1

1 MANAGEMENT OF WINTER COVER CROP RESIDUES UNDER DIFFERENT

2 TILLAGE CONDITIONS AFFECTS NITROGEN UTILIZATION EFFICIENCY AND

3 YIELD OF

4 EGGPLANT (Solanum melanogena L.) IN MEDITERRANEAN ENVIRONMENT

5 Emanuele Radicettia, Roberto Mancinellia, Roberto Moscettib, Enio Campigliaa* a

Department of

6 Science and Technology for Agriculture, Forest, Nature and Energy, Tuscia University, Via S.

7 Camillo de Lellis snc, 01100, Viterbo, Italy.

8 b
Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-food and Forest system, Tuscia University, Via S.

9 Camillo de Lellis snc, 01100, Viterbo, Italy.

10 *Corresponding author Enio Campiglia, Tel.: +39 0761 357538; fax: +39 0761 357558. e-mail

11 address: campigli@[Link] (E. Campiglia).

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13

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14 ABSTRACT

15 Efficient nitrogen (N) management is required for sustaining crop yield and minimizing

16 environmental impacts. The aims of this study were to evaluate the effects of winter cover crops and

17 their residue management on N-uptake, N use efficiency (NUE) and yield of the following eggplant

18 (Solanum melanogena L.) crop. Two 2-year field experiments (2009/2010 and 2010/2011 growing

19 seasons) were carried out in a Mediterranean environment of Central Italy in a Typic Xerofluvent

20 soil. The treatments consisted in: (a) three winter cover crops [hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth.), oat

21 (Avena sativa L.), and oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.)] and one bare soil; (b) three cover crop

22 residue managements [residues left in strips on soil surface (RS); residues incorporated into the soil

23 at a depth of 10 cm in minimum tillage (MT) and residues incorporated into the soil at a depth of 30

24 cm in conventional tillage (CT)]. The cover crop biomass characteristics, soil mineral N, SPAD

25 readings, crop yield and N-uptake of eggplant were determined. At cover crop termination, hairy

26 vetch showed the highest aboveground biomass and nitrogen content (6.18 Mg ha -1 of DM and 3.1

27 %, respectively) and the lowest value of C/N ratio (12.7). The mineralization rate of cover crop

28 aboveground biomass was higher in hairy vetch (72%), intermediate in oilseed rape (63%) and

29 lower in oat residues (49%), while it was slower in RS compared to MT and CT among the residue

30 managements. Yield, fruit and straw N-uptake of eggplant were high following hairy vetch (35.2

31 Mg ha-1 of FM, 93.9 kg N ha-1 and 78.3 kg N ha-1, respectively) and low following oat (13.2 Mg ha-1

32 of FM, 29.1 kg N ha-1 and 33.6 kg N ha-1, respectively). Similarly NUE was high in hairy vetch,

33 followed by oilseed rape and oat (48.6, 19.4, -30.8 %, respectively), even if RS residue management

34 in hairy vetch and oat and MT residue management in oilseed rape proved to be more effective for

35 improving the eggplant yield and nitrogen utilization efficiency. The amount of residual N left in the

36 soil, following eggplant cultivation, was higher in the hairy vetch than in oat and oilseed rape

37 treatments. Cover crop species and their residue management strongly influenced NUE and yield of

38 eggplant. No-tillage strategy is preferable with legume cover crop residues in order to reduce the

39 risks of N loss.
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41 KEY WORDS: Cover crops; Green manuring; Mulching; Nitrogen release; Nitrogen uptake;

42 Conservation agriculture.

43

44 HIGHLIGHTS
45
46 - Eggplant was grown after green manuring or mulching of winter cover crop residues
47
48 - Mineralization rate of cover crop biomass was slower in RS compared to MT and CT
49
50 - Eggplant yield and NUE were higher following hairy vetch and lower following oat
51
52 - Mulching is preferable with legume cover crop residues to reduce the risks of N loss
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55 1. INTRODUCTION

