent clause, Look at the following dependent clauses: sv that she wanted soy when the children played with it Both of the dependent clauses above have a subject and a verb. However, they are not complete sentences. These dependent clauses can be made into sentences if they are connected to independent clauses, as shown in the examples below: ‘The DVD that she wanted was on sale. The toy broke when the children played with it ‘The above sentences aze now complete. In the first example, the dependent clause “chat she wanted” has been connected to the independent clause “The DVD was on sale.” The dependent clause gives further information; in this example, it says which DVD was on sale. In the second example, the dependent clause “when the children played with it” has been connected to the independent clause "The toy broke.” The dependent clause gives additional information, in this example, it says who broke the toy (the children) and when the toy was broken {while the children played with it] For more information about dependent clauses, see Grammar Review: Noun, Adjective, and Adverb Clauses, p. 89. Exercises G8-G9 use Exercises G8-G9 to practice your skills in identifying sentence structure. EXERCISE G8 /dentifying complete sentences Check (/) the complete sentences. 1, __ Is spreading its wings? 2, __ The rain came suddenly, 3, __ Swimming is an invigorating sport. 4, __ The start of industrialization in the Midlands EXERCISE G9 Identifying compound sentences Weite 8 above the subject or subjects. Write V above the verb or verbs. Then write C in front of the compound sentences, s Vv Differences among environmental groups illustrate a broad range of philosophies and tactics. s ov s v C _ Beethoven wrote the Grosse Fuge for string quartet, but he later transcribed for piano fourhands.Building Supporting Skills 1, ___ Soil is highly fertile in volcanic areas, and volcanic activity offers advantages such as geothermal energy. 2, ___ Women with very narrow pelvises are more likely to experience potentially life-threatening problems during childbirth. 3, Oncollective farms, land, buildings, and equipment are shared, the farmers ‘work together, and the profits are divided equally. Life expectancy, or the average length of an individual life, varies over time within the same community and from community to community at the same time. GRAMMAR REVIEW: NOUN, ADJECTIVE, AND ADVERB CLAUSES ‘There are three kinds of dependent clauses; noun clauses, adjective clauses, and adverb clauses, Information about their structure and function is presented below. Noun clauses ‘Noun clauses are dependent clauses that are introduced by a noun clause marker. Like all dependent clauses, they have a subject and a verb but are not complete sentences. Noun clauses ean be used in exactly the same way as nouns. Compare the following uses of nouns and noun clauses: Subject Sam's jokes are very funny. (noun) What Sam says is very funny. (noun clause) Object ‘The man told us the address. (noun) ‘The man told us where he lived. (noun clause) Object of a preposition I wasn't asked about the party. {noun} I wasn't asked about who was invited. (noun clause} ‘The chart below lists noun clause markers that can introduce noun clauses, with examples. Netieectroiurl ene ‘That indicates a fact. Tknew that he had to go. What focuses on a fact, Everyone was surprised at what he brought for the picnic. When indicates a time. He told us when the plane would arrive. Where indicates a place. Where they are going on their honeymoon is a secret, Why indicates a reason, She wouldn't say why he left so early. Who indicates a person. Who sent the letter is a mystery to me. How many indicates a quantity. T've lost count of how many times I’ve broken my glasses. 89art 4 Bullding Supporting Skills How much indicates an amount. | He wasn’t paying attention to how much he ate. ‘How indicates a manner, He showed us how he was going to win the race. Which indicates a choice. I didn’t know which book I was supposed to read. “Whether indicates two or more | I didn’t know whether I should bring my alternatives. bike or leave it at home. Whose indicates possession. Inever found out whose car was parked outside our house. Whom indicates a person. Sue didn’t know whom he was talking to. “yfindicates alternatives. 