UNIT 10: HYGIENE AND SANITATION IN

FOOD SECTOR

The word sanitation comes from the Latin word sanitas, which means “health”.
Sanitation means creating and maintaining hygienic and healthful conditions.
It is an applied science and relates physical, chemical, biological, and microbial
principles to food, the environment and health. Sanitation is more than just
cleanliness. Food or equipment can be free of visible dirt and still be
contaminated with microorganisms or chemicals that can cause illness or food
spoilage.

Sanitary practices and hygienic conditions are becoming more and more
important because food is being processed, prepared and sold in larger
volumes than before. Some microorganisms cause food spoilage and food-borne
illness, but others are beneficial in food processing and preparation. Sanitation
can reduce the growth of microorganisms on equipment and dirt on food. This
can reduce contamination of food by microorganisms that cause food-borne
illness and food spoilage. Sanitary principles also apply to waste disposal and
can help reduce pollution and improve ecological balance.

A sanitation program is a planned way of practicing sanitation. The benefits of

a good sanitation program include the following:

 Compliance with statutory regulations.

 Preventing food-borne illness outbreaks.
 Improving quality and shelf life of foods.
 Reducing energy and maintenance costs.
 Increasing quality and confidence.
10.1 SOURCES OF FOOD CONTAMINATION

10.1.1 Raw Materials

The raw material itself is the most common source of contamination. For
example, the muscles of healthy animals are nearly free of microorganisms
while alive as its white blood cells and antibodies control infection. These
mechanisms are, however, lost during slaughter whereby microorganisms first
reach the meat if contaminated knives are used to bleed animals. Since the
blood is still circulating, it quickly carries these microorganisms through out
the animal’s body. In case of poultry, microorganisms are easily spread from
one carcass to another during de-feathering and evisceration (removal of the
intestines). Thus the ingredients including spices can carry harmful or
potentially harmful microorganisms and toxins. The amount and types of these
microbes and toxins depends on where and how the ingredient was harvested
and how the ingredient was processed and handled.

10.1.2 Equipment

Equipment can be contaminated during production and while it is not being

used. While equipment may be designed to be hygienic, it still can collect
microorganisms and other debris if not cleaned regularly and thoroughly.
Therefore, it is necessary that an appropriate cleaning programme is developed
and implemented. Wherever, equipment cannot be removed, `Cleaning-in-place’
system should be implemented.

10.1.3 Employees
Besides the foreign objects, the most common source of microbial
contamination in foods is the employees. The hands, hair, nose and mouth
carry microorganisms that can be transferred to food during processing,
preparation, packaging and service by touching, breathing, coughing or
sneezing. Therefore, sanitary practices such as hand washing, use of hairnets
and disposable plastic gloves are essential.

10.1.4 Air and Water

Water is used for cleaning and as an ingredient in many processed foods.

However, if the water is not pure, it can contaminate foods. If the water source
is contaminated it should be treated by suitable means.

Microorganisms in air can contaminate foods during processing, preparation,

packaging and storage. It therefore becomes vital to reduce air contamination
by using air filters for air entering processing and preparation areas and to
cover food products to reduce contact with air.

10.1.5 Insects and rodents

Food and food waste attract flies and cockroaches to kitchens, foodservice
operations, food-processing facilities, toilets and garbage. The insects transfer
dirt from contaminated areas to food through their waste products; mouth,
feet, other body parts and saliva. Rats and mice carry dirt and disease with
their feet, fur and faeces. They transfer dirt from garbage dumps and sewers to
food or food processing and foodservice areas. It is vital that an appropriate
pest management system is developed and implemented
10.1.6 Sewage

Raw, untreated sewage carries high microbial load and may contaminate water,
food or equipment through faulty plumbing. If raw sewage drains or flows into
drinking water lines, wells, rivers, lakes and ocean bays, the water and seafood
will be contaminated. To prevent this kind of contamination, toilet facilities and
septic tanks should be separated from wells, streams and other water sources.