56 Produce is grown in modern specialized agricultural systems by adding large auxiliary energy

57 inputs such as synthetic fertilizers, without paying much attention to environmental degradation and

58 human health risks (Poudel et al., 2001). In vegetable production, nitrogen is the most important

59 plant nutrient (Gaskell and Smith, 2007), in fact plants lacking in nitrogen grow slowly, and produce

60 a poor yield and quality, while excess nitrogen increases the risk of loss by leaching or gaseous

61 emissions (Gentile et al., 2009; Nyiraneza and Snapp, 2007). Therefore, an efficient nitrogen

62 management is required to increase crop yield and minimize the negative environmental impacts of

63 cropping systems (Gaskell and Smith, 2007). One approach is to increase soil nitrogen use

64 efficiency by strengthening internal nitrogen cycling (Drinkwater and Snapp, 2007).

65 Recent interest in cover crop use is due to the increase in cost of agrochemicals such as

66 fertilizers and herbicides and the decline of soil fertility associated with many vegetable farming

67 practices (Teasdale et al., 2008). Winter cover crops are often included in annual vegetable cropping

68 systems in order to increase the organic matter and nitrogen content in the soil (Kuo and Sainju,

69 1998; Schomberg and Endale, 2004). In the Mediterranean environment, grasses (Poaceae),

70 crucifers

71 (Brassicaceae) and legumes (Fabaceae) are commonly used as winter cover crops (Radicetti et al.,

72 2013a). Grasses and crucifers are generally more efficient in catching residual nitrogen from the soil

73 (Kuo et al., 2001), while legume cover crops are becoming more and more popular because may

74 provide additional nitrogen by symbiosis. After cover crop killing, the nitrogen accumulated in the

75 cover crop biomass could be available through the mineralization process and thus contributing to

76 the reduction of the nitrogen fertilizer requirement of subsequent cash crops (Baggs et al., 2000).

77 The rate at which the decomposing cover crop residues release nitrogen depends on their chemical

78 characteristics, the physical-chemical and biological activities of the soil and environmental factors

79 such as temperature and moisture (Kuo and Jellum, 2002). Although it is widely recognized that

80 winter cover crops can increase the crop yield of the subsequent summer crop, the soil management
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81 practices used for killing cover crops need to be evaluated in order to synchronize nitrogen release

82 from cover crop residues and crop demand (Snapp and Borden, 2005). In the Mediterranean area,

83 winter cover crops are generally mowed or chopped and incorporated into the soil as green manure

84 in spring, to allow time for residue decomposition and bed preparation for the subsequent vegetable

85 transplanting. Another approach is to kill the cover crops and leave the residues on the soil surface

86 as organic dead mulches in no-tilled crop production systems (Teasdale et al., 2008). Leaving cover

87 crop residues on the soil surface generally slows down the decomposition rate of the residues and

88 nitrogen release better than incorporating the residue due to the reduced contact between cover

89 biomass and soil microorganisms (Sainju et al., 2007). Leaving the aboveground biomass of various

90 cover crops in organic dead mulch strips in no-tillage systems has been proposed as a way of

91 improving the yield of the following summer vegetable crops due to better nitrogen supply and

92 weed control (Campiglia et al., 2011; Radicetti et al., 2013a). Predicting the effect of cover crop

93 residue management on nitrogen mineralization could enhance the synchronization between

94 nitrogen release and crop demand thus improving nitrogen use efficiency and reducing nitrogen

95 loss. We hypothesized that the combination of winter cover crop species and cover crop residue

96 management can affect the N mineralization rate, and therefore affect yield of the subsequent

97 vegetable crop. It is important to understand how cover crop species and their residue management

98 affect soil nitrogen availability in order to develop appropriate nitrogen management strategies for

99 sustainable vegetable production. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effects of

100 different cover crop species and residue management on: (1) nitrogen supply to subsequent eggplant

101 crop; (2) soil mineral nitrogen availability; (3) nitrogen use efficiency of eggplant crop; (4);

102 nitrogen remaining in the soil after eggplant harvest, and (5) eggplant yield.

