Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

MEC522 Control Engineering Introduction into Control Systems

Last few centuries

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

1769: James Watts steam engine and governor development.

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

The Watt steam engine is often used to mark the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain. During the Industrial Revolution, Great Britain strides were made in the development of mechanisation, a technology preceding automation. Aim: to keep the steam engine at constant speed 1769 - James Watts flyball governor
2

Last few centuries

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Closes down the steam valve

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Engine speeds up

Last few centuries

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Opens up the steam valve

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Engine slows down

Last few years

1997 - First ever autonomous rover vehicle Sojourner RailCabs
(NBP, LCKEL/TRCHTLER)

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Triplanar
(MLaP, LCKEL/TRCHTLER)

Input-Output Configuration of Control Systems

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Terms and Definitions

Control system A system is a combination of components that act together and perform a certain objective. A system is not limited to physical ones.
Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Controlled variable Quantity or condition that is measured and controlled. Manipulated variable Quantity or condition that is varied by the controller so as to affect the value of the controlled variable. Plant A plant is a piece of equipment, perhaps just a set of machine parts functioning together, the purpose of which to perform a particular operation. Any physical object to be controlled (such as heating furnace, a chemical reactor etc) is called a plant.

Processes A process can be defined as a natural, progressively continuing operation or development marked by a series of gradual changes that succeed one another in a relatively fixed way and lead towards a particular result or end. Disturbances A disturbance is a signal which tends to adversely affect the value of the output of the system. There are internal and external disturbances. Feedback control Feedback control is an operation which in the presence of disturbances, tends to reduce the difference between the output of a system and the reference input and which does so on the basis of the difference.
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Open Loop Control System

Open-loop control systems are control systems in which the output has no effect upon the control action, i.e. the output is neither measured nor fed back for comparison with the input.

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

E.g. washing machine Soaking, washing, and rinsing in the washing machine are operated on a time basis. The machine does not measure the output signal, namely, the cleanliness of the clothes.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Open-Loop Control Systems

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Advantages

Disadvantages

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

1. Simple construction and ease of 1. The system response very maintenance. sensitive to external disturbance and internal variations in system 2. Less expensive than a parameters. corresponding closed-loop control system 2. Recalibration is necessary from time to time in order to maintain 3. There is no stability problem the required quality in the output 4. Convenient when output is hard to measure or measuring the output precisely is economically not feasible.

Closed-Loop Control System

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

A system that maintains a prescribed relationship between the output and the reference input is called a closed-loop system or a feedback control system.

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

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Closed-Loop Control System

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

The system uses a measurement of the output and feedback of the signal to compare it with the desired output.

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Closed-Loop Control System

By comparing the input signal and the feedback signal, the controller reduces the difference between the two signals and brings the output of the system to a desired value.
Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

12

Advantages and Disadvantages of Closed-Loop Control Systems

Advantages 1. Makes the system response relatively insensitive to external disturbance and internal variations in system parameters.

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Disadvantages 1. Risk instability 2. Complexity in analysis and implementation and expensive

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

2. Possible to use relatively inaccurate and inexpensive components to obtain the accurate control of a given plant. 3. Better control of transient & steady-state response 4. Increased accuracy - Increased ability to reproduce output with varied input.

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Recall the earlier example

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

In this speed control system, plant (controlled system) = the engine controlled variable = the speed of the engine error signal = the difference between the desired speed and the actual speed control signal = the amount of fuel to be applied to the plant disturbance = an unexpected change in the load 1769 - James Watts flyball governer
14

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Mathematical Modeling of Dynamic Systems

Dynamic systems (mechanical, electrical, thermal, etc) can be characterized by differential equations. The response of a dynamic system to an input may be obtained if these differential equations are solved.
Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

The equations can be obtained by utilizing physical laws governing a particular system, e.g. Newtons law of motion for mechanical systems.

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Mathematical Modeling of Dynamic Systems

The first step in the analysis of a dynamic system is to derive its mathematical model. Deriving a reasonable mathematical model is the most important part of the entire analysis.
Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Once the mathematical model of a system is obtained, various analytical and computer tools can be used for analysis and synthesis purposes. In general, in solving a new problem, we find it desirable first to build a simplified model so that we can get a general feeling for the solution. A more complete mathematical model may then be built and used for a more complete analysis.

A nth-order differential equation describing the input-output relation of a linear timeinvariant system.

