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DCN 3 RD Unit

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Geetha Supriya
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SECXi036 - ComPUTER COMMUNICATION untran PREPARED BY — [Link] PAGE 1of 32 UNIT I MEDIUM ACCESS SUB LAYER AND TRANSPORT PROTOCOL The Medium Access Sub Layer : The channel allocation problem, Multiple access Protocols, Ethernet, Wireless LANs, Broadband Wireless, Bluetooth, Data Link Layer Switching. The Network Layer: Network Layer Design Issues, Routing Algorithms, Congestion Control Algorithms, Quality of Service. The Transport Protocol: The Transport Service, Elements of transport protocol, Performance Issues 3.1 THE MEDIUM ACCESS SUB LAYER: To coordinate the access to the channel, multiple access protocols are requiring, All these protocols belong to the MAC sub layer. Data Link layer is divided into two sub layers: 1. Logical Link Control (LLC)- is responsible for error control & flow control 2. Medium Access Control (MAC)- MAC is responsible for multiple access resolutions Netclayor Dats tne layer ; Physical yer 3.2 THE CHANNEL ALLOCATION PROBLEM In broadcast networks, single channel is shared by several stations. This channel can be allocated to only one transmitting user at a time. There are two different methods of channel allocations: 1. Static Channel Allocation- a single channel is divided among various users either on the basis of frequency (FDM) or on the basis of time (TDM). In FDM, fixed frequency is assigned to each user, whereas, in TDM, fixed time slot is assigned to each user. 2, Dynamic Channel Allocation- no user is assigned fixed frequency or fixed time slot. All users are dynamically assigned frequency or time slot, depending upon the requirements of the user 3.3 MULTIPLE ACCESS PROTOCOLS Many protocols have been defined to handle the access to shared link. These protocols are organized in three different groups: « Random Access Protocols * controlled pccesr poolocls y * channelization? paptocods Sy \. his Means Sie tha, BES ect 3c Maomene rac 7 ANN detenr doubles each time -the atation anf i> However, Ad in Chanmalc aries Sethe Fre. if the 5 bes nvt ln finds “the —Channe} busy Yatiot ve , Ser eg Se Pree oltaaiatiaier= creed os tile! Reema beoag te ahennel 16 S Acknooledgemerti= > With al these Precautions, there Collision resulting +O destoryed data. 5h odkdtlion, the data may "Pe cormpted 5 transmission > The postive Acknovoledgemenrt and. the ‘tHme- out timer can help guaranize that the ‘Yecelver has Yeceived the. frame. Controlled Accessi— ae cthe. ) Jo controlled Access. fing wht gtation has ahi may be o during the. etatons consult one another to she. vignt “P send. A Station Comte by other Stattions - » Reservation:— Sh the Pine a Station needs “tp Make_ ees vation method, before Sending data. Time iS divided a reservation frome procedes the in thot intervals. ve are )N’ Stations in the System, there are sn ATS element semeenictineseietitiemtyes a. » reservation rminishos in the ‘eservatior, — ei Maw Ries Sit a aS a Each mi Ins bones «a lots belongs to -the Station. when a Station. Station needs to gerd a data rane, TE makes Q TeserVation 19 1B OLON MINISlob. rong an Send > The Stations thal have made veserva Bey data whreres. afte tthe vederatool grams: > the Agu above shows 2 Situation with ive Stations and a -five- minislot negerVartio® -frarne stations |, > tn the fret interval, only iterval, Oly rade reservations. Tn Second has made a 7eservation, & Falling: — WOH topologies 19 yohich one device 1s > Polling Works designated as a pray elation and ithe other devices ame Secondlary Bratton. > At dota exchanges must be made “through the primary ceuice even when the uttimats cleatinatron 18 A ee > é Sei oy, > er 2 < e tt - i. he Primary device to determine pohtch Bice. lowed -to tse -the channel at a given MJ Fe +h a 2 primary Wank to receive data, Ht aske Secondaries fF ~they have Anything “te Send: this {5 called poll “function.” > TER the primary wank “te send datay ee « Secondary to get Yady to yecelves ae Sais “ Select Function,” I> Select’ function: — Gevice has Something tb Ser 90- alert the Secondary’ wo He eg watt -for an the primary jg Used Whenever ust the primary rf ~pransratsion, of the and = phen the primary ask (pall) each device 1 gietro ndary iS approached, it Tesponds either | Pwohen the ‘eco < “a free erie ares: ttrag Fn a Star topology , “the pryercal -topology 'S Thee. i6 a hub, however, that acts as the come ctor: the. 110g; the > The wiring inside! the hub makes “the. “two Stations are Connected! 