103

104

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106
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107 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

108 2.1. Study site description

109 The experiment was carried out at the experimental farm of the University of Tuscia in
110 Viterbo,

111 Italy (Latitude 42°24’53’’ N, Longitude 12°03’55’’, Altitude 310 m asl) for two growing seasons

112 (2019/2010 and 2010/2011). The climate of the region is typically Mediterranean with long-term

113 annual rainfall of 720 mm falling mainly between October and May. The mean annual air

114 temperature of the area is 14°C, with minimum temperatures in February and maximum

115 temperatures in July. The volcanic soil is a Typic Xerofluvent (Soil Survey Staff, 2009) with the

116 following characteristics in the top layer (0 – 30 cm): 104 g kg -1 of dry soil clay, 133 g kg -1 of dry

117 soil silt, 763 g kg-1 of dry soil sand; pH 6.9 (water, 1:2.5); organic matter 13.2 g kg -1 of dry soil

118 (Lotti); and total nitrogen 0.94 g kg-1 of dry soil (Kjeldahl).

119

120 2.2. Experimental design and treatments

121 The following experimental treatments were applied in a winter cover crop–eggplant

122 sequence: (a) four cover crops including hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth., var. Capello), oat (Avena

123 sativa L., var. Donata), and oilseed rape (Brassica napus L., var. Licapo)] and a control without

124 cover crops

125 (hereafter called no cover); (b) three cover crop residue managements [incorporating the residues at

126 30 cm of soil depth in order to simulate conventional tillage (hereafter called CT); incorporating the

127 residues at 10 cm of soil depth in order to simulate minimum tillage (hereafter called MT); and

128 residues left on the soil surface (hereafter called RS)]. The experimental design was a split-plot (4

129 cover crops x 3 cover crop residue managements), where the cover crop was the main factor and the

130 cover crop residue management the split factor. The main plot size was 72 m2 (6 m x 12 m) and the

131 sub-plot size was 24 m2 (6 m x 4 m). The treatments were replicated three times for a total of 36

132 plots.

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134

135 2.3. Experimental field management

136 The soil was ploughed in at depth of 30 cm within the first week of September before

137 beginning the experiment in both growing seasons. It was then fertilized with 100 kg of P 2O5 ha-1 as

138 triple super phosphate and harrowed for seedbed preparation. All cover crop species were broadcast

139 sown and superficially buried by harrowing on 24 September 2009 and 13 September 2010. The

140 seed rate was the same in both growing seasons and corresponded to 60, 100, and 15 kg ha -1 for

141 hairy vetch, oat, and oilseed rape, respectively. The no cover was managed similarly to the cover

142 crop plots and was kept weed-free throughout the cover crop growing season by hand weeding soon

143 after weed emergence. All cover crops were mechanically suppressed at the same time on 21 May

144 2010 and 4 May 2011 and the cover crop aboveground biomass was treated as follows: (a) chopped

145 with a straw chopper and immediately incorporated into the soil using a mold-board plough to a

146 depth of 30 cm (CT); (b) chopped as CT and incorporated into the soil by means of rotary tiller to a

147 depth of approximately 10 cm (MT); and (c) mowed approximately 5 cm above the soil surface and

148 placed in strips as mulch layers with a hay-conditioner farm machine (Marangon s.r.l., MDN 210

149 model) (RS). In RS, each mulch strip was composed of a 50-cm wide uniform layer of cover crop

150 residues which were arranged at a distance of 1.0 m centre strip from one another alternating a strip

151 mulched with a 50-cm wide strip of un-mulched soil (Radicetti et al., 2013b). The mulch strips

152 covered 50% of the total ground area and were used as transplanting beds for the eggplant seedlings

153 (Fig. 1). At cover crop termination, in the no cover plots, the transplanting beds were prepared as

154 follows: (a) the soil was ploughed and harrowed twice with a disc harrow in order to simulate CT

155 system; (b) the soil was tilled with a rotary hoe in order to simulate MT system, and (c) the soil was

156 left no-tilled in order to simulate RS system. Soon after cover crop termination on 27 May 2010 and