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Linear Systems

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Linear systems are ones in which the equations of the model are linear. A differential equations is linear if the coefficients are constants or functions of the independent variable. The most important property of linear systems is that the principle of superposition is applicable. The principle of superposition states that the response produced by the simultaneous application of two different forcing forces is the sum of the two individual responses. In another word, the total effect on any output due to all the inputs acting simultaneously is obtained by adding up the outputs due to each input acting alone.

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

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Transfer Function
Transfer functions are used to characterise the input-output relationships of systems.

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

The transfer function of a linear time-invariant, differential equation system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output to the input under the assumption that all initial responses are zero.

If the transfer function of a system is known, the output or response can be studied for various forms of inputs. A transfer function does not provide any information concerning the physical structure of the system. Block diagram

G (s)
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Transfer Function of Linear Systems

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

For a general equation nth-order, linear, time-invariant differential equation.

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

where c(t) is the output, r(t) is the input, and ais and bi s are constants. Taking Laplace transform of both sides and assuming all initial conditions are zero.

Rearrange

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Strictly Proper, Proper or Improper?

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

By using the concept of the transfer function, it is possible to represent system dynamics by algebraic equations in s. If the highest power of s in the denominator of the transfer function is equal to n, the system is called an nth-order system. The transfer function is said to be strictly proper if m<n . If m = n then the transfer function is proper. It is improper if m > n.

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Characteristic Equation

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Characteristic Equation The characteristic equation of a LTI system is defined as the equation obtained by setting the denominator polynomial of the transfer function to zero. The stability of a linear single-input single-output system is governed completely by the roots of the characteristic equation

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Transfer function of multivariable system

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Since the principle of superposition is valid for linear systems, we can write the simultaneous equations for the output variables as

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Stability
A stable system is defined as a system which gives a bounded output in response to a bounded input.

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

stable neutral

unstable

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Stability in the s-plane

The output of a linear time-invariant system is given by

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

u(t) = input y(t) = output g(t) = impulse response This response is bounded (stable) if and only if the absolute value of the impulse response, g(t), integrated over an infinite range, is finite. That is

Mathematically, this is satisfied when the roots of the characteristic equation, or the poles of G(s), are all located in the left-half of the s-plane.

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Stability in the s-plane

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Stable

Marginally stable or marginally unstable due to s = j2.

Unstable due to the pole at s = 1

Unstable due to the multiple-order pole at s = j2.

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Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Stability

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

A system is open-loop stable if the poles of the open-loop transfer function G(s)H(s) are all in the left hand side of splane. A system is closed-loop stable (or simply stable) if the poles of the closed-loop transfer function (or zeros of 1+G(s)H(s)) are all in the left hand side of s-plane

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Block Diagram
Example: DC Motor
Wiring Diagram

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Block Diagram

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Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Block Diagram Elements

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

28

Block Diagram of a Linear Feedback Control System

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

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Block Diagram Reduction Techniques

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

30

Block Diagram Reduction Techniques

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

31

Prove of Rule 6

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

(i) (ii)
Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

The error signal is written as

Substitute (i)

Substitute (ii)

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Rule 7 Reduction of parallel subsystems

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

33

Block Diagram Reduction Techniques

Example 1
Reduce the system shown to a single transfer function.

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Rule 4 Moving a pick off point behind a block

34

Block Diagram Reduction Techniques

Example 1

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Rule 1 Combining blocks in cascade

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Rule 6 Eliminating a feedback loop

35

Block Diagram Reduction Techniques

Example 1

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Rule 6 Eliminating a feedback loop

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Rule 1 Combining blocks in cascade

36

Block Diagram Reduction Techniques

Example 1

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Rule 6 Eliminating a feedback loop

37

Block Diagram Reduction Techniques

Example 2
Reduce the system shown to a single transfer function.

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Rule 4 Moving a pick off point behind a block

Rule 6 Eliminating a feedback loop

38

Block Diagram Reduction Techniques

Example 2

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Rule 5 Moving of a summing point ahead of a block

Rule 7 Reduction of parallel subsystems

39

Block Diagram Reduction Techniques

Example 2

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Rule 1 Combining blocks in cascade

Rule 7 Reduction of parallel subsystems

40

Block Diagram Reduction Techniques

Example 2

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Rule 6 Eliminating a feedback loop Rule 1 Combining blocks in cascade

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Signal Flow Graph

A signal flow graph is a diagram which represents a set of simultaneous linear algebraic equations. When constructing a SFG, junction points or nodes are used to represent variables. The nodes are connected by line segments, called branches. A signal can transmit through a branch only in the direction of the arrow. For instance, consider that a linear system is represented by a simple algebraic equation, which is also represented as a SFG.