4p ahs “09 through tore -Conneetons. ® Channeligation: — oo *®) Chonneligatio is 4 mouttiple- 20282 methed ia which the available bandwidth pf, a: tok 1S Shared in time, Frequerey through cocle. between diffrent Stations (eoMayi~ D Frequency: Division Multiple Access wa divided ito Frequency > Tn FEMA, “the ovailable bandwidth 1g allocated band +o bands in Which each Station end ite dia. > Each gtotion 2!60 uses a bandpass filter to Cofttintue confine the dranemiter “Pequencies. prevent Station interesences the allocated > ae bands ae separated rom one another by Smal) guiard bards. Le. .- bs Bets + Commons Channel ~— s lant By -EDMA > FDM, ; a A Species a predetermined “frequency bar 1 for “the ents . ie re period OF Communteation. DNA, on the other, hand, is) 40 data tink Ine. The data link layer access method in the in each station® tells eSignal from cthe. ayer to rake bandpas: tq. the alloatted band: There. the. physical layer. gration ore automatically it physica! | >-The signal ig no prystaal multiplexes at —> The cented an Muttpl ie oe stations 9 2) Time Division ie cease (TOMA):~ pam hare ‘the 1g allocate of Th pandwidth of the ed atime Slot in achteving song. Each Station] Te Conpensate for the dlelays, Ke On ingert guard times. > Synchronigation © nornally accomplshed by having Some, nchrongotion bile (refered to 9° Premable bits) at | i | the begining of each Sot Mutiple Access Cope: ‘urne aes ee “that “the assigned code have too propeter hy = ase Te muy hse Py each code by another, we get O. multiply e , BP ations ly each code by itrelt, We get h (the 70 > witht ‘ 3 these -tvo properties, “the stations cera data u 3 using «Same common channel. muttplies tts data by tt. Codie ‘to “the data that go >= The stertions jet a, WSO,» daCa y dg. Gy pica: CH ave Some Sum of all these tens On the chamel A cpio 6.95). 0 SE ES eis, “owes, date ee Bh Gheleths recs routtptes thes ana on the = chame by -the cocle of the sender each => for example, Suppose Stations 2a are talling 2S Station 2 Warts to hear. what statien | the channel by C), other Saying. Te pouttiplies the data 09 the code of Station |. data = (di- C+ da- Cot dy. Cat dep Cue; Pi ie wits (levee), Coa en) ape merc, eg the. result by erode Because, (C,- Ci) ane all ‘0g, Station 2 alivral the cto tom Staton |. dataz Bir inne: Cots te Rag dytyc, vegies eeeret es 4 a tole access proto - ALOHA, CSMA, CSMAICA and CSMAVCD evapo V2. 10.08 ay, ere Careers Poet | aona, |— Reservation |— roma [-— sma [Potting |— toma. [—csmaco L_Token Passing LL coma L_ csmaica, A. Random Access Protocol In this protocol, all the station has the equal priority to send the data over a channel. In random access protocol, one or more stations cannot depend on another station nor any station control another station. Depending on the channel's state (idle or busy), each station transmits the data frame. However, if more than one station sends the data over a channel, there may be a collision or data conflict. Due to the collision, the data frame packets may be lost or changed. And hence, it does not receive by the receiver end. Following are the different methods of random-access protocols for broadcasting frames on the channel © Aloha ° CSMA © CSMA/CD © CSMA/CA ALOHA Random Access Protocol It is designed for wireless LAN (Local Area Network) but can also be used in a shared medium to transmit data, Using this method, any station can transmit data across a network simultaneously when 2 data frameset is available for transmission. Aloha Rules 1. Any station can transmit data to a channel at any time. 2. It does not require any carrier sensing. 3, Collision and data frames may be lost during the transmission of data through multiple stations. 4. Acknowledgment of the frames exists jin Atoha. Hence, there is no collision detection. 