10.2 CLEANING

Cleaning compounds are made for specific jobs, such as washing floors and
walls or use in high-pressure dishwashers. Good cleaning compounds are
economical, easy to measure, and dissolve well. They are approved for use on
food surfaces, are not corrosive, and do not cake, leave dust, or break during
storage.

Different cleaning compounds work well for different areas and different types
of equipment. When choosing a cleaning compound, it is important to consider
the type of soil (dirt), the water supply, how the cleaning compound will be
used, the area and the kind of equipment being cleaned.

10.2.1 Cleaning-agent terms

The hygiene personnel need to understand the following terms used to describe
cleaning compounds:
  Chelating agent (sequestering agent or sequestrant): Chemical added to
cleaning Compounds to prevent the salts of calcium and magnesium in
hard water from forming deposits on equipment surfaces.
 Emulsification: Breakdown of fat and oil drops into smaller droplets
that are dispersed in the cleaning solution. The soil is still there, but the
particles are smaller and are dispersed in the solution, rather than
settling on the surface.
 Rinsibility: The ability of a cleaning compound to be removed from a
surface without leaving a residue.
 Surfactant: A complex molecule that is blended with a cleaning
compound to reduce the energy of the bonds around the soil and allow
closer contact between the soil and the cleaning compound.
 Suspension: The process of loosening, lifting, and holding soil
particles in solution.
 Water hardness: The amount of inorganic salts (such as calcium
chloride, magnesium chloride , sulphates, and bicarbonates) in water
 Water softening: Removes or inactivates the calcium and magnesium
ions in water.
 Wetting (penetration.): Caused by a surfactant that allows the cleaning
compound to wet or penetrate the soil deposit and loosen it from the
surface.

10.2.2 Types of cleaning agents

Most cleaning agents used in the food industry are blended products.
Manufacturers combine ingredients to make a specific product for a particular
type of surface or dirt.

The following types of cleaning agents are used most often in foodservice
facilities and processing plants:
(a) Alkaline Cleaning Agents

Alkaline cleaning solutions have a pH between 7 (neutral) and 14 (most

alkaline). There are several types of alkaline cleaners viz.

 Strongly alkaline cleaners.

These cleaners have strong dissolving powers and are very corrosive. If these
cleaners come in contact with skin they can cause burns, ulcers, and scarring;
prolonged contact may cause permanent damage. Inhaling the fumes or mist
damages the lungs.

An example of a strongly alkaline compound is sodium hydroxide (caustic

soda), which destroys microbes, dissolves protein, and is good at dispersing
and emulsifying soil. Silicates make sodium hydroxide less corrosive, better at
penetrating soil, and better at rinsing away soil. These cleaners are used to
remove heavy soils, such as those in commercial ovens and smokehouses, but
they are not good at removing mineral deposits.

 Heavy-Duty Alkaline Cleaners

These compounds have moderate dissolving powers and are either slightly
corrosive not corrosive at all. However, if they are in contact with the skin for
long, they may remove necessary oils from the skin, leaving it open to
infections.

These cleaners are often used for cleaning in place or high-pressure or other
mechanized systems. They are very good at removing fats but do not remove
mineral deposits. Sodium carbonate is quite low in cost, is widely used in
heavy-duty and manual cleaning procedures, and is used to buffer many
cleaning compounds.

 Mild Alkaline Cleaners

Mild alkaline cleaning solutions such as sodium bicarbonate are used to clean
lightly soiled areas by hand. These compounds are good at softening water but
do not remove mineral deposits.

(b) Acid Cleaning Agents

Acid cleaning agents remove materials that are dried on or encrusted on sur-
faces and dissolve mineral scale. They are especially good at removing mineral
deposits formed by alkaline cleaning compounds. When hard water is heated
above 80ºC, some of the minerals are deposited. These deposits stick to metal
surfaces and leave a rusty or whitish scale. Acid cleaners dissolve the minerals
in the deposits so that they can be easily removed.

