Chapter II

Review of Related Literature and Studies

International Studies

Due to the negative effects of teenage pregnancy, a deeper comprehension of the social factors,

self-efficacy, and communication with parents, friends, and teachers involved with this situation

is necessary. (Saloshni Naidoo & Myra Taylor, 2021)

US still has the highest teenage birth rate among developed nations, despite a significant decline

over the past 20 years. More creative, neighborhood-wide initiatives are required to address the

problem. (Sonya Panjwani & Whitney R. Garney & Megan S. Patterson & Kobi V. Ajayi &

Sharayah Fore & Laura Lang)

Women who start having children in their teens have lower levels of education than those who

wait until they are at least 20 years old. The post-pregnancy variables that influence teen

mothers' educational success are not well understood. (Julie Malowsky & Haley Stritzel &

Elizabeth T. Gershoff)

Teenage parents and their kids may face a variety of difficulties as a result of subsequent teenage

pregnancies. The mechanisms through which efforts to reduce subsequent teenage pregnancies

and increase the use of long-acting reversible contraception (LARC) may be effective have not

been thoroughly examined in studies evaluating these efforts, in particular goal orientation and

social support. (Marni L. Kan & Derek D. Ramirez, 2020)

30% of American girls becoming pregnant before the age of 20, the United States has the highest

rate of teen pregnancies of any developed nation. State-by-state variations in the prevalence of
pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are correlated with differences in the laws

governing the inclusion and content of sexuality education. (Amy L. Bordogna & Amanda C.

Coyle & Rupa Nallamothu & Alina L. Manko & Renata W. Yen)

Arkansas still has one of the highest rates in the USA, despite a decline in teen pregnancy rates

nationwide. In the state, 20% more teenagers than in the USA (13.8%) reported not using any

form of contraception. According to research conducted at the national level, there is a lot of

misinformation and ignorance about contraception. In this study, parents and teenagers in

Arkansas are asked about their attitudes toward contraception as well as their awareness of it. (S.

Alexandra Marshall & Nichola Driver & M. Kathryn Allison, 2020)

Despite the introduction of Life Skills education as a required subject in primary schools in

Malawi in 2002, the number of teenage pregnancies and child marriages is still rising. Focus

groups with participants were used to explore the challenges teachers in Malawi's southern

districts face when attempting to teach sexual and reproductive health education in primary

schools. (Gloria Likupe & Jesman Chintsanya & Monica Magadi & Alister Munthali & Medison

Makwemba)

Teenage girls in developed and developing nations alike lose out on opportunities due to the

serious social problem of adolescent pregnancy. This phenomenological research study

investigated the lived experiences of teenage mothers while they were attending college. (Ryan

Ray G. Gatbonton)

Adult Skills Assessment results show a significant correlation between the rate of teenage

motherhood and literacy proficiency. Countries where there is a strong correlation between the
two could promote early pregnancy prevention and support for those in high-risk groups.

(OECD, 2018)

Among likely voters in the USA, there is strong support for sex education in middle and high

schools as well as for the inclusion of a range of topics in sex education programs. A diverse

sample of 965 adults from the biggest probability-based panel in the USA were used for this

survey. Voters who are likely to vote favor continuing government funding for initiatives to

prevent teenage pregnancies as well as sex education in schools. They also want these initiatives

to include abstinence education in addition to birth control and STD prevention. (Leslie Kantor

& Nicole Levitz & Amelia Holstorm, 2020)

Teenage pregnancy among girls in school is a persistent problem not just in South Africa but

around the world. The numbers are still increasing despite numerous curriculum responses

designed to teach young people about prevention. While acknowledging the intersectionality of

teenage pregnancy, we think that school-based prevention programs can be crucial in assisting

young people in making responsible decisions regarding their sexual behavior. (F. Hendricks, Dr

& L. Wood, Prof, 2018)

It has been demonstrated that sexual education can help adolescents who are experiencing

problems with their sexual health, both inside and outside of the classroom. Teenagers

themselves should contribute to the development of services for sexual health and sex education

offered in schools to young people. To help with the development of such a program, 41 young

people between the ages of 13 and 22 were interviewed in semi-structured interviews in a large

US midwestern city. Both top-down and bottom-up coding strategies were used in the analysis.

Regarding sex education programs both inside and outside of schools, four themes emerged: the
need for awareness of current prevention efforts, information-seeking behaviors, individual

perspectives on how to address teenage pregnancy and STIs, and the best setting in which to do

so. (Christopher M. Fisher & Lucille Kerr & Paulina Ezer & Aja D. Kneip Pelster & Jason D.