1 didn’t know if should bring my bike. * When used as clause markets, ifand whether are interchangeable. ‘The noun clause marker that can be left out if the noun clause is the object of the sentence: Object position janet noticed [that] the window was broken. That cannot be left out if the noun clause is the subject of the sentence: Subject position ‘That he passed is a miracle. Ifa noun clause is used in the subject position, there must be a verb in the independent clause: —s— ‘That he might fall worries me. Ifa noun clause is used in the object position, there must be a subject and a verb in the independent clause: 8 vp oBuECT——, Sam knew what he had to do, Verb tenses in noun clauses ‘The verb tense used in a noun clause must make sense with the verb tense of the independent clause: Correct Last week Antonio asked where we were going. Last week indicates that the action of asking took place in the past. The verb tense were going indicates that the action of going could have occurred at any point in time after Antonio asked the question. Correct Last week Antonio asked where we had gone. Last week indicates that the action of asking took place in the past. The verb tense ‘had gone indicates that the action of going occurred before Antonio asked the question. Incorrect Last week Antonio asked where we will go. ‘The verb tense will go {future] in the noun clause does not make sense with the verb tense asked (past} in the inclependent clause.Building Supporting Skills Adjective clauses Adjective clauses are dependent clauses that are used like adjectives to describe, identify, or give more information about nouns and indefinite pronouns (eg, someone, anybody, and everything.) Like all dependent clauses, adjective clauses have a subject and a verb but they do not form complete sentences. Some examples are shown below: Noun -———abu 6LaUsE——— ‘The house that has the green shutters is for sale. rou ps cLAUSE———— ‘The woman whose son won the award was out of town. PRONOUN ;-———ADu cLAUsE———— Anybody who finishes the test early can leave. NOUN. -—ADJ cLAUSE— Sams uncle, who is very rich, came for a visit. Adjective clause markers ‘An adjective clause is introduced by a clause marker that refers to the noun or pronoun it follows. The most common adjective clause markers are the relative pronouns who, whom, which, whose, and that: + Who and whom are used to refer to people. Who is used in the subject position of a clause, and whom is used in the object position: The man who saw the child works nearby. (Who refers to the man.| The man whom we saw works nearby. [Whom refers to the man.) * Which is used to refer to things: Her watch, which I liked, was not valuable, (Which refers to the watch.) * That can be used to refer to either people or things: ‘The man that was hired lives in the blue house. (That refers to the man.) The vase that I bought was handmade. (That refers to the vase.) * Whose is used to refer to the person or thing that possesses something: ‘The woman whose car broke down needs a ride, (Whose refers to the woman.) ‘The car whose hood is dented belongs to that man. (W/hose refers to the car} The clause markers where, when, and whereby can also be used to introduce adjective clauses: + Where is used to refer to a location or the name of a location: ‘The school where I met my husband is now closed. (Where refers to the location: the school.) * When is used to refer to a time: That was the year when we moved to Alaska. (When refers to the year} + Whereby is used to refer to words indicating an agreement: They made a deal whereby she would pay for the expenses and he would complete the work by Saturday. [Whereby refers to the deal.) 91Part 1 Building Supporting Skills Within adjective clauses, relative pronoun clause markers can fill the same function as nouns. They can be subjects, objects, or objects of prepositions, Subject ‘The woman Object ‘The woman Object of a ‘The woman preposition "aps [Link] —) soy om who wrote the book has just left al ons sv whom I saw was in a hucry. ADV CLAUSE ce 084 oF to whom I owe a big favor lives nearby. PREP SV The clause markers where, when, and whereby take an adverb position: avs ov ops ‘The store where I bought my camera is having a sele. Omitting clause markers Sometimes adjective clause markers can be omitted. If the relative pronoun is the object of the adjective clause, it can be omitted: oss ‘The picture [that] I wanted had been sold. If the relative pronoun is the object of the preposition in the adjective clause, it can be omitted, and the preposition goes to the end of the clause: 08s 0F PREP Sv ‘The man for whom I work gave me a raise. sv PREP The man I work for has given me a raise. However, if the relative pronoun is omitted: sv the subject of the adjective clause, it cannot he ‘The man who quit forgot his papers. ‘The clause marker when can be omitted, but the relative pronoun whose cannot: ‘That was the year [when] the miners were on strike. ‘The man whose opinion we respect teaches at the local community college. Where and whereby cannot be omitted: ‘Thav’s the room where I was born. ‘The factory devised a system whereby we could get more overtime work. Verb tenses in adjective clauses Although the tenses