Chapter 17

Fire Protection Systems

Introduction
Because fire is one of the most dangerous threats to an
aircraft, the potential fire zones of modern multiengine
aircraft are protected by a fixed fire protection system.
A fire zone is an area, or region, of an aircraft designed
by the manufacturer to require fire detection and/or fire
extinguishing equipment and a high degree of inherent
fire resistance. The term “fixed” describes a permanently
installed system in contrast to any type of portable fire
extinguishing equipment, such as a hand-held Halon
or water fire extinguisher. A complete fire protection
system on modern aircraft, and on many older aircraft,
includes a fire detection system and a fire extinguishing
system. Typical zones on aircraft that have a fixed fire
detection and/or fire extinguisher system are:
1. Engines and auxiliary power unit (APU)
2. Cargo and baggage compartments
3. Lavatories on transport aircraft
4. Electronic bays
5. Wheel wells
6. Bleed air ducts

17-1
To detect fires or overheat conditions, detectors are placed 3. Class C—fires involving energized electrical
in the various zones to be monitored. Fires are detected in equipment in which the use of an extinguishing media
reciprocating engine and small turboprop aircraft using one that is electrically nonconductive is important.
or more of the following: 4. Class D—fires involving combustible metals, such
1. Overheat detectors as magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium, lithium,
2. Rate-of-temperature-rise detectors and potassium.

3. Flame detectors Requirements for Overheat and Fire Protection

4. Observation by crewmembers Systems
Fire protection systems on current-production aircraft do not
In addition to these methods, other types of detectors are rely on observation by crew members as a primary method
used in aircraft fire protection systems but are seldom used of fire detection. An ideal fire detector system includes as
to detect engine fires. For example, smoke detectors are many of the following features as possible:
better suited to monitor areas where materials burn slowly 1. No false warnings under any flight or ground
or smolder, such as cargo and baggage compartments. condition.
Other types of detectors in this category include carbon
monoxide detectors and chemical sampling equipment 2. Rapid indication of a fire and accurate location of the
capable of detecting combustible mixtures that can lead to fire.
accumulations of explosive gases. 3. Accurate indication that a fire is out.
4. Indication that a fire has re-ignited.
The complete aircraft fire protection systems of most large
turbine-engine aircraft incorporate several of these different 5. Continuous indication for duration of a fire.
detection methods. 6. Means for electrically testing the detector system from
1. Rate-of-temperature-rise detectors the aircraft cockpit.

2. Radiation sensing detectors 7. Resists damage from exposure to oil, water, vibration,
extreme temperatures, or handling.
3. Smoke detectors
8. Light in weight and easily adaptable to any mounting
4. Overheat detectors position.
5. Carbon monoxide detectors 9. Circuitry that operates directly from the aircraft power
6. Combustible mixture detectors system without inverters.
7. Optical detectors 10. Minimum electrical current requirements when not
8. Observation by crew or passengers indicating a fire.
11. Cockpit light that illuminates, indicating the location
The types of detectors most commonly used for fast detection of the fire, and with an audible alarm system.
of fires are the rate-of-rise, optical sensor, pneumatic loop, 12. A separate detector system for each engine.
and electric resistance systems.
Fire Detection/Overheat Systems
Classes of Fires
The following classes of fires that are likely to occur onboard A fire detection system should signal the presence of a fire.
aircraft, as defined in the U.S. National Fire Protection Units of the system are installed in locations where there are
Association (NFPA) Standard 10, Standard for Portable Fire greater possibilities of a fire. Three detector system types in
Extinguishers, 2007 Edition, are: common use are the thermal switch, thermocouple, and the
continuous loop.
1. Class A—fires involving ordinary combustible
materials, such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber, and Thermal Switch System
plastics. A number of detectors, or sensing devices, are available.
2. Class B—fires involving flammable liquids, petroleum Many older-model aircraft still operating have some type of
oils, greases, tars, oil-based paints, lacquers, solvents, thermal switch system or thermocouple system. A thermal
alcohols, and flammable gases. switch system has one or more lights energized by the aircraft