5, It requires retransmission of data after some random amount of time. a ®.10.00ay Pure Aloha ‘Whenevst dita Is’ avaitable for sending over a channel at stations, we use Pure Aloha, in pure Aloha, when, ‘each station transmits data to a channel without checking whether the ch any station trans mt, I it does not acknowledge th ackoff time (Tb). anne! is idle or not, the chances of mits the data frame to a collision may occur, and the data frame can be lost. When channel, the pure Aloha waits for the receiver's acknowledgmet sndom amount of time, called the bi ‘end within the specified time, the station waits for a rat transmits the frame until ‘And the station may assume the frame has been lost or destroyed. Therefore, it all the data are successfully transmitted to the receiver 1. The total vulnerable time of pure Aloha is 2 * Tir. 2. Maximum throughput occurs when G = 1/2 that is 18.4%, 3, Successful transmission of data frame is S = G*e *- 26. Calision Ccatision Duration Duration Frames in Pure ALOHA 'As we can see in the figure above, there are four stations for accessing a shared channel and transmitting data frames. Some frames collide because most stations send their frames at the same time, Only two frames, frame 1.1 and frame 2.2, are successfully transmitted to the receiver end. At the same time, other are lost or destroyed. Whenever two frames fall on a shared channel simultaneously, collisions can frames 12, 10004 'SSUF, and both will suffer damage. If t : ler damage. If the new frame's first bit enters the channel before finishing the last it OF the secon h fran 8628 fame, Both frames are completely finshed, and both stations must retransmit the da Slotted Aloha The slotted Aloha is designed to overcome the pure Aloha's efficiency because pure Aloha has a very high Possibility of frame hitting. in slotted Aloha, the shared channel is divided into a fixed time interval called slots, So that, if a station wants to send a frame to a shared channel, the frame can only be sent at the beginning of the slot, and only one frame is allowed to be sent to each slot. And if the stations are unable to send data to the beginning of the slot, the station will have to wait until the beginning of the slot for the ‘next time, However, the possibility of a collision remains when trying to send a frame at the beginning of two or more station time slot. 1, Maximum throughput occurs in the slotted Aloha when G = 1 that is 37%. + eh -26. 2. The probability of successfully transmitting the data frame in the slotted Aloha is S 3, The total vulnerable time required in slotted Aloha is Tfr — fod ; BA ond = a. et : Goad ae = I ot Sinton Slot «Slot? Slot} Siok é Slot SICA CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access) n a carrier sense multiple access based on media access protocol to sense the traffic on a channel (idle ‘or busy) before transmitting the data. It means that if the channel is idle, the station can send data to the channel, Otherwise, it must wait until the channel becomes idle. Hence, it reduces the chances of a collision ‘on a transmission medium. } CSMA Access Modes aa a acai i ai a a «a 1008 ay 1am Mull acces protocols “ALOHA, CSMA. CSNAS ep tent= In the 1-Persistent mode of CSMA that defines each node, fist sense the shared channel and the channel is idle, it immediately sends the data. Else it must wait and keep track of the status of the hannel to be idle and broadcast the frame unconditionally as soon as the channel is idle. Non-Persistent: It is the access mode of CSMA that defines before transmitting the data, each node must sense the channel, and if the channel is inactive, it immediately sends the data. Otherwise, the station must wait for a random time (not continuously), and when the channel is found to be idle, it transmits the frames. P-Persistent: It is the combination of 1-Persistent and Non-persistent modes. The P-Persistent mode defines that each node senses the channel, and if the channel is inactive, it sends a frame with a P -p probability) random time and resumes the probability. If the data is not transmitted, it waits for a (q frame with the next time slot. ©. Persistent: It is an O-persistent method that defines the superiority of the station before the transmission of the frame on the shared channel. If it is found that the channel is inactive, each station waits for its turn to retransmit the data in 0:08 Aly d Sense and ‘transmit Continuously sense Time ‘Busy a. ‘persistent Sense Son Wait Wait Time Busy 'b Nonpersistent Probably ostcome : oes not transmission ‘allow