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Gain

Input

Output
42

Step-by-Step Construction of a SFG

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

43

Step-by-Step Construction of a SFG

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

44

Terms & Definitions for SFG

Node A point representing a variable or signal. Transmittance A real gain or complex gain between two nodes. Branch A directed line joining two nodes. Input node or source A node that has outgoing branches. Output node or sink A node that has incoming branches. Mixed node A node that has both incoming and outgoing branches. Path A traversal of connected branches in direction of the branch arrow.

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

45

Terms & Definitions for SFG

Loop A close path Loop gain The product of the branch transmittances of a loop Non-touching loops Loops that do not possess any common nodes Forward path A path from input node to output node that does not cross any node more than once. Forward path gain The product of the branch transmittances

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

46

Basic Properties of SFG

1. 2. SFG applies only to linear systems. A branch indicates the functional dependence of one signal upon another. A signal passes through only in the direction specified by the arrow of the branch. A node adds the signals of all incoming branches and transmits this sum to all outgoing branches. A mixed node, which has both incoming and outgoing branches, may be treated as an output node (sink) by adding an outgoing branch of unity transmittance.

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

3. 4.

5.

For a given system, a signal graph flow is not unique. Many different signal flow graphs can be drawn for a given system by writing the system equations differently.
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SFG Algebra
1. The value of the variable represented by a node is equal to the sum of all the signals entering the node.

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

2. The value of the variable represented by a node is transmitted through all branches leaving the node.

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SFG Algebra
3. Parallel branches in the same direction connecting two nodes can be replaced by a single branch with the gain equal to the sum of gains of the parallel branches.
Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

4. A series connection of unidirectional branches can be replaced by one branch with gain equal to the product of branch gains.

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SFG Algebra
5. A mixed node may be eliminated.

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

6. A loop may be eliminated.

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Gain formula for SFG (Masons Rule)

Masons gain formula for the overall gain is given by

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

51

Procedures to solve SFG by using Masons rule

1. Identify the no. of forward paths and determine the forward-path gains. 2. Identify the no. of loops and determine the loop gains.
Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

3. Identify the non-touching loops taken two at a time, three at a time and so on. Determine the product of the non-touching loop gains. 4. Determine and . 5. Substitute all of the above information into the gain formula:

Care must be taken when applying the gain formula to ensure that it is applied between an input node and an output node.
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Example 1
Consider the SFG of a closed loop control system as given in Figure below. By using the gain formula, find the transfer function Y(s)/R(s).

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

1. Identify the no. of forward paths and determine the forward-path gains. 2. Identify the no. of loops and determine the loop gains. 3. Identify the non-touching loops taken two at a time, three at a time and so on. Determine the product of the non-touching loop gains. 4. Determine and . 5. Substitute into the gain formula.

Only 1 forward path between R(s) and Y(s). The forward-path gain is P1 = G(s) . Only 1 loop. The loop gain is L1 = -G(s)H(s)

No non-touching loops.

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Example 2

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

For the system shown in Figure below, determine the gain between y1 and y5 .

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

1. Identify the no. of forward paths and determine the forward-path gains.

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Example 2

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

L4 L1 L3 L2

2. Identify the no. of loops and determine the loop gains.

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Example 2

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

L4
Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

L1

3. Identify the non-touching loops taken two at a time, three at a time and so on. Determine the product of the non-touching loop gains.

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Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Example 2
4. Determine and .
Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

57

Example 2
5. Substitute into the gain formula.

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

58

Conversion from Block Diagrams to SFG

An equivalent SFG for a block diagram can be drawn by 1. Identify the input/output signals, summing junctions & pickoff points they are replaced with nodes.
Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

2. Interconnect the nodes & indicate the directions of signal flow by using arrows. 3. Identify the blocks - they are replaced with branches. For each negative sum, a negative sign is included with the branch. 4. Add unity branches as needed for clarity or to make connections. 5. Simplify the SFG eliminate redundant nodes/branches 6. Label the input/output signals and the branches accordingly.

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Example
Block Diagrams to SFG + Masons Rule

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Convert the block diagram in the figure to a signal flow graph and determine the transfer function using Masons gain formula.
Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

60

Example
Block Diagrams to SFG + Masons Rule

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Identify the input/output signals, summing junctions & pickoff points they are replaced with nodes.

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Example
Block Diagrams to SFG + Masons Rule

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Interconnect the nodes & indicate the directions of signal flow by using arrows.
Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

62

Example
Block Diagrams to SFG + Masons Rule

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Identify the blocks they are replaced with branches. For each negative sum, a negative sign is included with the branch.

