-

extrange enifaces

What makes a good exchange surface? short diffusion pathway, good supply of blood, larges. A
Whathappens as gets larger!The
object ratio decreases. clastic fibres

Whatdoes the trached contain?Why? C-shaped rings of cartilage to

keep trachea open, ciliated epithelium, goblet
cell, smooth
muscle

Whatare intercostal muscles? They are muscles in between the ribs

Where does
gas exchange occur? respiratory bronchioles:alreati smooth
muscle, elastic fibres
->
whattissues are in the bronchus? And goblet cells ciliated epithelial cells narrower lumen than
trachea, has supportive rings

what do
they do? ↳ secrete mucus move itup and out

whattissues does the bronchioles contain ciliated epithelial cells, muscle, elastic
smooth fibres, goblet cell

alveolicontain? elastic
What tissues does the
fibres

Whatd oes the connective tissue contain? elastic fibres so the alveolican contract and relax

happens durin
What inhalation? ribcage moves up +
out, intercostal muscles contracts and pressure decreases and air moves in,diaphragm flatters

what does the spirometer do? Measures the air flow in the
lungs. The is air in the box and as the air is inhaled it moves up and down

which causes a trace

What is required for the equipment of spirometer? healthy person, overfilled,

water, not sodaline taking in CO2

What is tidal volume? The normal

breathing rate of a person.

What
is expiration on the trace? The long line to the
bottom.
You
Whatis the vital capacity? The max inhale and max exhale

What
is residual volume? The air lefti n hugs
the after max exhale

What
affects vital capacity? exercise, age, gender
How to workout
rate or or decreasing? Dy 11x
 exchange fish in
-
-

system?Because
bodyare awe
fish in water
level
why do have a different oxygen

What is their
system called? counter current flow steep come for oxygen

Whati s the mouth also known as? bucal

cavity behind operculum there opercular

What is operclum? The cheek/layer of skin besides mouth cavity wherewaterenterhe gills
over
mouth and passes

What does the gill arch do? Have the water travel in one direction
the gills
O2 diffuses
-> in the
gills
into the blood CO2
+

out

What
do the blood vessels
carry where? Oxygenated & deoxygenated blood. Oxygenated blood to the fish. outt he

st
-> water leaves

oper autum
distance
What
is lamellae? single layer or cells in which blood travels over - capillaries:

, Mamems--where
these have gill plates step come.

gradient
What
a re gills? They have gill archtfilaments on the arch gas exchange occurs

What
flows take place? countercurrent flow or water and blood

What would happen if blood water flow the concentration of oxygen levels in the blood and water reach equilibrium

same way? therefore maximum amounts of oxygen is not absorbed

->

What is the process of gas exchange oxygen-rich water ends the and
mouth passes over the gills. oxygen diffuses from water to blood & CO2

in fish?A water passes out of the opercular opening

what
system do insects have?
open-circulatory system (active
Whatis spiracle? small opening in exoskeleton to allow gas in

How does gas exchange happen?

(imm)
Whatis the trached supported by? Chitin (exoskeleton through this

Situsion
so cost on can'tpass disease

~
what
d oes the trached branch into? tracheoles/1mm) -> lead to cells NO CHITIN

↳ we
happens to tracheal
what fluid? have tracheal fluid:during intense activity lactic acid produced and ofcells and water

See
What locusts? te

inortheneue
a re

from
a

is the spiracle surrounded

What by? Muscular sphincter to preventwater loss as the walls of in

~insects
C
tracheoles are moist

What is mass transport?Contractmuscles to change pressure

+
buck movement

how
* do
bony fish maintain water flow?
constant

water flows into buccal cavity

The floor of the be drops down to increase volume or water. Fish shuts the operculum. Due to increase volume the

4
again
4
pressure falls in opercular cavity. The floor moves and pressure of water + water flows. Then fish closes
mouth to open opercult water forced out
 gas exchange in mammals
-

Whatis the ratio like in mammals?How

what
traps pathogens in nasal cavity?hairs

are the
What adaptations of trachea? C-shaped rings ofcartilage, ciliated epithelium and gobletcells, smooth muscle

What
does the bronchicontain? ciliated epithelial cells, gobletcells, cartilage, smooth muscle

What do bronchioles contain? ciliated epithelial cells, goblet cells, smooth muscle

Where does O2 dissolve? alveolar wallsmoisture

How are alveoli adapted? one cell thick, of

network capillaries, elastic fibres

What happens during inhalation? the external intercostal muscles contract, ribs move up and out. Diaphragm flattens and volume

increase and pressure is lower than atm pressure so air moves in

What
is required for inhalation? energy
Whathappens
during intense breathing? internal intercostal muscles contract external relaxair
+

forced out

obe -
How does blood travel in double
circulatory system?