of the adjective clause and the independent clause may differ, they must be logical together. In both of the following sentences, the verb in the adjective clause is in the past tense and the verb in the independent clause is in the present continuous tense, However, the first sentence is correct and the second one does not make sense: Correct Incorrect ‘The man who sang at the concert last night is sitting over there. The bug that was killed is buzzing around my head,Building Supporting Skills In the second sentence, it is illogical for a bug to have been killed in the past and to be buzzing around now. Reduced adjective clauses Some adjective clauses can be reduced to phrases. Unlike a clause, a phrase is a group of words that does not contain both a subject and a verb, ‘An adjective clause can often be reduced to an adjective phrase when the relative pronoun of the adjective clause is the subject of the clause. Study the following examples to see how the clause is reduced. Note that the clause marker as well as the auxiliary verbs and/or the verb be are omitted. Any changes to the main verb depend on the voice. The -ing form is used for the active voice, and the -ed form is used for the passive voice 1, active voice: © The man who is driving has a new car, {clause} * The man driving has a new cer. (phrase) * The writer published a book that contains illustrations. (clause) * The writer published a book containing illustrations. (phrase) © ‘The magazine ad, which was printed in Shopper’s Weekly, showed the city skyline. [clause] © The magazine ad printed in Shopper’s Weekly showed the city skyline. {phrase} © The ideas that had been presented in the previous meeting were discussed. (clause) © The ideas presented in the previous meeting were discussed. (phrase) 3. subject + to be + adjective: © The man who is responsible said the underground water had a high salt content. (clause) © The man responsible said the underground water had a high salt content. {phrase] 4, subject + so be + noun: * Hername, which is Ann, is easy to remember. (clause] © Her name, Ann, is easy to remember, (phrase) 5, subject + to be + prepositional phrase: * The books that are on the table belong to Emma. {clause} * The books on the table belong to Emma, (phrase) A verb that is used to indicate a permanent characteristic takes the -ing form in an adjective phrase: 6. present: « The window that overlooks the yard is broken. « The window overlooking the yard is broken. 7. past: © The window that overlooked the yard was broken. © The window overlooking the yard was broken. 93Part 1 Building Supporting Skills 94 A verb that is used to indicate an ongoing activity also takes the -ing form: 8. present continuous: © The detective who is investigating the case has found an important clue © ‘The detective investigating the case has found an important clue. 9, past continuous: * The detective who was investigating the case found an important clue. * The detective investigating the case found an important clue. Some adjective clauses cannot be reduced to an adjective phrase. When a clause marker is the object of a clausal verb, it cannot be reduced to an adjective phrase: Correct ‘The books that I checked out of the library are due today Incorrect ‘The books checking out of the library are due today. In the example above, the adjective clause cannot be shortened to “checking out of the library” because the subject books is not the subject for the verb check. Books cannot “check” themselves out. An adjective clause beginning with whose cannot be reduced without a change in meaning: ‘The woman whose son is blocking the entrance works upstairs The woman blocking the entrance works upstairs. Although the second sentence above is grammatically correct, it no longer has the same meaning as the first sentence, In the first sentence, the son is blocking the entrance. In the second sentence, the woman is blocking the entrance. An adjective clause beginning with a clause marker that takes the adverb position cannot be reduced to an adjective phrase: Correct The time when Andrew arrived was inconvenient. Incorrect The time arriving was inconvenient. ‘The time arriving was inconvenient” is incorrect because the time did not arrive; Andrew did. Correct ‘The house where we grew up was tom down, Incorrect ‘The house growing up was torn down, “The house growing up was torn down" is incorrect because the house did not grow ‘up; we did, Adverb clauses Adverb clauses are dependent clauses {incomplete sentences) with a subject and a verb. They function like adverbs. They may occur at the beginning of a sentence before an independent clause or at the end of a sentence after an independent clause. When they oceur at the beginning, they are frequently separated from the independent clause by a comma: Even though Ted knew the material, he failed the exam, Ted failed the exam even though he knew the material.Building Supporting Skills Adverb clause markers Below are some clause markers commonly used to introduce adverb clauses: 1, clause markers indicating time: after bythe time untill as now that when aslongas once whenever assoonas since while before The people danced while the music played We worked as long as we could. 