157 12 May 2011, the var. eggplant (Solanum melanogena L. var. Mirabella) seedlings were

158 transplanted by hand at 33 cm one from another and in rows 1 meter apart with a density of 3 plants
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159 m-2. The same arrangement was maintained in all treatments. In the RS plots, the eggplant seedlings

160 were transplanted in the middle of the mulch strips with minimal disturbance of the mulch layer and

161 with cover crop residues surrounding each eggplant seedling. Irrigation water was supplied by drip

162 irrigation tape installed over the mulch layer (in RS treatments) and on soil surface (in MT and CT

163 treatments) on eggplant rows at a distance of 5 cm from the plant rows. The drip tape had on-line

164 emitters with a capacity of 3 l h -1. The amount of water input (610 and 556 mm in 2010 and 2011

165 cropping season, respectively) was uniformly distributed across treatments and was determined by

166 evapotranspiration estimated with a class A pan evaporimeter and converted by crop coefficients

167 (Allen et al., 1998). All plots were maintained weed-free by hand-weeding as needed from eggplant

168 transplanting until the final eggplant harvest in order to avoid weed interference in soil nitrogen

169 uptake. Fertilizers were not used on the eggplant crop. In both years, repeated copper treatments

170 were applied during eggplant cultivation in order to control foliar diseases. The eggplant fruits were

171 harvested manually four times per year: on 4 August, 18 August, 10 September and 27 September in

172 2010 and on 27 July, 11 August, 29 August, and 12 September in 2011.

173

174 2.4. Sampling and measurements

175 The rainfall and air temperature data throughout the study period were collected from a

176 weather station located at 200 m from the experimental site. Just before cover crop termination, the

177 aboveground biomass of cover crops was hand-clipped at the soil surface and collected using a

178 quadrat 50 cm x 50 cm (0.25 m 2) placed randomly four times over each plot. A sub-sample of each

179 cover crop aboveground biomass was weighed wet and dried at 60 °C until constant weight in order

180 to determine the dry matter and moisture concentration. Samples of dried cover crop aboveground

181 biomass were homogenized using a mill for biomass and the nitrogen content was determined with

182 an elementary analyzer (Thermo Fisher Scientific, model FlashEA 1112 NC Analyzer, Bath, UK)

183 (Di Matteo et al., 2014). The remaining sub-samples were used to fill nylon bags (10 cm x 10 cm,

184 10 cm x 14 cm, and 10 cm x 32 cm to be used in RS, MT, and CT, respectively) in order to
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185 determine the cover crop biomass reduction and the amount of nitrogen left in the residues

186 (Campiglia et al., 2014a). The nylon bags were filled with the biomass of fresh cover crop, placed in

187 the centre of each plot in the eggplant row and marked with a nylon thread tied to a metal stick. The

188 bags were randomly distributed across the soil surface in RS plots, while in the other treatments the

189 nylon bags were buried up to 10 cm and 30 cm deep in order to simulate MT and CT treatments,

190 respectively. The nylon bags were collected at eggplant harvest. The remaining cover crop biomass

191 was carefully separated from soil and dried at 60 °C until constant weight, weighed, and then

192 ground and analyzed for nitrogen concentration with an elementary analyzer (Thermo Soil – Flash

193 EA1112 NC Analyzer, Bath, UK). The difference between initial and final cover crop aboveground

194 biomass was assumed to be the mass of cover crop which decomposed during the eggplant period.