What is a closed (open circulatory system? blood travels in vessels

How does blood travel from heart lungs?

to
pulmonary artery
Whati s the pressure in veins? Lower

How does blood travel from heart?Vena

body to cava

is the
What structure of arteries collegen (strength),
and what smooth muscles (control), elastic fibres

do they do?

is
What the lumen lined with? endothelium cells to ensure iti s smooth for blood

What
is the role or arterioles:
carry blood from arteries to capillaries
What is the structure of arterioles?
bigger muscle,
smooth less collagentof
when do vasodilation take place? higher demand for 02
 gas exchange in mammals
-

Whatis the structure capillaries?O n e

of cell thick-> short diffusion distance, similar diameter to RBC -> move in a single file line so slow movement

What membrane does it have? basement membrane

How does blood travel in capillaries?l ow pressure

do the
what gaps allow to leave? tissue fluid
small
->
What is the structure of veins? larger lumen, elastic fibres, less smooth muscle and collagen

do values
What do? Prevent backflow

What is found in the blood? RBC, WBC, plasma:glucose, amino acids, plasma proteins, mineral ions, O2

What does tissue fluid do? provide nutrients to the cells

AE
t ~BM ~E

does
What the
capillary look like?

What is the pressure of the blood at AE? high

What does
hydrostatic pressure do? force the tissue fluid out of the capillaries

Whata re plasma proteins what do

+

theyds?hydrophilic, the reduce y so water moves into the blood by osmosis

What is oncotic pressure? water pressure

which is
higher arteriole
at end? hydrostatic pressure

What is higher at
venuos end? oncotic pressure -> due to large amounts of water thatleft

what
happens waste
to fluid? It
get absorbed into the
lymphe
 haemoglobin and dissocration calves

What are RBC called? erythrocytes

Whatare their adaptations? biconcave shape, lots haemoglobin,

of no nucleus

is
What the structure haemoglobin?quaternary
of structure

what protein is haemoglobin?Why? conjucated protein, 4 polypeptide chains:Haem group:Felt

bind?
How many of can 4
high partial pressure =

Whati s the curve like on the graph? S-shape, sigmond shape high affinity

happens
What as you increase pressure or affinity increases

What happens at low pressures Oz?

of
haemoglobin has a low
affinity for oxygen

whatdoes affinity mean? How strongly Oz can bind to

haemoglobin

What
happens when one or binds? affinity increases and structure of quaternary structure is changed so affinity

Whathappens to the curve when CO24? shifts to the right

what does coe do to the affinity?Decreases the oxygen affinity or oxygen or nameoglobin
Whathappens at
muscle tissues?The partial pressure ofCO2 is high which means or is offloaded there due to

naemoglobin having a lower affinity.

Whatis the graph for fetal Hb?shifts to the left

is the
What affinity or fetal b?higher than maternal

What is the haem groups like in fetal Different so higher affinity

How does CO2 diffusing help?I t lowers the O2 affinity of maternal Mb so or transfer from m- b is

efficient.

How can CO2 be transported? blood plasma, carbaminohaemoglobin, hydrogen carbonate in the blood plasma

what does w ith

CO2 react a nd form?reac ts with water to form hydrogencarbonate

whatis the enzyme called? carbonic

anhydrase

what
does carbonic acid help with
Ensures the level ofCO2 is low in the RBC=
Steep CO2 gradient:higher rate

does
What it split into? HC05 and HT

d oes
What the -iondo?M ove s out or the RBC and CI moves in

does a move in? Rubber

why To keep the charges balanced forms

haemoglobinic
->
whatcould the lions cause? The pH t he
of blood to fall. So Hb bind to it acid
 structure of the treat

What separates the atria and ventricles? Atrioventricular values

Whati s the left AV value called? bicuspid

What
i s the
rightA r value called? tricuspid

What are the a nd

left rights eparated by? Septum

What are two branches of the vena inferior:b lood from headtupper part

cava and what do they bring? superior:resto r body

Describe how the blood travels. Deoxynated blood enters through the vena cava. That blood is pumped from rightatrium to right ventricle. Blood

aorta.

blood
goes to
lungs through pulmonary artery. Oxygenated enters through pulmory vein and leaves
through

What does the

coronary artery do? supplies the heart
w ith
oxygen and nutrients

What is the hear t muscle and why?myogenic as

triggers itself
it tb
o eat -> no exter nal
signal

What is found in the wall oft h e RA! SAN-> sino-atrial node

what happens to the SAN becomes

It excited as it
becomes depolarised

what does that lead to? called? This sends a wave e xitation
of over the atria. Artria contract atrial
-

systole

Whats found between atria?