17-2
power system and thermal switches that control operation of 1. Detector circuit
the light(s). These thermal switches are heat-sensitive units 2. Alarm circuit
that complete electrical circuits at a certain temperature. They
are connected in parallel with each other but in series with 3. Test circuit
the indicator lights. [Figure 17-1] If the temperature rises
above a set value in any one section of the circuit, the thermal These circuits are shown in Figure 17-2. The relay box
switch closes, completing the light circuit to indicate a fire contains two relays, the sensitive relay and the slave relay,
or overheat condition. No set number of thermal switches and the thermal test unit. Such a box may contain from one to
is required; the exact number is usually determined by the eight identical circuits, depending on the number of potential
aircraft manufacturer. On some installations, all the thermal fire zones. The relays control the warning lights. In turn, the
detectors are connected to one light; on others, there may be thermocouples control the operation of the relays. The circuit
one thermal switch for each indicator light. consists of several thermocouples in series with each other
and with the sensitive relay.
Some warning lights are push-to-test lights. The bulb is
tested by pushing it in to check an auxiliary test circuit. The The thermocouple is constructed of two dissimilar metals,
circuit shown in Figure 17-1 includes a test relay. With the such as chromel and constantan. The point at which these
relay contact in the position shown, there are two possible metals are joined and exposed to the heat of a fire is called a
paths for current flow from the switches to the light. This hot junction. There is also a reference junction enclosed in a
is an additional safety feature. Energizing the test relay dead air space between two insulation blocks. A metal cage
completes a series circuit and checks all the wiring and the surrounds the thermocouple to give mechanical protection
light bulb. Also included in the circuit shown in Figure 17-1 is without hindering the free movement of air to the hot
a dimming relay. By energizing the dimming relay, the circuit junction. If the temperature rises rapidly, the thermocouple
is altered to include a resistor in series with the light. In produces a voltage because of the temperature difference
some installations, several circuits are wired through the between the reference junction and the hot junction. If both
dimming relay, and all the warning lights may be dimmed junctions are heated at the same rate, no voltage results. In
at the same time. the engine compartment, there is a normal, gradual rise in
temperature from engine operation; because it is gradual,
Thermocouple System both junctions heat at the same rate and no warning signal
The thermocouple fire warning system operates on an is given. If there is a fire, however, the hot junction heats
entirely different principle from the thermal switch system. more rapidly than the reference junction. The ensuing voltage
A thermocouple depends on the rate of temperature rise and causes a current to flow within the detector circuit. Any time
does not give a warning when an engine slowly overheats the current is greater than 4 milliamperes (0.004 ampere),
or a short circuit develops. The system consists of a relay the sensitive relay closes. This completes a circuit from the
box, warning lights, and thermocouples. The wiring system aircraft power system to the coil of the slave relay. The slave
of these units may be divided into the following circuits: relay then closes and completes the circuit to the warning
light to give a visual fire warning.

Resistor
Indicator light Thermocouples Sensitive relay Slave relay

R
Thermal switches

Detector circuit
Dimming relay
Alarm circuit
Test switch Test switch

Test circuit
Test relay
Heater

Figure 17-2. Thermocouple fire warning circuit.

Figure 17-1. Thermal switch fire circuit.