Continuously sense | Timeslot, | Timeslot, | Time slot! SMA’ CD ion detection network protocol to transmit data frames. The It is a carrier sense multiple access/ c« CSMA/CD protocol works with a medium access control layer. Therefore, it first senses the shared channel before broadcasting the frames, and if the channel is idle, it transmits a frame to check whether the transmission was successful. If the frame is successfully received, the station sends another frame. If any collision is detected in the CSMA/CD, the station sends a jam/ stop signal to the shared channel to terminate data transmission. After that, it waits for a random time before sending a frame to a channel. CSMA/CA It is a carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance network protocol for carrier transmission of data frames. It is a protocol that works with a medium access control layer. When a data frame is sent to a channel, it receives an acknowledgment to check whether the channel is clear. If the station receives only a single (own) acknowledgments, that means the data frame has been successfully transmitted to the receiver. But if it gets two signals (its own and one more in which the collision of frames), a collision of the frame occurs in the shared channel. Detects the collision of the frame when a sender receives an acknowledgment signal. Following are the methods used in the CSMA/CA to avoid the collision: Interframe space: In this method, the station waits for the channel to become idle, and if it gets the channel is idle, it does not immediately send the data. Instead of this, it waits for some time, and this time period is called the Interframe space or IFS. However, the IFS time is often used to define the priority of tay ‘ws sce pinan an, CMA CSNACAsH COMNED fet the station Contention window: In the Contention window, the total time is divided into different slots, When the Station/ sender is ready to transmit the data frame, it chooses a random slot number of slots as watt time, I the channel is stil busy, it does not restart the entire process, except that it restarts the timer only to send data packets when the channel is inactive, Acknowledgment: In the acknowledgment method, the sender station sends the data frame to the shared channel if the acknowledgment is not received ahead of time. B. Controlled Access Protocol It is a method of reducing data frame collision on a shared channel. In the controlled access method, each station interacts and decides to send a data frame by a particular station approved by all other stations. It ‘means that a single station cannot send the data frames unless all other stations are not approved. It has three types of controlled access: Reservation, Polling, and Token Passing, C. Channelization Protocols It is @ channelization protocol that allows the total usable bandwidth in a shared channel to be shared across multiple stations based on their time, distance and codes. It can access all the stations at the same time to send the data frames to the channel. Following are the various methods to access the channel based on their time, distance and codes: 1. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access) 2. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) 3. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) It is a frequency division multiple access (FDMA) method used to divide the available bandwidth into equal bands so that multiple users can send data through a different frequency to the subchannel. Each station is. reserved with a particular band to prevent the crosstalk between the channels and interferences of stations. What are IEEE 802.11 networks? IEEE 802.11/standard, popularly Known'as WiFi, lays down the architecture and specifications of Wireless LANS (WLANS): WiFi'or WLAN/U8es high-frequency radio waves insteadiof:cables for connecting the devices in LANSTUSers connected by WLANS Can move around: withinithe area of network coverage. IEEE 802.11 Architecture The components of an IEEE 802.11 architecture are as follows ~ ment that are connected to the Stations (STA) - Stations comprises of all devices and equipr wireless LAN. A station can be of two types- Wireless Access Point (WAP) - WAPs or simply access points (AP) are generally wireless routers that form the base stations or access. + Client. Clients