the Atrio-ventricular node

What
is connected to?
this purkyne fibres

is
What a lot of
purkyne fibres called? bundle His
of

where and where does the exitation move? After a short delay the AVN transmits the exitation down the purkyne fibres and the ventricles contract

How do the ventricles contract? upwards to allow maximum volume of blood is pumped

Why is there a
delay? To ensure the atria has fully contracted

Whatd oes systole & diastole mean? contract and diastole

What happens when blood enters the the heart?F i rs t

the atria ventricles
+
are in diastole. Then blood flows in a pressure in atrid rise and is
greater than

the pressure in ventricles. Causes AUN open

to and blood enters ventricles. Then atria contract(atrial systole)

and pushes remaining blood. Then ventricular systole takes place and pressure 4

I
and the values close. Then semi-lunar values open and blood pumped of
out the heart. Then

semi-lunar values shut.

 transport in plants

Whati s the structure ofvascular bundle? prioem-sedodermis

What tissues make up the xylem?

what
is lignin?

what
do pite
allow?
 photosynthesis

Whati s the equation for photosynthesis?6H20 6002

+
-> 602 +

C6M1206

What is the site of photosynthesis? chloroplast

whati s the thylakoid? air sacs -> coin like

is
what a stack ofthylakoid called? granum absorbs light
-
How are
thylakoids adapted? large surface area, thylakoid space allow HT, chlorophylla and ETC.

is
What the stroma? space contains enzyme (fluid)

Whati s the enzyme found in the stroma? RubisCO

Whati s starch grain? carbohydrate storage

Whati s the firststage photosynthesis?Light

of -

stage
dependent

whathappens to water? Photolysis:breaks up into it, oxygen and e-

Whati s the equation for photolysis?4H20 -> 4H 4e

+
+
02 present in
-
Whathappens to the electrons? They become excited and enter photosystem II thylakoid membrane

where is photosystem II? thyldkoid membrane

which one occurs first? photosystem II

What
a re photosystems? They have the
lightharvesting system surrounding reaction centre.

whatmakes up light harvesting system? Chlorophyll b, caratenoids, Xanthophyll

Whatis the role oft h e pigments?I t is to excite the electrons absorb light

Whatdoes the reaction centre contain? Chlorophyll a

Whatd oes it do? It absorbs and undergoes

light photoconisation

Whati s photoconisation? The electron is released to electron transportchain

Whath appens to ei n ETC They pass along the chain and lose energy and transferred to the proteins

Whatd o the proteins do with the energy? They pump the HT the
into thylakoid space from stroma

d oes
What this cause? create a concentration gradient.

I
h appens to the
What HTafter?
They getpassed through ATP synthase (passive

whatis produced? Produce ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate

What is this process called? Photoionisation

membrane?
is
What the
partially permeable
 photosynthesis

whathappens to e in ETC? They enter photosystem I and become excited and causes photolonisation or chlorophy

to e-after? The released enter another ETC and used to

pump it
Whathappens the
energy

Whathappens the
to released e? accepted by NADPH
whatdoes it combine with? e-and
with itto form NADPH

Whathappens to NADPY? reduced

Whatis non-cyclic phosphorylation? The electrons is passed linearly and accepted by NADPH

when does cyclic phosphorylation happen?When More ATP is needed:stress

whathappens in
cyclic phosphorylation?The becomes recycled pump more itinto thylakoid + pass through ATP and make ATP

Whatproducts are used in LI stage?NADPHand ATP

where does itt ake place? stroma

whati s the purpose of LI? To produce glucose

Whati s the first stage or CC? The CO2 becomes fixed to ribulose bisphosphate

How carbons ribulose biphosphate? 5

many are

Whatis the RB?Splitinto? splits into glcerate -3-phosphate as the compound is unstable

Whathappens to ap? It splits into a triose phosphate

Whatdoes require?
it ATP and NADH

did
What NADPH provide? The HT reduce
to up to TP

Whatis triose phosphate used for? used for glucose and some back in the calvin cycle
↳ RuBP
regenerate
 respiration

whati s inner membrane called!Cristal

the
folding

What
does the cristal do? provide surface area

does
what inner
the membrane do? Gold proteins

Why do you need intermembrane? So itcan be pumped

what is matrix?
the liquid hold matrial DNA

where does glycolysis take place? cytoplasm

Whatis the first step? glucose breaks down into nexose bisphosphate, the 2 ATP becomes 2ADP

Whatis the second step? Hexose bisphosphate breaks down into

triose
phosphate and thatbreaks down into triose bisphosphate

is the
what last step? The triosebisphosphate breaks down into pyruvate and ADP is converted to ATP and NAD becomes reduced.