63

Example
Block Diagrams to SFG + Masons Rule

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Add unity branches as needed for clarity or to make connections.

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

64

Example
Block Diagrams to SFG + Masons Rule

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

1. Identify the no. of forward paths and determine the forward-path gains.

65

Example
Block Diagrams to SFG + Masons Rule

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

L4
Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

L5 L1 L3 L2

2. Identify the no. of loops and determine the loop gains.

66

Example
Block Diagrams to SFG + Masons Rule

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

L4
Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

L5 L1 L3 L2

3. Identify the non-touching loops taken two at a time, three at a time and so on. Determine the product of the non-touching loop gains.
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Example
Block Diagrams to SFG + Masons Rule
4. Determine and .

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

68

Example
Block Diagrams to SFG + Masons Rule
5. Substitute into the gain formula.

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

69

Mathematical Modeling of Mechanical Systems

Mass, Spring and Damper system

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

70

Mathematical Modeling of Mechanical Systems

Mass, Spring and Damper system

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

71

Mathematical Modeling of Electrical Systems

Capacitors, Resistors and Inductors

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

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Mathematical Modeling of Mechanical Systems

Mass, Spring and Damper system

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Using Newtons law: Taking Laplace transform, assuming zero initial conditions

Transfer function :

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An Inverted Pendulum

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Cart motion

Given Rotational motion of pendulum rod about its cg Horizontal motion of pendulum rod about its cg Vertical motion of pendulum rod about its cg

For small movement of pendulum, the equation can be linearised

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An Inverted Pendulum
linearised Cart motion
Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Rotational motion

= Laplace transform

Therefore

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Basic Control Actions

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Common industrial automatic controllers involve the following control actions:

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Two-position or on-off

Proportional (P) Integral (I) Proportional-plus-integral (PI) Proportional-plus-derivative (PD) Proportional-plus-derivativeplus-integral (PID)

A controller can realize these control actions by means of pneumatic circuits, analogue electronic circuits involving operational amplifiers or by the programming of a microprocessor or computer.

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Two-Position / On-Off Control Action

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

The controller is essentially just a switch which is activated by the error signal and supplies just an on-off correcting signal relatively simple and inexpensive widely used in both industrial and domestic control systems the output signal from the controller m(t) remains at either a maximum or minimum value, depending on whether the actuating error signal is positive or negative constants output signal from the controller actuating error signal

usually either zero or M1 Two-position controllers are generally electrical devices, electric solenoid-operated valve or pneumatic proportional controller (high gain)
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Two-Position / On-Off Control Action

Block diagram of an on-off controller

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Differential gap = the range through which the actuating error signal must move before the switching occurs

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Two-Position / On-Off Control Action

Example: Liquid-level control system This valve is either open or closed.
Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Level h(t) versus t curve for a liquid level control system

The water inflow rate is either a positive constant or zero.

filling curve

emptying curve

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Proportional Control Action

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

e(t)
Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

m(t)

The controller produces a control action that is proportional to the error. The bigger the error signal the bigger the correcting signal. Thus as the error is reduced, the amount of correction is reduced and the correcting process slows down. controller output transfer function actuating error signal proportional sensitivity/gain

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Integral Control Action m(t)

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

e(t)

Ki s
Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

The controller produces a control action that is proportional to the integral of the error with time. Thus a constant error signal will produce an increasing correcting signal. The correction continues to increase as long the error persists. The integral controller can be considered to be looking-back, summing all the errors and thus responding to changes that have occurred. transfer function

adjustable constant

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Derivative Control Action

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

The controller produces a control action that is proportional to the rate at which the error is changing. When there is a sudden change in the error signal the controller gives a large correcting signal. When there is a gradual change only a small correcting signal is produced. Can be considered to be a form of anticipatory control in that the existing rate of change of error is measured, a coming larger error is anticipated and correction applied before the larger error has arrived. Derivative control is not used alone but always in conjunction with proportional control and, often, integral control.

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Controller Output vs Error

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Proportional control action

Integral control action

Derivative control action

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

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Combination of Control Actions

Proportional plus derivative (PD)

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Td = derivative time constant

84

Combination of Control Actions

Proportional plus integral (PI)

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Ti = integral time constant

85

Combination of Control Actions

Proportional plus integral plus derivative (PID) Td = derivative time constant
Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

Ti = integral time constant

The standard form of PID controller is as follows

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Compiled by Dr.-Ing. C.Y. Low, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA

Sekian Terima Kasih

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal Universiti Teknologi MARA

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