Organic acids (such as citric, tartaric acids) are also excellent water softeners,
rinse off easily and do not corrode surfaces or irritate the skin. Inorganic acids
are excellent at removing and controlling mineral deposits, but they can be very
corrosive to surfaces and irritating to the skin Acid cleaning compounds are
used for special purposes rather than for all-purpose cleaning. Acid cleaning
agents are less effective than alkaline ones against the soil caused by fats, oils,
and proteins.

 Strongly Acid Cleaners

These agents corrode concrete, most metals, and fabrics. Heating some acid
cleaners produces corrosive, toxic gases, which can damage the lungs. Strongly
acid cleaners remove encrusted surface matter and mineral scale from steam
equipment, boilers, and some food-processing equipment. When the solution is
too hot, the mineral scale may redeposit and form a tarnish or whitish film on
the equipment being cleaned.

Phosphoric acid and hydrofluoric acid both clean and brighten certain metals.
However, hydrofluoric acid is corrosive to stainless steel and dangerous to
handle because it tends to release hydrogen gas. Phosphoric acid is more used
as it is not very corrosive and works well with many surfactants.

 Mildly Acid Cleaners

These agents are slightly corrosive and may cause sensitively reactions Some
acid cleaners attack skin and eyes. Examples of mildly acid cleaning agents
are hydroxyacetic, acetic, and gluconic acids. Organic acids are good manual
cleaners, are expensive than the other acid cleaning compounds, and can
soften water.

(c) Solvent Cleaners

Solvent cleaners are based on ether or alcohol. They work well on soils caused
by petroleum products, such as lubricating oils and greases. Most of the time,
food establishments use alkaline cleaners to remove organic soils. But they use
solvent cleaners to remove large amounts of petroleum deposits in areas free of
protein-based and greasy soils, i.e, in the maintenance shop and on motors,
gear boxes, pallet trucks, and fork trucks. Solvent cleaners may be mixed with
wetting agents, water softeners, and other additives.
(d) Soaps and Detergents

Soaps and detergents emulsify fats, oils, and grease so that they are easily
washed away. Soaps and detergents usually contain chemical builders to make
them clean more effectively. Soaps and detergents for household cleaning have
a pH of 8 to 9.5.

(e) Choosing A Cleaning agent

It is important to choose the right cleaning agent for the type of soil. A good
rule to remember is that like cleans like. Therefore, an acid soil requires an
acid cleaner, while an alkaline cleaning agent works best to remove an alkaline
soil. Alkaline, general-purpose cleaning agent work best to remove organic
soils. Heavy-duty alkaline cleaning agents work best for heavy deposits of fats
and proteins (organic soil). Acid cleaning agents remove mineral deposits
(inorganic soil) and other soils that are not removed by alkaline cleaning
compounds. Phosphates complexed with organic chlorine are the most
common types of cleaner-sanitizers.

10.3 SANITIZING

The cleaning process removes the soil deposits. Sanitizing, on the other hand,
destroys microbes that are left on the cleaned surface. If the surface is still
dirty, the soil protects the microbes from sanitizing agents. Therefore, the
equipment and surfaces must be thoroughly clean for sanitizers to work
properly.
The major types of sanitizers are:

10.3.1 Heat

Heat is an inefficient sanitizer because it takes so much energy. The efficiency

of heat depends on the humidity, the temperature required and the length of
time it takes to destroy microbes at that temperature. Steam and hot water are
the most common types of heat used for sanitization ( sterilization). However,
sanitizing with steam is expensive because of high energy costs. Hot water
(heated to 82ºC or higher) immersing is a good way to sterilize cleaned small
components viz. knives, tongs, spoons, utensils. The time needed to sterilize an
item depends on the temperature of water. If equipment or surfaces are
sterilized at lower temperature, they must be kept at heat temperature for
longer duration. If they are sterilized for a shorter duration, the temperatures
must be higher. This is known as `time-temperature relationship’. Examples of
time and temperature combinations used for sterilization are 15 minutes of eat
at 85ºC or 20 minutes at 82ºC.