What does NAD do? Becomes reduced

is substrate
What
-

level phosphorylation?I tis production withoutt he

ATP use of the electron transport chain+ ATP synthase

How glycolysis?
ATP produced at 4 but
a net gain
many

How
many pyruvate produced? 2 losing CO2:

HOW
many rNAD? 2 matrix decarboxylation
-
next? The NAD -> rNAD:
happens
What pyruvate (3C) undergoes decarboxylation
what
carbon molecule is made?Acetyl coenzyme A oxidation

How is the molecule made? CO2 is produced and WAD is reduced

is
what that called? Link reaction -> oxidative decarboxylation

does
What NAD do? Becomes reduced

i s the line
what reaction? oxidative carboxylation
partof the
What enzyme enters the cycle?The acetyl group (2C)

i s the
What 4-carbon molecule called? Oxaloacetate

Whatd o they both make? citrate

does citrate make? Makes 5C

by reducing NAD and
What
releasing (O2

what
happens again? WAD reduced
again and CO2 released

what IC? formed level

phosphorylation. vFAD and UNAD
is made into
happens to ATPis which is also substrate FAD
-

What
other coenzyme comes? FAD

NAD made?
is
4
How
many
made?
How many
ATP is I
3 CO2
made?
NFAD is
How many I
 ciolative taproshostration

where does ittake place?

How
many He does NAD and FAD carry?

whatmakes up the ETC?

What do the e-release as they travel?

Whatdoes this cause?

what happens to the it

 Modules

1)

2) Foundations in biology

cell structure
-

-Biological molecules

Nucleotides
-

Enzymes
-

membranes

cell division

4)
Biodiversity, evolution disease
+

communicable diseases

Biodiversity
-

-classification evolution
+

6) Genetics, evolution and ecosystems

cellular control
-

Patterns ofinheritence

Manipulating
-

genomes

-cloning and biotechnology

 cellular control

What
is a mutation? A
change in the DNA base sequence caused by mutagens

Whatd oes pointm utation affect? I base

What
a re the differenttypes?Substitution, insertion, deletion

What
is frameshiftmutation? Disrupts the reading or a codon

Whatis a codon? A
sequence of 3 bases coding an
for amino acid

What
a re the effects? Meaning? Silent:n o affect Beneficial Damaging
Whati s nonsense? When there is a stop codon generated

Whatis misense? when one amino acid is converted to another

What chromosonal mutation?When changed

is a
large chunk or the chromosome is

Whatis translocation? when a section moves itself from one chromosome to another

on BOUr editing RNA on 1 off editing protein

What are the levels of control? transcriptional, post-transcriptional, translational, post-translational

happens
what in prokaryotes?Lac Operon gene inaccesible
->
What
is heterochromatin? When the DNA
is
tightly wrapped not
allowing RNA polymerase bind
to

is
What Enchromatin? where iti s
losely wrapped in interphase allowing RNA
polymerase to bind

Whatis the regulatory gene? Lac I -

makes repressor break down lactose if lactose not

-
are
What the structural genes?(acI, Lacy, lacA the
present repressed

Whatis the operator? DNAsequence where repressor protein binds binds to the operator -

is
What the promoter? DNA sequence where RNA
polymerase binds blocks so protein
Whatdoes lacImake? repressor notmade

Binds blocked and

where does itbind? Whatdoes this
operator
to so the is
promoter
cause? RNA polymerase cannotbind to start transcription
Whatis CAMP? protein.
receptor lactose binds to repressor and
enzyme
made breaks down lactose
↳
+

upregulate
What
happens in post-transcription?Modify MRNA sequences don'tcode
that for a protein
--
Whatare introns and extrons?Introns are genes that aren'texpressed and extrons are

what
happens the
to pre-mRNA? Why The introns getremoved RNA
splicing
What
gets added? Why? Adenine (chain) and add cap to 5'(modified nucleotide) for protection

Whathappens the
to mature mRNA? The mRNA editing takes place

Why are there differentversions of mRNA:make different

proteins for different
functions

translational

Whatis the firstdecision made?I ftranscription needs to take place

Whathappens if we it?
don'twant degrade mRNA, proteins mRNA
bind to so doesn'tbind ribosome
to

What happens if we want it? MRNA bind to ribosome

By what? phosphorylation protein

->

kinesis

What
happens in post-transcriptional?Modifying the protein in golgi apparatus

How can itbe modified? (3 ways) 1. Add non-protein groups (glycoprotein)