2, clause markers indicating concessions: although even though though as much as except that whereas despite the fact that in spite of the fact that while even if not that Jim has a cat, despite the fact that he is allergic to them. Jeany’s smile is an important factor in her success, even if she doesn’t realize it, 3. clause markers indicating cause and effect (reason): as incase 80 because since We should take a first-aid kit in ease there is an accident. Since Max seldom talks about himself, { didn’t know he liked classical ballet. 4, clause markers indicating results: sothat so...that such... that 1 ike to live on campus so that I don’t have to commute. The traffic was so heavy that we arrived an hour late. She got such a shock that she dropped the tray. . clause markers indicating puxpose: inorderthat_ soso that ‘He wrote that memo in order that there would be no misunderstandings, bought the book so that I could read on the flight. 6. clause markers indicating manner as asif —asthough just as _—_—like Betty looks as if something is wrong. ‘The wind was cold yesterday just as it had been ell week long. 7, clause markers indicating place: where wherever everywhere Wherever I looked, I found fingerprints Everywhere he went, people admired him. 95Part 1 Building Supporting Skills 96 8. clause markers indicating conditions: evenif ifonly if provided unless We can go camping with Bill provided we bring our own equipment. Lucy can't attend the meeting unless she finds a baby-sitter. An adverb clause must hegin with a clause marker: ‘When Sam arrives, we'll open the gifts. I want to leave now so I'll get home eatly. However, if the auxiliary word or verb in a conditional clause is should, were, or had, itis sometimes put at the beginning of the clause and the clause marker if is, omitted: If he had planned on going, he would have let us know. Had he planned on going, he would have let us know. Verb tenses in adverb clauses As with all dependent clauses, an adverb clause must be used with an independent clause: INDEPENDENT CLAUSE [—— Ao otause ~—, Lenny can’t work until the cast is off his foot. In most cases, the verb in the adverb clause has the same tense as the verb in the independent clause, The following cases are exceptions: + clauses of time Ifa time clause refers to something that will happen, it takes the present tense: As soon as I find my shoes, we'll leave. * clauses of reason Ifa clause of reason introduced by the markers in case or just in case refers to a possible future situation, the clause is in the simple present tense: Ym bringing my umbrella in case it rains. * clauses of purpose If the verb in the independent clause is in the present or present perfect tense, one of the modals can, may, will, or shall is usually used: Iwant to leam to type so that I can type my own essays, If the verb in the independent clause is in the past tense, one of the modals could, might, would, or should is usually used: Margo wrote the items on a list so that we would remember everything. + clauses of condition Ifa sentence concerns a common occurrence, the simple present or the present continuous tense is used in both the adverb clause and the independent clause: If someone speaks to Lily, she turns red. Ifa sentence concerns a common occurrence in the past, the simple past or past continuous tense is used in the adverb clause, and the simple past and a modal are used in the independent clause: He couldn't sleep unless he got a lot of exerciseBuilding Supporting Skills Ifa sentence concems a possible situation in the present, the simple present or the present perfect tense is used in the adverb clause and a modal is used in the independent clause: If you don’t believe me, you can ask Mike. Hf you haven't done any climbing before, you should get some professional adviee. Ifa sentence concerns a possible future occurrence, the simple present is used in the adverb clause and the simple future tense is used in the independent clause: Ifhe goes, I will go too. Ifa sentence concerns an unlikely situation, the simple past is used in the adver’ clause and would, should, or might is used in the independent clause If Lasked for another raise, my boss would fire me. Ifa sentence concerns something that could have happened in the past but did not