10.3.2 Radiation

Radiation in the form of ultraviolet light or energy cathode or gamma rays

destroys microorganisms. It, however, is not entirely effective in food
processing and food service facilities as the light rays must actually hit the
microorganisms and therefore kills only the microorganisms that are very close
by. Further, some bacteria are more resistant to radiation and need a longer
exposure for the radiation to destroy them. Moreover, dust, grease and opaque
or cloudy solutions absorb radiation and prevent it from killing microbes.
10.3.3 Chemicals

Food processing and food service operations use various chemical sanitizers for
different areas and types of equipment. The effectiveness of chemical sanitizers
depends on:

 Exposure Time – Colonies of microbes die in a logarithmic pattern i.e. if

90% of microbes die in 10 minutes, 90% of the remaining microbes die in
next 10 minutes and so on. Therefore, in this example only 1% of the
original number of microbes is still alive after 20 minutes.
 Temperature – Chemical sanitizers kill microorganisms more quickly at
higher temperatures. While bacteria also grow quickly when temperature
is moderate and warm but higher temperatures usually speed up their
death more than their growth, so that overall microbes die more quickly at
higher temperatures.
 Concentration – Sanitizers at higher concentration kill microorganisms
more quickly.
 pH – Even small changes in acidity or alkalinity can effect the activity of
sanitizers. Chlorine and iodine compounds are generally less effective
when the pH is higher.
 Cleanliness – If equipment and surfaces are not thoroughly clean, soil can
react with hypochlorites, other chlorine compounds, iodine compounds
and other sanitizers. This reaction neutralizes the sanitizer such that it
does not work properly.
 Water hardness – Hard water makes sanitizers less effective. The calcium
and magnesium salts in hard water neutralize quaternary ammonium
compounds. If the water has over 200ppm of calcium, the hygiene staff
should add a sequestering or chelating agent.

The major types of chemical sanitizers are as under:

(i) Chlorine Sanitizers

Examples of chlorine based sanitizers are liquid chlorine, hypochlorites

and inorganic or organic chloramines. These compounds have different
antimicrobial activities. Hypochlorites are the most active of the
chlorine compounds and are the most widely used. Calcium
hypochlorite and sodium hypochlorite are the most commonly used
compounds.

Chlorine compounds are often preferred over other sanitizers because of

the following:

 They include compounds that kill all types of vegetative cells i.e. all
cells except spores.
 Easily available as liquid or granules.
 Hard water usually does not make them less effective.
 Usually cheap.

However, chlorine based sanitizers have some disadvantages viz.

 They are unstable, heat breaks them down and organic soil makes
them less effective.
 Light breaks them down so they need to be stored in the dark.
 They corrode stainless steel and other metals.
 They can only be in contact with food handling equipment for a
short time, otherwise they corrode the food handling equipment.
(ii) Iodine Compounds

The most common iodine –based sanitizers are iodophors, alcohol-iodine

solutions and aqueous iodine solutions. In concentrated form, iodophors
have a long shelf life but once they are dissolved the iodine may
vapourize. Iodine is lost rapidly when the temperature is above 50ºC. The
amber colour of iodine solution shows when the sanitizer is there. The
solution loses iodine during storage and use and therefore the hygiene
personnel should check and adjust the strength of iodine solutions
before use. Iodine is a very good hand sanitizer and hand-dipping agent
because it does not irritate the skin.

Iodine compounds, however, have following disadvantages:

 They are more expensive than chlorine compounds

 They may cause off-flavours in some food products.
 They vaporize at approximately 50ºC
 They are very sensitive to pH changes.