17-3
The total number of thermocouples used in individual temperature settings. The control unit, operating directly from
detector circuits depends on the size of the fire zones and the the power source, impresses a small voltage on the sensing
total circuit resistance, which usually does not exceed 5 ohms. elements. When an overheat condition occurs at any point
As shown in Figure 17-2, the circuit has two resistors. The along the element length, the resistance of the eutectic salt
resistor connected across the slave relay terminals absorbs the within the sensing element drops sharply, causing current
coil’s self-induced voltage to prevent arcing across the points to flow between the outer sheath and the center conductor.
of the sensitive relay. The contacts of the sensitive relay This current flow is sensed by the control unit, which
are so fragile that they burn, or weld, if arcing is permitted. produces a signal to actuate the output relay and activate the
alarms. When the fire has been extinguished or the critical
When the sensitive relay opens, the circuit to the slave relay temperature lowered below the set point, the Fenwal system
is interrupted and the magnetic field around its coil collapses. automatically returns to standby alert, ready to detect any
The coil then gets a voltage through self-induction but, with subsequent fire or overheat condition. The Fenwal system
the resistor across the coil terminals, there is a path for any may be wired to employ a loop circuit. In this case, should
current flow as a result of this voltage, eliminating arcing at an open circuit occur, the system still signals fire or overheat.
the sensitive relay contacts. If multiple open circuits occur, only that section between
breaks becomes inoperative.
Continuous-Loop Systems
Transport aircraft almost exclusively use continuous thermal Kidde System
sensing elements for powerplant and wheel well protection. In the Kidde continuous-loop system, two wires are
These systems offer superior detection performance and imbedded in an inconel tube filled with a thermistor core
coverage, and they have the proven ruggedness to survive in material. [Figure 17-4] Two electrical conductors go
the harsh environment of modern turbofan engines. through the length of the core. One conductor has a ground
connection to the tube, and the other conductor connects to
A continuous-loop detector or sensing system permits more the fire detection control unit. As the temperature of the core
complete coverage of a fire hazard area than any of the increases, electrical resistance to the ground decreases. The
spot-type temperature detectors. Two widely used types of fire detection control unit monitors this resistance. If the
continuous-loop systems are the thermistor type detectors, resistance decreases to the overheat set point, an overheat
such as the Kidde and the Fenwal systems, and the pneumatic indication occurs in the flight deck. Typically, a 10-second
pressure detector, such as the Lingberg system. (Lindberg time delay is incorporated for the overheat indication. If the
system is also known as Systron-Donner and, more recently, resistance decreases more to the fire set point, a fire warning
Meggitt Safety Systems.) occurs. When the fire or overheat condition is gone, the
resistance of the core material increases to the reset point and
Fenwal System the flight deck indications disappear. The rate of change of
The Fenwal system uses a slender Inconel tube packed with resistance identifies an electrical short or a fire. The resistance
thermally sensitive eutectic salt and a nickel wire center decreases more quickly with an electrical short than with
conductor. [Figure 17-3] Lengths of these sensing elements a fire. In some aircraft, in addition to fire and overheat
are connected in series to a control unit. The elements may detection, the Kidde continuous-loop system can supply
be of equal or varying length and of the same or different nacelle temperature data to the airplane condition monitoring
function of the aircraft in-flight monitoring system (AIMS).

Inconel tube Sensing Element

The resistance of a sensor varies inversely as it is heated; as
sensor temperature is increased, its resistance decreases. Each
sensor is composed of two wires embedded in thermistor
material that is encased in a heavy wall inconel tube for high
strength at elevated temperatures. The electrical connectors
Nickel wire
at each end of the sensor are ceramic insulated. The inconel
conductor center
tubes are shrouded in a perforated stainless-steel tube and
Eutectic salt packing supported by Teflon-impregnated asbestos bushings at
intervals. The shroud protects the sensor from breakage due
to vibration, abrasion against airplane structure, and damage
from maintenance activity.
Figure 17-3. Fenwal sensing element.

17-4
 No. 10 screw terminal
Quick release clamp
No. 8 screw terminal
Element loop 1
Retaining nut

End bracket
Airplane wiring (ref)
Support tube

Bushing

Element loop 2

Wires

Thermistor core
Inconel tube
Thermistor
Electrical conductors
Sheath

Figure 17-4. Kidde continuous-loop system.

The resistance of a sensor also varies inversely with its Temperature Trend Indication
length, the increments of length being resistances in parallel. The analog signal produced by the sensing element loop
The heating of a short length of sensor out of a given length as its temperature changes is converted to signals suitable
requires that the short length be heated above the temperature for flight deck display to indicate engine bay temperature
alarm point, so the total resistance of the sensor decreases to increases from normal. A comparison of the readings from
the alarm point. This characteristic permits integration of all each loop system also provides a check on the condition
temperatures throughout the length of the installation rather of the fire detection system, because the two loops should
than sensing only the highest local temperature. The two normally read alike.
wires encased within the thermistic material of each inconel
tube form a variable resistance network between themselves, System Test
between the detector wire and the inconel tube, and between The integrity of the continuous-loop fire detection system
each adjacent incremental length of sensor. These variable may be tested by actuating a test switch in the flight deck
resistance networks are monitored by the application of that switches one end of the sensing element loop from its
28 volts direct current (DC) to the detector wire from the control circuit to a test circuit built into the control unit,
detector control unit. which simulates the sensing element resistance change
due to fire. [Figure 17-5] If the sensing element loop is
Combination Fire and Overheat Warning unbroken, the resistance detected by the control circuit is
The analog signal from the thermistor-sensing element that of the simulated fire, and the alarm is activated. The
permits the control circuits to be arranged to give a two- test demonstrates, in addition to the continuity of the sensing
level response from the same sensing element loop. The element loop, the integrity of the alarm indicator circuit and
first is an overheat warning at a temperature level below the proper functioning of the control circuits. The thermistic
the fire warning indicating a general engine compartment properties of the sensing element remain unchanged for
temperature rise, such as would be caused by leakage of hot the life of the element (no irreversible changes take place
bleed air or combustion gas into the engine compartment. It when heated); the element functions properly as long as it is
could also be an early warning of fire and would alert the electrically connected to the control unit.
crew to appropriate action to reduce the engine compartment
temperature. The second-level response is at a level above
that attainable by a leaking hot gas and is the fire warning.