2.
Modify as make
to bonds

3.
Change protein folding (30,4°)
4. Modification of CAMP ->

homedbor genes are:regulatory gene

key role: control body development

Whatare they? highly conserved

what else do they regulate? mitosis A apoptosis

What is apoptosis? controlled cell death

what are noxgenes? only found in animals

 variation

What is intraspecific variation?Variation within a species mutations within a species

Whati s interspecific variation? Variation between different species e.g:blue whale vs. Killer whale
bell shaped curved
Whatis continuous variation? and
smooth falls along a line ->
height, weight, length
of leaves

whatis discontinuous variation?Few categories no middle values -> blood groups, eye colour, sex

Whatis the M? mean

Whatis the o? standard deviation

whatis codominance? Where both
alleles are dominant

Whatis multiple alleles? More than 2 alleles for I

gene

I?
Whatis
gene symbol
Whatis sex
linkage? Genes found on sex chromosome

Whatd o males have? xY

Whatis the of
probability males affected? 50 %

Whatis the probability of females affected? 33%

inheritence? inheritence between 2

Whatis dihybrid genes
4
Whati s the possible genotypes? possible gametes how workout
to actual number:

YYRR
phenotype?
"Nx
what
parental

Whati s parental gametes YRYR YR YR poral ratio

Whatis that cross called? homozygous number 49 +

3+3 +1

Whatis the ratio of heterozygous cross?9:3: 3:1

Why would there be unexpected ratios? random fertilisation, autosomal linkage

Whatis autosomal linkage? Genes found on same chromosome are

that inherited together
test? Chi-square
->
How do we find signifant difference
>CV?
m ean if
significant difference LINKAGEIEPISTASIS
Whatdoes it X IS
There =

Whatis epistasis? -> Two

genes on differentchromosome affect same

feature.
 communicable diseases

a re
What the 4 stages? inflammation, phagocytosis, cell mediated immunity, humoral response

Whathappens the first step? Mastc ells are activated

whattwo chemicals are released? Histamine, cytokines

Whatdo histamines do?What dilate

blood vesselcake blood vessels
leaky parenceentrophils for phagocytosis
↓

does this do?Symptoms? t pathogen production ↳

localise heat swelling, pain

Whatdo cytokines do? Attract phagocytes -

cell
signalling

What
a re the 2 phagocytes?neutrophil, macrophage non-specific 10 mins

What is the difference between neutrophil have a lobed nucleus self/foreign

> has a receptor which t
the two? macrophage have circular nucleus recognise antigens -

gleoprotein

whati s the similarity? Have

lysosomes
-> digest
Whatare lysosomes? Have lysozymes vesicles
->

what
do opsonins do? The tag to 4
recognition This where
the
pathogens

Whatis a phagosome? macrophage engulf

the pathogen
-> neutrophil stops
Whatfuses
together? lysosome and phagocyte =
phagolysosome

Whatdigests
the pathogen? The
lysozymes

Whathappens the
to
macrophage? Becomes an
antigen-presenting cell

Whatdoes this do? Alert the white blood cells to attack

B
Whatare WBC called?Two types? lymphocyte, T
lymphocyte
-

specific

where are I made and matured? Bone marrow, thymus

Whatd o I helper cells do? Bind cells and detectt h e m Release interleuking
to
antigen-presenting

d oes
What release?
it Interleukins=stimulate B-cells make
to antibodies, macrophages, T cells to

Whatdo the T helper make? T suppress

-
killer cells, I memory cells and I
regulatory cells immune system divide

How do I killer kill? Release peforin (hole in membrane), H2O2

I
Whata re the 2. parts humoral
to
response? clonal selection, cloud expansion make plasma cells
SHORT lite
-
secondary - when attach
Whatare the 3 B-cells? B-plasma, B
memory, Beffector
cells detected
produce
↳) antibodies

Whata re antibodies also called? immunoglubbins

Whata re two chains connected by? disulphide band

What
regions are there? variable, constant

Whata re agglutinins? The chump it

together stick pathogens together

Antitoxins=neutralise
toxins released by pathogens
 L

What is cell mediated immunity?The T-helper cell bind to APC

the and divide into
Ti Tmr

What
is humoral immunity? Respond to
pathogens or APC

Make specific antibodies

What
is clonal selection? B
pathogen and
cell complementary
with antibody will bind to
engulf it
What
d oes become?
it Become B-antigen cell
presenting

happens? The recognise and became activated

Then what T-helper cell will

and release interleuking for signal

Whatis clonal expansion? The B-APC divide into B plasma cells

to
specific antibodies

-memory
B calls.