(iii) Quaternary Ammonium Compounds

The quaternary ammonium compounds, often called quats, are good for
cleaning and sanitizing floors, walls, furnishings and equipment. They
are especially good at penetrating porous surfaces. Quats are natural
wetting agents and also work as detergents. The most common quats are
the cationic detergents, which are poor detergents but excellent
germicides. Quaternary ammonium compounds are very effective against
Listeria monocytogenes and reduce mould growth.
 Quaternary ammonium compounds form a bacteriostatic film over
surfaces; in other words they have some residual action. This film is
better at killing some bacteria than other sanitizers. Quats do not kill
bacterial spores but inhibit their growth. Quaternary ammonium
compounds work better than chlorine and iodine sanitizers on soiled
surfaces, although they work best on surfaces that are thoroughly clean.

Quats are not corrosive, are stable when heated, do not irritate the skin
and have no taste or odour when they are properly diluted. They work at
ahigh pH and work well against molds. However, they do not work so
well against certain bacteria and also react with anionic type synthetic
detergents.

10.4 PERSONAL HYGIENE

The word hygiene means using sanitary principles to maintain health. Personal
hygiene refers to the cleanliness of a person’s body and clothes. Food workers
need to be healthy and clean to prepare safe food. Hands, breath, hair, sweat,
coughs. and sneezes all carry microorganisms. Even if a food handler does not
feel sick, he or she could still be carrying microorganisms that can cause
illness it they get into food.
Employees who are ill should not come to work. They should not touch food or
equipment and utensils used to process, prepare, and serve food. Food can
carry several illnesses, including:

 Respiratory diseases, e.g., colds, sore throats, pneumonia, scarlet fever,

and tuberculosis
 Gastrointestinal diseases, e.g., vomiting, diarrhea, dysentery
 Typhoid fever
 Infectious hepatitis
After people recover from the disease, they often become carriers. This means
that they still carry the disease-causing microorganisms in or on their body
When employees are ill, they carry many more microorganisms, so they are
much more likely to contaminate food. Anyone with a sinus infection, sore
throat, nagging cough or other cold symptom is probably carrying a heavy load
of a virus. People who have diarrheoa or an upset stomach are also probably
carrying large numbers of microbes. Even after the symptoms have gone away,
some of the microorganisms that caused the illness may stay in the person’s
body and could contaminate food. For example, an employee may carry
Salmonellae for several months after recovering from salmonellosis. The virus
that causes hepatitis may still be in the intestinal tract over 5 years after the
symptoms are over.

To understand why employees need good personal hygiene it is vital to consider

the following sources of microbial contamination:

10.4.1 Skin

The skin constantly deposits sweat, oil, and dead cells on its outer surface.
When these materials mix with dust, dirt, and grease, they form an ideal place
for bacteria to grow. Therefore, bacteria from skin can contaminate food. If
secretions build up and bacteria continue to grow, the skin can become itchy
or irritated. Food handlers may rub or scratch the area and then transfer
bacteria to food when they touch it. Contaminated food has a shorter shelf life
or may cause foodborne illness. Poor skin care and skin disorders also cause
bacterial infections like boils.

Boils are severe local infections caused by infections in hair follicles or skin
glands after the outer layer of skin (epidermis) is damaged, for example by
irritating clothing. Staphylococci or other microorganisms multiply in the hair
follicle or skin gland and produce a toxin that kills the cells around it and
causes swelling and soreness. The body collects lymph, blood cells, and tissue
cells in the infected area to counteract the toxin. The body forms a barrier
around the boil to prevent the infection from spreading. A boil should never be
squeezed. If it is squeezed, the infection may spread and cause a cluster of
boils called a carbuncle. If staphylococci get into the bloodstream, they may be
carried to other parts of the body causing meningitis (infection of the
membranes around the brain), bone infections, or other problems. Employees
with boils should be very careful if they have to handle food, because the boil is
a major source of pathogenic staphylococci.

Similarly cuts and septic spots also provide an ideal place for bacterial
multiplication. To prevent contamination of food by harmful bacteria,
employees should therefore cover boils, cuts, and septic spots with waterproof
dressings.