happen, the past perfect tense is used in the adverb clause and would have, could have, should have, or might have is used in the independent clause: If [had realized the danger at that time, I would have taken more precautions. Reduced adverb clauses Some adverb clauses can be reduced to phrases without changing their meaning. Remember that a clause contains a subject and a verb, but a phrase does not, ‘An adverb clause can be reduced to an adverb phrase only when the subject of the independent clause is the same as the subject of the adverb clause. Study the examples below to see how adverb clauses are reduced 1. Time sequences with after, before, once, since, until, when, and while: Alter they sang two songs, the performers did a dance. (clause) ‘Alter singing two songs, the performers did a dance. {phrase} Before he answered the phone, he grabbed a pencil and notepad. (clause| Before answering the phone, he grabbed a pencil and notepad. (phrase} ‘Once he had been challenged to play tennis, Tim wouldn't stop practicing, {clause} ‘Once challenged to play tennis, Tim wouldz’t stop practicing, (phrase] Since she finished studying at the university, Ellen has gone on to become a successful designer. (clause) Since studying at the university, Ellen has gone on to become a successful designer, (phrase) He fidgeted with his keys until he dropped them. (clause) He fidgeted with his keys until dropping them. (phrase) ‘When she is working in her garden, Jan always wears a floppy hat. {clause} ‘When working in her garden, Jan always wears a floppy hat. (phrasc) While George was away in London, he wrote daily. (clause) While away in London, George wrote daily. (phrase) 7Part 1 Building Supporting Skills 2. Giving reasons with because When a clause introduced by because is reduced, because is omitted and the verb changes form: Because she had always been interested in sports, Linda became an avid supporter of the team. (clause} Having always been interested in sports, Linda became an avid supporter of the team. (phrase) 3. Clauses of concession with although, despite, in spite of, though, and while: Although he was hurt, Jack managed to smile. (clause) Although hurt, Jack managed to smile. (phrase| Despite the fact that she was ill, Lisa went on stage. (clause) Despite being ill, Lisa went on stage. (phrase) In spite of the fact that she works long hours, Joan spends a lot of time with her family. (clause) In spite of working long hours, Joan spends a lot of time with her family. (phrase) Though I am capable of making cakes, I prefer to bake cookies. (clause) ‘Though capable of making eakes, I prefer to bake cookies. (phrase} While I am fond of Jeff, I don't want to marry him, (clause) While fond of Jeff, don't want to marry him, (phrase] ‘The verb in a reduced adverb clause can be in one of two forms. The -ing form is used for the active voice, and the -ed form (the past participle} is used for the passive voice * active voice Present tense ‘When I work, I forget to eat. When working, I forget to eat. Past tense: While he was studying, he heard the explosion, While studying, he heard the explosion. Perfect tenses After he had finished the book, he put it on the table. Alter finishing the book, he put it on the table. Alter having finished the book, he put it on the table. + passive voice Present tense: The building will be used as a convention center when it is completed, ‘When completed, the building will be used as a convention center. Past tense: ‘When the boy was told to go to bed, he began to cry. ‘When told to go to bed, the boy began to ery. Perfect tenses: Because the house has been remodeled, it will get more on the market. Having been remodeled, the house will get more on the market 98Building Supporting Skills When the subject of an adverb clause and the subject of the independent clause are not the same, the adverb clause cannot be reduced. Reducing the adverb clause changes the meaning: @ Same subject: Ever since she graduated, Sue has been working for an engineering firm. {clause} Ever since graduating, Sue has been working for an engineering firm. (phrase) © Different subjects: Alter Sue graduated, her parents retired. (clause) (= The daughter graduated, then her parents retired.) ‘After graduating, her parents retired. [phrase] {= Her parents graduated, then her parents retired.) Adverd clauses, beginning with as or as soon as, cannot be reduced: Conect As he was walking, he kept stopping to look at the flowers. Incorrect As walking, he kept stopping to look at the flowers. Exercises G10-G14_ Use Exercises C10-Gl4 to build your skills in identifying and analyzing complex sentences, clauses, and phrases. EXERCISE G10 Analyzing complex sentences with noun clauses Analyze the sentences below. Bollow these steps: a. Underline the noun clause. b. Circle the clause marker ©, Write IS above the independent clause subject and IV above the independent clause verb, . Write ds above the dependent clause subject and dy above the dependent clause verb. fees Sv ae eae i ‘GEowradiosctive antibodies can help locate tumors was discussed at the conference. 