17-5
 takes place in milliseconds, so that no delay occurs if a fire
Sensing element loop actually exists.

Support Tube Mounted Sensing Elements

For those installations where it is desired to mount the
sensing elements on the engine, and in some cases, on the
Test switch
aircraft structure, the support tube mounted element solves
Test circuit the problem of providing sufficient element support points
and greatly facilitates the removal and reinstallation of the
Monitor circuit sensing elements for engine or system maintenance.
Control unit
Most modern installations use the support tube concept of
mounting sensing elements for better maintainability, as well
Figure 17-5. Continuous loop fire detection system test circuit. as increased reliability. The sensing element is attached to
a prebent stainless steel tube by closely spaced clamps and
Fault Indication bushings, where it is supported from vibration damage and
Provision is made in the control unit to output a fault protected from pinching and excessive bending. The support
signal which activates a fault indicator whenever the short tube-mounted elements can be furnished with either single
discriminator circuit detects a short in the sensing element or dual sensing elements.
loop. This is a requirement for transport category aircraft
because such a short disables the fire detection system. Being prebent to the designed configuration assures its
installation in the aircraft precisely in its designed location,
Dual-Loop Systems where it has the necessary clearance to be free from the
possibility of the elements chafing against engine or aircraft
Dual-loop systems are two complete basic fire detection
structure. The assembly requires only a few attachment
systems with their output signals connected so that both must
points and, should its removal for engine maintenance be
signal to result in a fire warning. This arrangement, called
necessary, it is quickly and easily accomplished. Should the
AND logic, results in greatly increased reliability against false
assembly require repair or maintenance, it is easily replaced
fire warnings from any cause. Should one of the two loops
with another assembly, leaving the repair for the shop.
be found inoperative at the preflight integrity test, a cockpit
Should a sensing element be damaged, it is easily replaced
selector switch disconnects that loop and allows the signal
in the assembly.
from the other loop alone to activate the fire warning. Since
the single operative loop meets all fire detector requirements,
Fire Detection Control Unit (Fire Detection Card)
the aircraft can be safely dispatched and maintenance deferred
to a more convenient time. However, should one of the two The control unit for the simplest type of system typically
loops become inoperative in flight and a fire subsequently contains the necessary electronic resistance monitoring
occur, the fire signaling loop activates a cockpit fault signal and alarm output circuits housed in a hermetically sealed
that alerts the flight crew to select single-loop operation to aluminum case fitted with a mounting bracket and electrical
confirm the possible occurrence of fire. connector. For more sophisticated systems, control modules
are employed that contain removable control cards with
Automatic Self-Interrogation circuitry for individual hazard areas and/or unique functions.
In the most advanced applications, the detection system
Dual-loop systems automatically perform the loop switching
circuitry controls all aircraft fire protection functions,
and decision-making function required of the flight crew
including fire detection and extinguishing for engines, APUs,
upon appearance of the fault indication in the cockpit, a
cargo bays, and bleed-air systems.
function called automatic self-interrogation. Automatic self-
interrogation eliminates the fault indication and assures the
Pressure Type Sensor Responder Systems
immediate appearance of the fire indication should fire occur
Some smaller turboprop aircraft are outfitted with pneumatic
while at least one loop of the dual-loop system is operative.
single point detectors. The design of these detectors is based
Should the control circuit from a single-loop signal fire, the
on the principles of gas laws. The sensing element consists
self-interrogation circuit automatically tests the functioning
of a closed, helium-filled tube connected at one end to
of the other loop. If it tests operative, the circuit suppresses
a responder assembly. As the element is heated, the gas
the fire signal because the operative loop would have signaled
pressure inside the tube increases until the alarm threshold is
if a fire existed. If, however, the other loop tests inoperative,
reached. At this point, an internal switch closes and reports an
the circuit outputs a fire signal. The interrogation and decision