10.4.2 Hands

The hands may pick up bacteria when they touch dirty equipment, contami-
nated food, clothing, or various parts of the body. Employees should wash
hands frequently with soap and use a hand-dip sanitizer after touching these
things so that they do not contaminate food.

Food handlers must wash their hands regularly and especially:

 after going to the toilet;

 on entering the food processing / preparation area and before
handling any food or equipment;
 in between handling raw and cooked food;
 after combing or touching the hair;
  after eating, smoking, coughing or blowing the nose;
 after handling waste food or refuse;
 after handling cleaning chemicals

10.4.3 Fingernails

One of the easiest ways to spread bacteria is through dirt under the fingernails.
Employees should never handle food if their fingernails are dirty. Food
handlers should not have long fingernails or artificial fingernails. Washing the
hands with soap and water removes transient bacteria (bacteria that have been
picked up but are not growing and multiplying), and using a hand soap that
contains an antiseptic or sanitizer controls resident bacteria (bacteria that live
and grow there).

10.4.4 Nose, Mouth and ears

Up to 40 percent of adults carry staphylococci in the nose and mouth. Coughs

and sneezes can carry droplet infection for a considerable distance and persons
with bad colds should preferably not handle open food. If unavoidable, an
employee who has a cold should use a hand-dip sanitizer after blowing his or
her nose or else the bacteria from the nose can be transferred to the food being
handled. Picking or scratching the nose is not acceptable.

As the mouth is likely to harbor staphylococci, food handlers, while working

should not eat sweets, chew gum, tobacco, pan masala, gutka, taste food with
finger or an unwashed spoon or blow into glasses to polish them. Discharges
from the ears, eyes and nose may contaminate food and employees must report
these ailments to their supervisor and medical clearance should be sought.
10.4.5 Jewellery and perfume

Employees should not wear jewelry especially stone rings, watches in food-
processing or foodservice areas as they harbour dirt and bacteria. Further,
these can get caught in machinery, causing a safety hazard. Also,
contaminated jewelry can fall into or come in contact with food.

Strong smelling perfume or aftershave should not be used by food handlers as

it may taint foods, especially those with high fat content.

10.4.6 Hair

Hair is constantly falling out and along with dandruff, can result in
contamination of food. Furthermore, the scalp often carries microorganisms;
especially staphylococci and hair must be thus shampooed regularly. While
handling food, the personnel should wear a hairnet or suitable head covering
which completely encloses the hair. Combing of hair and adjustments to head
covering should only take place in cloakrooms and should not be carried out
whilst wearing protective clothing, as hairs may end up on the shoulders and
then in the product.

10.4.7 Smoking

Smoking should be prohibited in food processing, handling and packing areas.

Not only is this to prevent cigarette ends and ash contaminating food but also
because:
 People touch their lips whilst smoking and they may transfer harmful
bacteria to food.
 Smoking leads to coughing and droplet infection ;
  Cigarette ends contaminated with saliva are placed on working
surfaces
 An unpleasant environment may be created for non-smokers.

The only place to smoke in a food premises should be the rest room.

10.4.8 Protective clothing

Persons handling food must wear clean and washable overclothing, preferably
light coloured, without external pockets. Press studs or velcrose fastening are
preferable to buttons. Protective garments should be appropriate for the work
being carried out and should completely cover ordinary clothing. Suitable
footwear should be worn to prevent slipping and to protect the feet.

Food handlers should be made aware that protective clothing is worn to protect
the food from risk of contamination and not to keep their own clothes clean.
Protective clothing should not be worn outside the food premises, not used to
travel to and from work and not worn during lunch time sporting activities.

Outdoor clothing and personal effects must not be brought into food rooms
unless stored in suitable lockers.

