Salale University, Social Anthropology Department /2022

Anthropology (Anth1012)

Unit Four: Marginalized, Minorities, and Vulnerable Groups

1. Definition of Concepts

Marginalization is defined as a treatment of a person or social group as minor, insignificant or

peripheral. Marginalization involves exclusion of certain groups from social interactions,
marriage relations, sharing food and drinks, and working and living together. There are
marginalized social groups in every society and culture. Women, children, older people, and
people with disabilities are among marginalized groups across the world. The nature and level of
marginalization varies from society to society as a result of cultural diversity. Religious, ethnic,
and racial minorities are also among social groups marginalized in different societies and
cultures.

Vulnerability refers to the state of being exposed to physical or emotional injuries. Vulnerable
groups are people exposed to possibilities of attack, harms or mistreatment. As a result,
vulnerable persons/groups need special attention, protection and support. For example, children
and people with disabilities need special support and protection as they are exposed to risks and
neglect because of their age and disabilities. Universities have introduced special needs
education for students with disabilities to give them special support.

Minority group refers to a small group of people within a community, region, or country. In
most cases, minority groups are different from the majority population in terms of race, religion,
ethnicity, and language. Hence, minority groups can be ethnic minorities, religious minorities, or
racial minorities in a given community, region or country.

2. Gender-Based Marginalization

Gender-based marginalization is closely related to gender inequality. Gender inequality involves

discrimination on a group of people based on their gender. Gender inequality mainly arises from
socio-cultural norms. The manifestations of gender inequality vary from culture to culture. Girls
and women face negative discrimination in societies across the world. Women are exposed to

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social and economic inequalities involving unfair distribution of wealth, income and job
opportunities.

Gender-based marginalization is a global problem. Girls and women usually excluded from a
wide range of opportunities and social services. They are also vulnerable to gender-based
violence such as rape, child marriage, abduction/forced marriage, domestic violence and female
genital cutting/mutilation.

There are some customary practices that affect the health and wellbeing of girls and women
which are called harmful traditional practices (HTPs). We can take Female genital
mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) and child marriage which have been practiced in Ethiopia

Female Genital Cutting

Female genital cutting (FGC) is practiced in 28 countries in western, northern and eastern Africa.
Ethiopia is one of the high prevalence countries in Africa. According to recent reports, 65% of
girls and women in the 15 to 49 years age category are circumcised. The prevalence of FGC in
Ethiopia varied from region to region.

Health impacts of female genital cutting. There are four major types of FGC. They are Type I
(clitoridectomy), Type II (excision), Type III (infibulation), and Type IV (all the rest). The first
three types of FGC are practiced in Ethiopia. Ethiopia experienced the type of circumcision that
involves cutting without flesh removing (clitoridectomy), 7% experienced sewn closed type
(infibulation), and 73% experienced cut and flesh removed (excision). Harms of FGC vary
across cultural settings in Ethiopia. The short term and long term implications for the health of
girls and women including severe bleeding, infections, pain during sexual intercourse, delivery
complications, and fistula. The impacts also include psychological trauma.

There are factors that encourage and sustain female genital cutting. Some the reasons are: 1.
people consider it as an integral part of their culture; and 2. people believe that the practice has
some benefits. The following are some of the beliefs related to the practice:

 FGC is considered as a process of purifying girls.

 Uncircumcised girls would be disobedient, powerful and ill-mannered.
 There is a widely held belief that uncircumcised girls are promiscuous

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 FGC is also considered as a means of preserving girls’ virginity.

FGC is sustained is enforced by social expectations and norms. Girls and parents who decide to
abandon the practice would be subject to social sanctions. The following are examples:

 Social exclusion and marginalization: Community members would exclude uncut girls
and women from a wide range of social relations and interactions.
 Gossip and insult: community members put pressure on uncircumcised girls and their
parents through gossiping and insulting.
 In some parts of Ethiopia, men do not marry uncircumcised girls .
 In some parts of the country, people do not eat food cooked by uncircumcised girls. This
is because uncut girls are labeled as impure.
3. Marginalized Occupational Groups

According to anthropological findings, there are occupational marginalized groups (like tanners,
potters, weavers and ironsmiths) in many parts of Ethiopia. These groups have different names in
different parts of the country, and are considered as impure and excluded from social
interactions, ownership of economic resources (e.g., land), and participation in associations and
celebrations.

These groups in Ethiopia produce several articles such as traditional hand-woven clothes,
household utensils, and farm tools. Crafts workers lead a life of paradoxes. They have important
contributions to their communities; however, they are marginalized by the dominant and
majority groups. In other words, they are usually marginalized from the wider society.

Occupational groups marginalized in many cultural setting in Ethiopia contribute a lot especially
in rural areas by producing farming tools such as plough shares, sickles, and hoes; household
utensils (e.g., knives and axes); leather and potter products. Despite their contributions, these
groups are considered inferior and marginalized from wide areas of social interactions.

Marginalization occupational groups are manifested in many ways in different parts of Ethiopia.
Some of the manifestations are summarized in the following table.