are workstations, computers, laptops, printers, smartphones, etc. Each station has a wireless network interface controller. Basic Service Set (BSS) - A basic service set is a group of s! physical layer level. BSS can be of two categories depending upon the mode of operation tations communicating at the Infrastructure BSS - Here, the devices communicate with other devices through access points. Independent BSS - Here, the devices communicate in a peer-to-peer basis in an ad hoc manner. Extended Service Set (ESS) - Itis a set of all connected BSS. Distribution System (DS) - It connects access points in ESS. Geers: j~tent=IEEE 602.11 standard%2C popularly [Link] area of network coverage. 1/2 rn) ered Distribution System (DS) Frame Format of IEEE 802.11 The main fields of a frame of wireless LANs as laid down by IEEE 802.11 are ~ jelds. It contains control Frame Control ~ It is a 2 bytes starting field composed of 11 subfi information of the frame. Duration - It is a 2-byte field that specifies tl acknowledgment occupy the channel. ‘Address fields - There are three 6-byte address fields containing addresses of source, he time period for which the frame and its immediate destination, and final endpoint respectively. Sequence - It a 2 bytes field that stores the frame numbers. Data - This is a variable-sized field that carries the data from the upper layers. The maximum size of the data field is 2312 bytes. Check Sequence - It is a 4-byte field containing error detection information. condiNiimper 2018 Difference between IEEE 802.11 and IEEE 802.3 Difference between IEEE 802.11 and IEEE 802.3 Ethernet LAN TEE 802.11 WLAN IEEE standard 802.3 IEEE standard 802.11 Infrared or radio frequencies act Communication medium is co- as medium, axial cable Spread spectrum is not used Spread spectrum Is used Ituses MAC Ituses two MAC sub-layers Ituses CSMA/CD Ituses CSMA/CA The efficiency is high The efficiency is low ‘Addressing is simpler ‘Addressing is complicated Ithas a large range Ithas a short range Wireless LAN and Wired (Ethernet) LAN Wireless LANs share a similar origin with Ethernet LANs. The EEE has adopted the 802 LAN/MAN portfolio of computer network architecture standards. The two dominant 802 working groups sre 802.3 Ethernet and 802.11 wireless LAN. However there are important differences between the two. RF) instead of cables at the Physical WLANs use radio frequencies ( e Data Link layer. In comparison to layer and MAC sub-layer of th cable, RF has the following characteristics: i. RF does not have boundaries, such as the limits of a wire in a sheath. The lack of such a boundary allows data frames traveling : over the RF media to be available to anyone that can receive the RF signal. Token Bus and Token Ring Token Ring Token ring (IEEE 802.5) is a communication protocol in a local area network (LAN) where alll tokens for channel stations are‘ connected in a ring topology and pass one or more I acquisition. A token is a special frame of 3 bytes that circulates along the ring of stations. A en, The tokens are released on successful station can send data frames only if it holds a tok receipt of the data frame. Token Passing Mechanism in Token Ring {fa station ‘has a frame to transmil when it receives a token, it sends the frame and then passes the token to the next station; otherwise it simply passes the token to the next station. Passing the token means receiving the token from the preceding station and transmitting to e direction of [Link] passing. In the successor station. The data flow is unidirectional in thi order that tokens are not circulated infinitely, they are removed from the network once thelr purpose is completed. This is shown in the following diagram — Ty ne eo” in LAN 6 Token ae 4 N e An i Direction of Token <“@ S Passing rc 7 @< Token Bus Token Bus (IEEE 802.4) is a standard for implementing token ring over virtual ring in LANs. The physical media has a bus or a tree topology and uses coaxial cables. A virtual ring is created with the nodes/stations and the token is passed from one node to the next in a sequence along this virtual ring. Each node knows the address of its preceding station and its ‘succeeding station. A station can only transmit data when it has the token. The working principle of token bus is similar to Token Ring. Gereranvens and