1. That rent-control laws may inhibit landlords from repairing properties is, unfortunate but true. 2, Studies of newborn infants show that some perceptual processes, such as depth perception, may be inherited. 3, How glass is blown in a cylinder was demonstrated at the Stuart Crystal Factory. 4, One can easily understand why fast-food restaurants are so popular. 99Part 1 Building Supporting Skills 100 EXERCISE G11 Analyzing complex sentences with adjective clauses Analyze the sentences below, Follow these steps: 4. Underline the adjective clause. b. Circle the clause marker if there is one and the word the clause marker relates to. c. Write IS above the independent clause subject and IV above the independent clause verb. d. Write ds above the dependent clause subject and dv above the dependent clause vyerb—in this case, the adjective clause. 1. A species of tomato that is adapted to harsh climatic conditions has been developed. ‘The date on which Romulus founded Rome is generally considered to be 753 BCE. 3. In the Colosseum in Ancient Rome, cranes lifted cages to a level where the animals could enter the arena up a ramp. 4, The common hedgehog, which has outlived the mammoth and the saber-oothed tiger, is now threatened by automobile trafic. 5, Many English villages have churches that date back to Norman times ot before. 6. Shakespeare wrote plays people have enjoyed for four centuries. 7, People who are in charge of ticket reservations wam travelers to book early during the high seasons 8. Walt Disney was a man whose creations still bring heppiness to many children. 9, Using low doses of antibiotics that don’t kill bacteria only increases these germs’ resistance. 10, The only USS. president the people did not choose in a national presidential election wwas President Gerald Ford. EXERCISE G12. [dentifying adjective phrases Check (/) the sentences that have adjective phrases, and underline the phrases. 1. ___. Helen Keller became a role model for all people trying to overcome severe obstacles. 2. ‘The track leading into the ancient city of Petra follows 2 mile-long canyon that ends in front of an impressive temple carved out of the sandstone cliffs 3. ___ Identical twins who have been raised apart have shown amazing similarities on physical, intelligence, and behavioral tests. 4, __. The highest ruins found in the Andes have yet to be properly examined because of their inaccessibility.Building Supporting Skills EXERCISE G13 Analyzing complex sentences with adverb clauses ‘Analyze the sentences below. Follow these steps: a. Underline the adverb clause. », Circle the clause marker. c, Write IS above the independent clause subject and IV above the independent clause verb. d. Write ds above the dependent clause subject and dy above the dependent clause verb — in this case, the adverb clause. 1. Hundreds of pandas starved to death when one of the species of bamboo on which they feed died out. 2. While the world population continues to grow, natural resources remain finite. 3, Because the ice crystals from which they form are usually hexagonal, snowflakes often have six sides, 4, Antiochus was overthrown by Rome around 34 BCE after he apparently used some of his funds to support a local rebellion backed by the Persians. 5, The Romans built raised sidewalks of stone in Pompeii so that pedestrians would xnot get their feet muddy. 6, Although the existence of germs was verified in about 1600, scientists did not prove the connection hetween germs and diseases until the mid-nineteenth century. 7, Since the search to find and document sites of Native American cave paintings was first begun, several hundred have come to light. 8, Aphrodisias continued as a Byzantine center until violent earthquakes and invasions brought its prosperity to an end. EXERCISE G14. Identifying adverb phrases Check (V/ the sentences that have adverb phrases, and underline the phrases. L In winter, the Magdalen Islands are almost as isolated as when Cartier first discovered them, Once covered by thick, solid ice during the last Ice Age, the land now is one of the greatest continuous areas of dense coniferous forests in the world known as the boreal forest. 3, __ By the time neweomers to the United States had passed through the ‘immigration center on Ellis Island, they had been screened for certain contagious diseases. 4, __ When building Hadrian's Wall, the Romans erected towers about every mile. 101