Coleman & Melissa Tibbits, 2019)

This study describes sexual health education preferences by Hispanic ethnicity among a high-risk

sample of young people aged 14-20 years in Texas. In the USA, persons of Hispanic ethnicity

experience higher rates of adolescent pregnancy and STIs than non-Hispanic white youth. There

is a lack of research regarding the sexuality education preferences of Hispanic adolescents.

(Sarah B. Maness & Kelly L. Wilson & Erika L. Thompson & Brittany L. Rosen & Taylor

Zingg, 2019)

Due to a lack of sufficient evidence-based data and an ongoing discussion in Panamanian society

regarding how to address "adolescents' health problems," the goal of this qualitative study was to

examine the perceptions and attitudes of various societal actors, including government officials,

law enforcement officers, and other youth-serving organizations. (Ana B. Arauz-Ledezma &

Karlijn Massar & Gerjo Kok, 2019)

In the USA, South Carolina has the 16th-highest rate of teen pregnancies. The South Carolina

Comprehensive Health Education Act (CHEA) varies greatly in terms of compliance and

implementation, and it does not call for materials that are medically accurate, unbiased, or

culturally appropriate. This study aimed to better comprehend parents' viewpoints on

reproductive and sexual health education in one South Carolina county. A qualitative survey

received responses from 484 parents, who collectively represent 798 students. (Amanda

Cameron & Ellie Smith & Nicholas Mercer & Beth Sundstrom, 2020)
National Studies

Teenage pregnancies are quite common, which is quite alarming. Adolescent mothers face

difficulties that place additional demands on their capacity to adjust to their new parental role as

well as the stage of adolescent development. (Erika Alexis Casugay & Criseta Bagtang, 2018)

Due to the widespread misconception that teaching about sexuality encourages students to

engage in sexual activity, we rarely include sexual education in our curricula. In actuality, sex

education aims to educate our students about the negative effects of premarital sex on a person's

emotional, physical, and social aspects. (J. Acosta & R. Añonuevo & M.G Juliano & P. Lucañas

& D. Purpora & J. Tulabing & Avilynne A. Tandoc, 2019)

Better programs and projects for educating those who are sexually active, those who are curious

about their sexuality, and those who intend to engage in sexual activity could result from having

a better understanding of sexual health. Additionally, by becoming more knowledgeable about

sexual health and having a better understanding of what it is, people will be better able to

comprehend the ideas of sexuality, sexual relationships, and its role in developing more effective

prevention programs for sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), teen pregnancy issues, and other

sexual health-related issues. (Dan Anthony D. Dorado & Kathleen Lourdes B. Obille & Rhianne

Patricia P. Garcia & Benidict Salazar Olgado, 2019)

Teenage pregnancies in the Philippines are becoming a major source of concern. Growing

numbers of young women are having children, and the majority of them are single, which makes

them more prone to death, depression, abortion, and other problems, especially if family support

is lacking. (June A. Kiblasan II, 2019)

pregnancy. The goal of this study is to describe the trends and connections between family

communication and young Filipino women's chances of becoming pregnant in their teen years.

(Vilma Mae Ventanilla & Jean Pauline Villaruel, 2022)

Adolescence is a key developmental period in one’s life course; health-related behaviors of

adolescents can be linked to lifelong consequences, which affect their future health. Previous

studies highlight the role of family and its significant association with adolescents’ health. In

East Asia and the Pacific, the Philippines is the only country that is showing an upward trend of

teenage pregnancy while other countries in the region have declining teenage pregnancy rates.

(Kozue Tabei & Erlinda Susana S. Cuisia-Cruz & Chris Smith & Xerxes Seposo, 2021)

With the exception of the Philippines, the Asia-Pacific region's teenage pregnancy rates have

decreased over the past 20 years. Despite the Philippine government's efforts to pass laws and

implement programs related to reproductive health, the alarming situation persists. This study

examines how teenage mothers perceive and comprehend adolescent sexuality, romantic

relationships, and motherhood by drawing on feminist theory and photo-elicitation. (Veronica

Gregorio, 2018)

Philippines, as well as in the majority of developed and developing nations alike. In this study, a

correlational-descriptive methodology was used to estimate the prevalence of adolescent

pregnancy across the 15 barangays of El Salvador City. 497 respondents in total participated in

the survey. At the time of the study, the majority of the respondents, who were 16 to 18 years

old, were from the barangays of Molugan and Poblacion. In addition, 161 out of the 497

respondents, or 32.39%, reported being pregnant as teenagers. This figure is relatively high and
comparable to that of Asian neighbors. (Angelo Mark P. Walag & Dan Christer C. Gadian & Ivy

P. Walag & Morie Allen G. Merlas & Louella V. Larosa & Sydney P. Lumantas & Ma. Corazon

Salugsugan-Joaquin, 2018)

The median age of the population in the Philippines, which was estimated to be 22.9 years old in

2010, is low. Of the 95.8 million Filipinos who live there, 19.8 million (21%) are between the

ages of 15 and 24. Teenagers between the ages of 15 and 19 make up about 48% of these youth.