Token Rin Token Passing Mechanism in Token Bus A token is a small messag: ng the stations providing permission to the stations for tr receives a token, it sends the data and then pa th simply passes the token to the next station ye following diagram Z > ans Direction j™-4 of Token 7 | sia Physical Bus | topology | Token | | passing | | ae | fe | Differences between Token Ring and Token Bus Token Bus Token Ring The token is passed over the physical ring formed by the stations and the coaxial cable network, The stations are connected by ring topology, or sometimes star topology, Itis defined by IEEE 802.5 standard. ‘The maximum time for a token to reach a station can be calculated here. The token is passed along the virtual ring of stations connected to a LAN. The underlying topology that connects the stations is either bus or tree topology. Itis defined by IEEE 802.4 standard. It is not feasible to calculate the time for token, transfer. ii pot. fos LAs SO. standards for is a set of ANSI and I 1) is a set of ies. Itie applicable yer optic cab neter Features FDDI uses optical fiber as its physical medium FD] usee es prystel and medium access control (MAC layer of We Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) network mode! rnrovides high data rate of 100 Mbps and can SUPPOrt thousands of users. Users ad in LANs up to 200 Kilometers for long distance voice and multimedia communication + Ituses ring based token passing m« 802.4 token bus standard. + Itcontains two token rings, a primar and a secondary ring that provides + FDDI technology can also be us network (WAN). The following diagram shows FDD! ~ echanism and is derived from IEEE ry ring for data and token transmission backup if the primary ring falls ‘ed as a backbone for a wide area Frame Format The frame format of FDD diagram ~ ; I is similar to that of token bus as shown in the following End Delimiter ble ‘Start Delimiter ‘Checksum | source Address Frame Control Dest Addees: ¢ Preamt | ey ies $2212 nnn: hod. | FDO! Frame Format al The fields of an FDDI frame are - Preamble: 1 byte for synchronization Start Delimiter: 1 byte that marks the beginning of the frame + Frame Control: 1 byte that specifies whether this is a data frame or control frame 2 + Destination Address: 2-6 bytes that specifies address of destination station. + Source Address: 2-6 bytes that specifies address of source station. + Payload: A variable length field that carries the data from the network layer. + Checksum: 4 bytes frame check sequence for error detection. + End Delimiter: 1 byte that marks the end of the frame. Fast Ethernet (802.3u) ‘Comte’ EnsineernaCompie: NewoRMCA In computer networks, Fast Ethernet is a variation of Ethernet standards that carry data traffic at-100 Mbps (Mega bits per second) in local area networks (LAN). It was launched as the IEEE 802.3u standard in 1995, and stayed the fastest network till the introduction of Gigabit Ethernet. Fast Ethernet is popularly named as 100-BASE-X. Here, 100 is the maximum throughput, 100 Mbps, BASE denoted use of baseband transmission, and X is the type of medium used, which is TX or FX. Varieties of Fast Ethernet The common varieties of fast Ethernet are 100-Base-TX, 100-BASE-FX and 100- Base-T4, + 100-Base-T4 ' e This has four pairs of UTP of Category 3, two of which are bi-directional and the other two are unidirectional, > Ineach direction, three pairs can be used simultaneously ~ for data transmission © Each twisted pair is capable of transmitting a maximum of 25Mbaud data, Thus the three pairs can handle a maximum of 75Mbaud data © It uses the encoding scheme 8B/6T (eight: binary/six ternary). + 100-Base-TX ©. This has either two pairs of unshielded twisted pairs (UTP) category 5 wires or two shielded twisted pairs (STP) type 4 wires, One pair transmits frames from hub to the device and the other from device to hub. Maximum distance between hub and station is 100m, oo Ithas a data rate of 125 Mbps © It uses MLT-3 encoding scheme along with 4B/5B block : coding. + 100-BASE-FX ‘This has two pairs of optical fibers. One pair transmits frames from hub to the device and the other from device to hub. Maximum distance between hub and station is 2000m. Ithas a data rate of 125 Mbps. It uses NRZ-I encoding scheme along with 4B/5B block coding. Frame Format of IEEE 802.3 The