17-6
alarm to the cockpit. Continuous fault monitoring is included. and operates a pressure diaphragm that closes an electrical
This type of sensor is designed as a single-sensor detection contact, actuating the alarm circuit. The pressure diaphragm
system and does not require a control unit. within the responder assembly serves as one side of the
electrical alarm contact and is the only moving part in the
Pneumatic Continuous-Loop Systems detector. The alarm switch is preset at an average temperature.
The pneumatic continuous-loop systems are also known Typical temperature ranges for average temperature settings
by their manufacturers’ names Lindberg, Systron-Donner, are 200 °F (93 °C) to 850 °F (454 °C).
and Meggitt Safety Systems. These systems are used for
engine fire detection of transport type aircraft and have the Discrete Function
same function as the Kidde system; however, they work on The fire/overheat detector’s sensor tube also contains a
a different principle. They are typically used in a dual-loop hydrogen-filled core material. [Figure 17-7] Large quantities
design to increase reliability of the system. of hydrogen gas are released from the detector core whenever
a small section of the tube is heated to the preset discrete
The pneumatic detector has two sensing functions. It responds temperature or higher. The core outgassing increases the
to an overall average temperature threshold and to a localized pressure inside the detector and actuates the alarm switch.
discrete temperature increase caused by impinging flame or Both the averaging and discrete functions are reversible.
hot gasses. Both the average and discrete temperature are When the sensor tube is cooled, the average gas pressure is
factory set and are not field adjustable. [Figure 17-6] lowered, and the discrete hydrogen gas returns to the core
material. The reduction of internal pressure allows the alarm
Averaging Function switch to return to its normal position, opening the electrical
The fire/overheat detector serves as a fixed-volume device alarm circuit.
filled with helium gas. The helium gas pressure inside the
detector increases in proportion to the absolute temperature Figure 17-8 shows a typical aircraft fire detection system
in which a control module monitors two loops of up to
four pneumatic detectors each, connected in parallel. The
control module responds directly to an alarm condition and
continuously monitors the wiring and integrity of each loop.
The normally open alarm switch closes upon an overheat or
fire condition, causing a short circuit between terminals A and
C. During normal operation, a resistance value is maintained
across the terminals by a normally closed integrity switch.
Loss of sensor gas pressure opens the integrity switch,
creating an open circuit across the terminals of the faulted
detector. In addition to the pressure-activated alarm switch,
Figure 17-6. Pneumatic dual fire/overheat detector assembly.
there is a second integrity switch in the detector that is held

Spiral wrapping of core prevents blockage of gas in crushed or flattened tube

Stainless steel sensor tube wall

Typical responder assembly Helium gas Sensor seal
C
Common
A End cap
Alarm
Hydrogen-charged core materal

Electrical isolator

Integrity switch (held closed by Alarm switch (normally open)—closes on overheat or fire condition
sealed-in helium gas pressure)
—opens on loss of gas pressure

Figure 17-7. Pneumatic pressure loop detector system.

17-7
 Control module Loop A detectors
+ 28 VDC Loop A power
A A
Alarm Loop A Up to four (4) detectors
Fault C
C
ARIN C-429 data bus
Maintenance
Onboard and
maintenance Identification ARINC-429
computer circuitry Loop B detectors

+ 28 VDC Loop B power A A

Alarm Loop B Up to four (4) detectors

Fault C C

Figure 17-8. Aircraft detection system control module.

closed by the averaging gas pressure at all temperatures down structural formers are of this type. Tests indicate agent
to –65 °F (–54 °C). If the detector should develop a leak, the requirements to be double those for Class A zones.
loss of gas pressure would allow the integrity switch to open
and signal a lack of detector integrity. The system then does Smoke, Flame, and Carbon Monoxide
not operate during test. Detection Systems
Smoke Detectors
Fire Zones A smoke detection system monitors the lavatories and cargo
Powerplant compartments are classified into zones based on baggage compartments for the presence of smoke, which is
the airflow through them. indicative of a fire condition. Smoke detection instruments
1. Class A zone—area of heavy airflow past regular that collect air for sampling are mounted in the compartments
arrangements of similarly shaped obstructions. The in strategic locations. A smoke detection system is used
power section of a reciprocating engine is usually of where the type of fire anticipated is expected to generate a
this type. substantial amount of smoke before temperature changes are
sufficient to actuate a heat detection system. Two common
2. Class B zone—area of heavy airf low pa st
types used are light refraction and ionization.
aerodynamically clean obstructions. Included in
this type are heat exchanger ducts, exhaust manifold
Light Refraction Type
shrouds, and areas where the inside of the enclosing
cowling or other closure is smooth, free of pockets, The light refraction type of smoke detector contains a
and adequately drained so leaking flammables photoelectric cell that detects light refracted by smoke
cannot puddle. Turbine engine compartments may particles. Smoke particles refract the light to the photoelectric
be considered in this class if engine surfaces are cell and, when it senses enough change in the amount of light,
aerodynamically clean and all airframe structural it creates an electrical current that sets off a warning light.
formers are covered by a fireproof liner to produce This type of smoke detector is referred to as a photoelectrical
an aerodynamically clean enclosure surface. device.