10.4.9 Requirements for Hygiene

Management must have a protocol to make sure employees use hygienic

practices. Supervisors and managers should set an example for employees by
using excellent hygiene and health practices themselves. They should provide
proper laundry, locker-room, and handwashing facilities to make it easy for
employees to stay clean and hygienic.
All employees should have a physical examination before they are employed to
check that they have good physical, mental, and emotional health. All
employees who work with food should be checked regularly for signs of illness
and infection, and other signs of poor health. Employees should maintain
personal hygiene in the following ways. They should:

a) Maintain good physical health through good nutrition, enough rest, and
physical cleanliness
b) Report illness to their employer before working with food so that
assignments can be adjusted to protect food from being contaminated
c) Practice good hygiene so that they do not contaminate food
d) Wash their hands during their work shift after using the toilet; after
handling garbage or other dirty items; after handling uncooked meats,
egg products, or dairy products; after handling money; after smoking;
after coughing and sneezing; and when leaving or returning to food
production/service areas
e) Maintain personal cleanliness through daily bathing, washing hair at
least twice a week, cleaning fingernails daily, use of a cap or hairnet
while handling food, and wearing clean underclothing and uniforms
f) Not touch foodservice equipment and utensils with their hands, and use
disposable gloves if hey have to touch food other than dough)
g) Follow rules, such as “no smoking,’ and do anything else needed to
protect the food from being contaminated

10.5 PEST CONTROL

Pests contaminate food with hair, fur, droppings, eggs and dead bodies. The
common pests found in food processing and food service establishments
include:
  Insects: flies, cockroaches, wasps, silverfish, ants, weevils etc.
 Rodents: rats and mice;
 Birds : pigeons and sparrows

Regular survey of food premises must be carried out to ensure that they are
pest free. In particular, food storage rooms and dark, undisturbed areas should
be examined.

The Pest Control is essential for the following reasons:

 To prevent the spread of disease;

 To prevent the wastage of food;
 To prevent damage generally caused by gnawing of electric cables or
pipes.
 To prevent loss of customers who would detest eating in premises
infested with cockroaches, flies, rodents etc.

10.5.1 General Pest Control

Pests require food, shelter and security. Denial of these environmental factors
will prevent their survival and is the first line of defence against possible
infestations. Following environmental controls need to be exercised:

 Food premises must be designed and constructed to minimize the risk of

contamination from pests.
 External windows, where necessary, must be fitted with removable
insect-proof screens.
  Doorways should be protected with handing plastic strips or air curtains
and the bottom of doors should be protected with rubber padding to
prevent any pest entrance from below.
 Access holes and other openings should be sealed with mortar, metal
sheets or mesh.

10.5.2 Good Housekeeping

To reduce the risk of infestation, it is important to prevent breeding and deny

pests the condition they like and in particular to ensure that :

 Premises and refuse areas are kept in a clean and tidy condition. Lids are
always kept on waste bins, which should be washed after emptying,
together with the surrounding area. Waste must not be allowed to
accumulate;
 Food on display or awaiting preparation should always be kept covered;
 Spillages are cleared away promptly;
 Drains are kept clean and in good condition;
 Sightings of pests or pest damage are reported to management
immediately.

10.5.3 Physical and chemical pest control

Physically control methods are generally preferred as the pest is caught, either
dead or alive and is consequently not able to die in food, equipment or in some
inaccessible place. Examples of physical control include ultra violet, electric fly-
killers (insectocuters)and rodent traps.

Unfortunately, physical methods are not always successful and poisons have to
be used. Rodenticides are used to kill rats and mice and insecticides to kill
insects. Care must always be exercised when using chemicals to ensure there
is no risk of contaminating food. Food and small utensils must always be
removed when using insecticide, especially sprays and the premises and fixed
equipment must be thoroughly cleaned after use.