frame format of IEEE 802.3u is same as IEEE 602.3. The fields in the frame are: | It is a 7 bytes starting field that provides alert and timing pulse for transmission. + Start of Frame Delimiter (SOF) - It is a 1 byte field that contains an alternating pattern of ones and zeros ending with two ones. [Page + Destination Address ~ It is a 6 byte field containing physical address of destination stations. * Source Address - It is a 6 byte field containing the physical address of the sending station. + ‘Length ~ It a 2 bytes field that stores the number of bytes in the data field. Data - This is a variable sized field carries the data from the upper layers, The maximum size of data field is 1500 bytes 5 + Padding - This is added to the data to bring its length to the minimum requirement of 46 bytes. ‘ + RC - CRC stands for cyclic redundancy check. It contains the error detection information. ? z it ae ge 8 Connecting Qewtrces 9 Connecting detvices Categories based o in @ network are divided into nthe layer in co. ae Cattexory Router or tive differnt yohtch they operale. = a "eee | Applitec | Transport” | Netuootk ——— : sthiee -layer Sicttzh | Netooris =layer 54 | | Bridge or | | fase dal [ae moe | Lphyetns | FS othe Physica) i | ae Passive. huis J oes i | ‘ve categories Contain devices which can be as. : i as D Those which operate beloco “the. physical layer Such - ies ») Thi Is + eee i, type of a hub fe part of the media; flé On iN the cTtemet model (4 beloco the physical layer. Uiagebes PD A Repealess te a clevice “that operates only in the Physical layers \) Signals that carry informacion wtthin & netvoork can travel a fed distance before. attenuation of the data: and before Be: endangers the. integr tty signal regenerates the 3) A wepeater ecelves a covupted becomes too Wealk or original bit pattem. Sy sy ee 3 3 2 Repeater : Segment segment > : tig: Tepeaty comecting two segments 1 . of a WN } |x) A repeater does not achally connect oo MANS: it i connects two Seqments of the Game LAN. ; DA vepeater must be Placed 60 that @ Signal yeaches Notee changes We meaning of any , wu. before mY of 16 brie. , ar 16 placed on -the Ine before the legibtiny an *) ical eigen! eter leat eae Saas At | Well en aie ere ’Ough igh -to determine the Wihendad vbtoges ancl | | Ne plicate ; Pltente “them in ~theiy original “form. Active hubs:— ae ver. 2t 3) An active hub |s actually 2 mutttport reper 141008 betwee is normally used nections physical create ©" stor topoleay: +o Stations 1 a rou tip! WHubs Gn levels of hrexarehy limttiations of Base ~T C100} Bridges: - x) A bridge operales datalink layer : : deurce , TE mogenerates the. 199 | As Oo physical layer , we recerves Nd As & gto. WWiteeP ie olevrce , bridge can checks phycteal cmac) actresses Contained tre -frarne. in tering capably » whéch check “the nation address of a frame and decide, If the should be forwareled oF lopped. home (8 to be forwarded, -the dectcton sin port: A bridge has a ‘table -that ee a Pr 4 Gdivesces -t pores Frangparent Bridges: — LA onepavent bridge 18 Stations ave completely tnauwore a bridge. in wohtch the. of the pridge-'® from the System, existence. Ly ze a bridge 19 added oF deleted pe par of -the Stations ia unnecesso74- cording to the TEE 702. [AL Spear bridges must System equipped pith tol meet three crtteria. one gtatioo to 1) Frames must be forwarded another. 2) The -forevardin ig automatically Learning bee Mirwveren® 59 dhe networks. 3) Loops 9 +the SYS" Rocati > Bridges:— og_ PS bh) Source = ina ESE) prevent jg to use sour bA transparent bridge 8 duties * Aoragarding and — blockmng- has oo me system. by the ‘ounce _ Source. YOUNG bridges, these Stotiea and dounce routing, athe frame must Vis! included in the frame. . bridge addresses “through -the Hh the destination Of Spectal Frames ing the deda -fome, at—has—souree 1 - ee ea fouree routing bridges were designed nece 10 be. used with Token Ring LANs: 2 tour Switches: — 3) A two-layer switch 1S 6 bridge, 2) Pt Sde pith many porte and a design cet allots better (toste”) 4 Preformance. ae } ard data link layers- 8) a BS preforms at —theimiphysica ype able to allocale many ports may ' each Station, with each station independent entity. aoe bridge does, 190 mac Qdelress Switch, as o kes @ on the of the

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