3. Class C zone—area of relatively low airflow. An Ionization Type

engine accessory compartment separated from the
Some aircraft use an ionization type smoke detector. The
power section is an example of this type of zone.
system generates an alarm signal (both horn and indicator)
4. Class D zone—area of very little or no airflow. These by detecting a change in ion density due to smoke in the
include wing compartments and wheel wells where cabin. The system is connected to the 28-volt DC electrical
little ventilation is provided. power supplied from the aircraft. Alarm output and sensor
5. Class X zone—area of heavy airflow and of unusual sensitive checks are performed simply with the test switch
construction, making uniform distribution of the on the control panel.
extinguishing agent very difficult. Areas containing
deeply recessed spaces and pockets between large

17-8
Flame Detectors and passenger safety, carbon monoxide detectors are used
Optical sensors, often referred to as flame detectors, in aircraft cabins and cockpits. They are most often found
are designed to alarm when they detect the presence of on reciprocating engine aircraft with exhaust shroud heaters
prominent, specific radiation emissions from hydrocarbon and on aircraft equipped with a combustion heater. Turbine
flames. The two types of optical sensors available are infrared bleed air, when used for heating the cabin, is tapped off of
(IR) and ultraviolet (UV), based on the specific emission the engine upstream of the combustion chamber. Therefore,
wavelengths that they are designed to detect. IR-based optical no threat of carbon monoxide presence is posed.
flame detectors are used primarily on light turboprop aircraft
and helicopter engines. These sensors have proven to be very Carbon monoxide gas is found in varying degrees in all smoke
dependable and economical for these applications. and fumes of burning carbonaceous substances. Exceedingly
small amounts of the gas are dangerous if inhaled. A
When radiation emitted by the fire crosses the airspace concentration of as little as 2 parts in 10,000 may produce
between the fire and the detector, it impinges on the detector headache, mental dullness, and physical lethargy within a
front face and window. The window allows a broad spectrum few hours. Prolonged exposure or higher concentrations
of radiation to pass into the detector where it strikes the may cause death.
sensing device filter. The filter allows only radiation in a
tight waveband centered on 4.3 micrometers in the IR band There are several types of carbon monoxide detectors.
to pass on to the radiation-sensitive surface of the sensing Electronic detectors are common. Some are panel mounted
device. The radiation striking the sensing device minutely and others are portable. Chemical color-change types are
raises its temperature causing small thermoelectric voltages also common. These are mostly portable. Some are simple
to be generated. These voltages are fed to an amplifier whose buttons, cards, or badges that have a chemical applied to
output is connected to various analytical electronic processing the surface. Normally, the color of the chemical is tan. In
circuits. The processing electronics are tailored exactly to the the presence of carbon monoxide, the chemical darkens to
time signature of all known hydrocarbon flame sources and grey or even black. The transition time required to change
ignores false alarm sources, such as incandescent lights and color is inversely related to the concentration of CO present.
sunlight. Alarm sensitivity level is accurately controlled by At 50 parts per million, the indication is apparent within
a digital circuit. [Figure 17-9] 15 to 30 minutes. A concentration of 100 parts per million
changes the color of the chemical in as little as 2–5 minutes.
Carbon Monoxide Detectors As concentration increases or duration of exposure is
Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas that is a prolonged, the color evolves from grey to dark grey to black.
byproduct of incomplete combustion. Its presence in the If contaminated, installing a new indicating element allows a
breathing air of human beings can be deadly. To ensure crew carbon monoxide portable test unit to be returned to service.

+12V
+12V F Voltage

GND +
GND +

+12V
2.55
Duflation
+ Dischminator
Fire
Threshold Counter
+
Clock
Flicker rate
Dischminator

F
4.3 Micrometer
sensor

Signal

Figure 17-9. Infrared (IR) based optical flame detector.

17-9