10.5.4 Pest Control for Stored raw material

The following pest control measures should be enforced to protect stored raw
materials from pest infestation:

 All deliveries of raw materials and packaging material should be checked

to ensure their freedom from pest infestation;
 Food should be stored off the floor and clear of walls to facilitate proper
cleaning at all times and prevent any pests like rodents, cockroaches,
silverfish and ants from finding a hiding place.
 Food should be stored well covered, in rodent proof containers with lids
that are always replaced after use;
 Stored material should be checked regularly for gnawing marks, holes,
chewed pieces of cardboard or paper and damaged stock removed;
 The storage area should be well lit and any cracks in walls and ceilings
should be sealed to ward off any pests, particularly cockroaches.
 As far as possible the above preventive measures and physical controls
should be applied to control pest infestation. However, in unavoidable
situations, the insecticides should be used carefully ensuring that they
do not contaminate the stored food material.
 Professional pest controllers should be engaged for undertaking safe
usage of insecticides. Staff should also be trained in pest control and
made aware of the dangers of insecticides and its proper usage.

10.5.5 Common Insecticides for Pest Control

Insecticides are defined as any substance or mixture of substances intended
for preventing, killing, repelling or controlling insects.

10.6 STORAGE AND DISPOSAL OF WASTE

Suitable receptacles should be provided, both inside and outside food

premises, for the disposal of waste food and debris. Disposable polythene sacks
or plastic bins are usually provided for internal use and dustbins for external
use.

Refuse containers used internally must be emptied as frequently as necessary

and always at least once a shift. After emptying, reusable containers must be
thoroughly cleaned before being brought back into the food processing area.
Care should be taken that receptacles used for storage or collection of refuse
should not be reused for the storage of food.

10.7 WATER STANDARDS

The food production and processing industries are concerned particularly with
three broad aspects of water technology, namely

1. Its microbiological purity and safety.

2. Its chemical impurities which affect suitability in processing

3. Its contamination load after use.

Water entering a food processing plant should meet health standards for
potable water. There must be limitation on harmful chemicals for safety of
potable water. This water must be free from contamination with sewage,
pathogenic organisms, and organisms of intestinal origin. Microorganisms have
an absolute demand for water, for without water, no growth can occur.

The water-borne diseases include the enteric fevers, salmonellosis, cholera,

shigellosis (rarely) and viral agents including poliomyelitis and hepatitis-B. The
role of water is important in the spread of diarrhoeal disease in the tropics. The
use of polluted water for food manufacturing and in kitchens for food
preparation and the washing of vegetables, equipment and premises, is
dangerous. Infection of food or water will increase in hot climates, because of
rapid growth of bacteria in food and the necessity to drink large volumes of
water. Therefore, various regulatory agencies have laid down, standards for the
different types as shown in Table 10.1 and 10.2.

Table 10.1 : Constituents of Drinking Water Having Significance to Health

Constituent Unit Limit of WHO

Guideline (1984)

Mercury mg/l 0.001

Cadmium mg/l 0.005

Selenium mg/l 0.01

Arsenic mg/l 0.05

Chromium mg/l 0.05

Silver mg/l —

Cyanide mg/l 0.1

Lead mg/l 0.5

Barium mg/l —

Fluoride mg/l 1.5

Nitrate mg/l 10.0

Hexachlorobenzene g/l 0.01

Aldrin g/l 0.03

Heptachlor g/l 0.1

Chlorodane g/l 0.3

1-1 dichloroethane g/l 0.3

DDT g/l 1.0

Carbon tetrachloride g/l 3.0

Lindane g/l 3.0

Benzene g/l 10.0

Gross a pci/l NIL

Ra226 + Ra228 pci/l —

B + photon emitters mrem/y —

Table 10.2 : WHO Guidelines (1984) for Aesthetic Quality of Drinking

Water

Constituent Unit Guideline Value

Aluminium mg/l 0.2

Chloride mg/l 250

Copper mg/l 1.0

Hardness mg/l 500 (as CaCO3)

Hydrogen Sulphide — Odour not to be

detected at all
Iron mg/l 0.3

Manganese mg/l 0.1

pH — 6.5 to 8.5

Sodium mg/l 200

Sulphate mg/l 400

Turbidity NTU 5

Zinc mg/l 5