Depending on the source, timing, and age of the survey as well as the local context, studies in

local settings provide varying information on the prevalence of adolescent pregnancy in the

Philippines. (Lunag, Feby Basco & Macer Darryl, 2018)

Among the nations of Southeast Asia, the Philippines has one of the highest rates of teen births.

The number of teenage pregnancies was deemed a "national social emergency" by the

Philippines National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) in 2019. As the

Commission on Population and Development reported that 2,411 girls between the ages of ten

and fourteen gave birth that year, President of the Philippines Rodrigo Duterte became aware of

the urgency. Teenage pregnancies prevent women from having the chance to escape poverty and

advance their level of human development. These outcomes are more likely to occur as a result

of inadequate sex education, lack of access to birth control, rising cohabitation, and

misconceptions fueled by stereotypes or religious beliefs. (Tashi Sherpa, 2021)

With annual increases in the rate of teenage pregnancies, teen pregnancy in the Philippines

remains a long-standing national crisis. Teenage pregnancy rates increased in the Philippines

during the COVID-19 pandemic despite the widespread implementation of health and safety

measures. As a result, the study sought to explain potential causes for the rise in teen pregnancies
in the Philippines during the pandemic. The Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein & Ajzen,

1975) was specifically used in this study to describe the attitudes and subjective norms that

might have affected the intentions of Filipino teenage couples to become pregnant. (Adrian Neil

C. Holgado & Ma. Azapurn Redge B. Apuang & Jonas Robert E. Calimlim & Elijah Nicholas F.

Ferrera, 2022)

In 2019, the Philippines deemed teen pregnancy to be a national social emergency. The difficulty

in obtaining family planning (FP) goods and services, the requirement that minors obtain

parental consent before using contraception, and the low utilization of health services are the

main causes of this issue. How Might We Reduce Unintended Teenage Pregnancy in the

Philippines? was the question addressed by USAID ReachHealth, a five-year FP project in the

Philippines. Adapted participatory methods were used in the HCD process (Empathize, Define,

Ideate, Design and Test/Implement). ( Maria Elizabeth Murga & Jeffry Lorenzo & Algin Gultia,

2023)

Adolescent pregnancy has a negative impact on the health, educational, and future employment

prospects of the pregnant teen and her unborn child. The Demographic and Health Surveys

(DHS) Program is one of the most trustworthy and convenient sources of demographic and

health data for researchers, development professionals, and policymakers in many low- and

middle-income nations like the Philippines. Although there are few resources for adolescent

sexual and reproductive health (SRH), it is possible to make the most of the DHS's collection of

information on adolescent health. (Christine Marie Habito & Cathy Vaughan & Alison Morgan,

2019)
In the Philippines, there are numerous ethnolinguistic groups or ethnicities, so genetic counselors

may run into clients who have a variety of culturally-based beliefs about various health issues.

Clients may therefore blame a socioculturally based health belief for a birth defect. The purpose

of the current study was to investigate mothers of children who had been identified as having

birth defects in their beliefs about the causes of birth defects. In Baguio General Hospital and

Medical Health Center (BGHMC), a tertiary care hospital in the Philippines and a birth defect

surveillance site, the study was carried out as a qualitative descriptive pilot study. (Eva Belingon

Felipe-Dimog & Ma-Am Joy Realce Tumulak & Mercy Ygona Laurino & Sandra Daack-Hirsch

& Catherine Lynn Tipton Silao & Ma. Cecilia Gastardo Conaco & Carmencita David Padilla &

Leonardo Rabena Estacio Jr, 2022)

In the Philippines, consistent condom use among women—defined as the self-reported use of a

male condom in each sexual encounter the respondent had with her most recent partner in the

previous 12 months—has always been low. This is true even though using condoms regularly is

a tried-and-true public health measure to stop unintended pregnancies and STDs. We determined

the factors that contribute to consistent condom use in the Philippines in light of the nation's high

fertility rate, high rate of teenage pregnancies, and rapidly rising HIV incidence. (Veincent

Christian F. Pepito & Arianna Maever L. Amit & Clinton S. Tang & Ryan Gabriel C. Molen &

Luis Miguel B. Co & Neil Andrew Kaimco Aliazas & Sarah J. De Los Reyes & Lourdes

Bernadette S. Tanchanco, 2022)