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Types and manifestations of marginalization of craft-workers

Type of marginalization Manifestations of marginalization

Spatial marginalization  Craft-workers settle/live on the outskirts of villages, near to forests, on poor
land, around steep slopes.
 They are segregated at market places (they sell their goods at the outskirts
of markets).
 When they walk along the road, they are expected to give way for others
and walk on the lower side of the road.
Economic  Craft-workers are excluded from certain economic activities including
marginalization production and exchanges. In some cultures they are not allowed to
cultivate crops.
 They have a limited access to land and land ownership.
Social marginalization  Craft-workers are excluded from intermarriage, they do not share burial
places with others; they are excluded from membership of associations such
as iddirs.
 When marginalized groups are allowed to participate in social events, they
must sit on the floor separately-sometimes outside the house or near the
door.
Cultural marginalization Cultural marginalization is manifested in negative stereotyping such as the
following:
 Occupational minorities are labelled as impure and polluting; they are
accused of eating animals that have died without being slaughtered;
 Occupational minorities are also considered unreliable, lacking morality,
respect and shame.
Source: Dena Freeman and Alula Pankhurst (2001)

4. Age-Based Vulnerability

Age-based vulnerability is susceptibility of people, especially children and older people, to

different forms of attack, physical injuries and emotional harms. For example, children and older
people (people aged 60 and above) are exposed to possibilities of attack, harm and mistreatment

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because of their age. As a result, vulnerable persons/groups such as children and old people need
special attention, protection and support.

1. Children: Discrimination and Vulnerability

Children are among vulnerable groups exposed to harm and abuse because of their age.
However, younger girls are exposed to double marginalization and discrimination because of the
gender. For example, girls are exposed to harmful traditional practices (HTPs) such as female
genital mutilation/cutting as well as early marriage in many parts of Ethiopia. Child marriage:
Child marriage refers to marriage which involves girls below the age of 18. According to
international human rights conventions, child marriage is regarded as violation of the rights of
the child. Child marriage has the following major harmful consequences:

 Young girls enter into marital relation when they are too young to give their consent to
get married.
 Child marriage inhibits girls' personal development; it hinders girls’ chance to education
and future professional development.
 Child marriage exposes young girls to sexual abuse by their older husbands.
 Child marriage leads to early pregnancies, which increases risks of diseases and
complications during delivery, fistula, and death of the mother or child.

According to study findings, there are various factors that drive child marriage. Social norms and
economic factors are the two major drivers of the practice.

Social norms: Social norms contribute a lot for the continuation of child marriage. Chastity of
girls is one of the social norms that influence parents and relatives to protecting girls from pre-
marital sex. Premarital sex and pregnancy would expose the girl and her family to social
exclusion in many parts of Ethiopia. The value attached to virginity is another driver of child
marriage. Girl’s reputation and family social status are associated with sexual purity of girls.
Economic issues: In many areas of Ethiopia marriage provides economic security for young
girls. Hence, parents, in some cases girls, support child marriage for economic benefits such as
access to land and other resources. Parents’ desire to get a good husband for their daughter is
also another reason.

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2. Marginalization of Older Persons

Age-based marginalization also affects older people. The phrase ‘older persons’ refers to adults
with the age of 60 and above. The number of older people is increasing globally. People’s
attitude towards older persons is changing over time in Ethiopia and all over the world. Older
men and women have been respected across Ethiopian cultures. Older persons have been
considered as custodians of tradition, culture, and history. The role of older persons has been
crucial in mentoring younger people, resolving disputes, and restoring peace across Ethiopian
cultures. Situations are changing as family structures and living patterns are changing over time.
Rural urban migration, changes in values and life style, education and new employment
opportunities lead to so many changes. Care and support for older men and women tend to
decline as younger people migrate to urban areas and exposed to economic pressure and new life
styles.

Ageism is a widely observed social problem in the world. Ageism refers to stereotyping,
prejudice, and discrimination against people based on their age. Older women and men enjoyed a
certain level of support and respected in the past. This was true in many cultures of Ethiopia in
the past. Things have been changing in recent times. Older people are facing various problems as
a result of modernization, globalization, and urbanization. Older people are exposed to social
exclusion because of their lower social and economic status. In most cases, older people are
excluded from social, cultural, political and economic interactions in their communities. Older
persons are marginalized because they are considered as social burden rather than social assets.

5. Religious and Ethnic Minorities

Religious and ethnic minorities groups also face different forms of marginalization. It is one
form of marginalization and discrimination targeting religious and ethnic minorities in the world
by the dominant group. The problem is not limited to specific areas, regions or countries.
Although the level of the problem varies in different contexts, religious and ethnic minorities
face different forms of discrimination in many countries.

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6. Human Right Approaches and Inclusiveness: Anthropological

Perspectives

All forms of marginalization and discrimination against vulnerable and minority groups
contradict the principles of human rights. The major human rights conventions denounce
discrimination against women, children, people with disability, older people and other minority
and vulnerable groups. People with disabilities have the right to inclusive services and equal
opportunities. The human rights of women and girls include right to be free from harmful
traditional practices such as forced marriage, child marriage, and female genital
mutilation/cutting. Any form of discrimination, exclusion, and gender-based violence also
violate the human rights girls and women.

Anthropology appreciates cultural diversity and commonality. Anthropological perspectives of

cultural relativism give an insight to understand the importance of understanding the values,
norms, customs and practices of a particular culture in its own context. This requires
appreciating the life styles of others including their dressing styles, food habits, beliefs, rituals
and celebrations. It also requires avoiding value judgments such as saying ‘this custom is
backward or primitive’. This does not mean that we need to appreciate every custom and
practice. Anthropologists do not support/appreciate customary practices that violate the rights
and wellbeing of individuals and groups. For example, anthropologists do not support the
following harmful practices in the name of cultural relativism:

 Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C): Anthropologists do not support FGM/C for

practical reasons: FGM/C violates the rights of girls to physical integrity. It has short and
long term consequences for the health of girls and women.
 Early/Child Marriage: Anthropologists do not support child marriage for similar reasons:
Child marriage violates the rights of young girls to make decision about their future. It
destroys their chance to education, and personal and professional development. Child
marriage negatively affects their physical and psychological wellbeing.

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