195 In both years from all plots, 6 soil samples per plot were collected at eggplant transplanting and at

196 final eggplant harvesting in the 0-30 cm layer and mixed together in order to obtain a uniform

197 sample for determining soil NO3-N (Cataldo et al., 1975) and NH4-N (Anderson & Ingram, 1993)

198 concentration by means of colorimetric methods. The SPAD-502 (Minolta, Osaka, Japan) was used

199 to obtain readings estimating chlorophyll concentration of eggplant crop on the 4 th fully grown leaf

200 from the top of the plant. The readings were performed every 10 days throughout the eggplant crop

201 period. Ten measurements, one per plant, were taken in each replication and averaged (Minotti et

202 al., 1994). At the first eggplant harvesting, the ripened fruit of 10 eggplant plants were harvested

203 from the two middle eggplant rows (5 plant per row) of each sub-plot. The same plants were

204 harvested each time. At final eggplant harvest, the eggplant plants were harvested and cut manually

205 at the soil surface in order to determine the marketable eggplant yield and the oven dried weight (70

206 °C until constant weight) of the remainder of the plant (hereafter called straw). At each eggplant

207 harvesting the fruit nitrogen content was measured with an elementary analyzer (Thermo Fisher

208 Scientific, model FlashEA 1112 NC Analyzer, Bath, UK). The total N accumulation was calculated

209 by multiplying the biomass (fruit and/or straw) dry weight by the corresponding nitrogen

210 concentration value. At the final eggplant harvest, soil dry bulk density at 0 – 30 cm depth was
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211 measured by collecting 6 soil cores per plot using a soil corer with a 47 mm diameter and 50 mm

212 high.

213 The following formulas were used for calculating eggplant N uptake and N use efficiency

214 (hereafter called NUE) as reported by Gao et al. (2009):

215 Nup = (a x b) + (c x d)

216 Where Nup is N uptake (kg of N ha -1), a is the marketable eggplant yield (kg ha -1 of DM), b is

217 the N content of marketable eggplant fruits (g of N g -1 of dry eggplant fruit), c is the eggplant straw

218 yield (kg ha-1 of DM), and d is the N content of eggplant straw (g of N g-1 of dry eggplant straw).

219 NUE = [(e – f) /g] x 100

220 Where NUE is the nitrogen use efficiency (%), e is N uptake of eggplant in CT, MT, and RS

221 plots with cover crops (kg of N ha-1), f is N uptake of eggplant in CT, MT, and RS in plots without

222 cover crops (no cover), and g is the N supplied to the eggplant crop (kg of N ha -1), released from

223 cover crops aboveground biomass from their termination to final eggplant harvesting.

224 The agronomic efficiency of nitrogen (AEN) was evaluated with the following formula (Kaupa

225 and Rao, 2014):

226 AEN = (h – i)/g

227 Where AEN is the agronomic efficiency of nitrogen (kg of dry eggplant fruits per kg of

228 nitrogen), h is the eggplant yield in CT, MT, and RS plots with cover crops (kg ha -1 of DM), i is the

229 eggplant yield in CT, MT, and RS in plots without cover crops (no cover), and g is the N supplied to

230 the eggplant crop (kg of N ha-1) and released from cover crop aboveground biomass from their

231 termination to final eggplant harvesting.

232

233 2.5. Statistical analyses

234 All data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using JMP statistical software

235 package version 4.0 (SAS Institute, 1996). The analysis of variance was carried out for the 2-year

236 period, considering the year as repeated measure across time. In order to homogenize the variance,
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237 after the Bartlett test we transformed the percentage data into angular transformation before analysis

238 (Gomez and Gomez, 1984). The data reported in the tables were back transformed. A split-plot

239 experimental design was adopted for cover crop aboveground biomass, cover crop nitrogen content,

240 and soil inorganic N concentration at cover crop termination, where the year was considered as the

241 main factor and the cover crops as the split factor. A split-split-plot experimental design was used

242 for eggplant characteristics, soil inorganic N concentration at final eggplant harvesting, cover crop

243 residue characteristics at final eggplant harvesting, NUE and AE N, where the year was treated as

244 main factor, the cover crop species as the split factor, the cover crop residue management as the

245 split-split factor. Treatment means were compared with Fisher’s protected least significant

246 difference (LSD)

247 test at the 0.05 probability level.

248

249 3. RESULTS

250 3.1. Weather conditions

251 Marked variations in rainfall and air temperatures (minimum and maximum) were recorded

252 over the 2 study periods (2009/2010 and 2010/2011) (Fig. 2). The total rainfall was always higher

253 compared to the historical average and it was concentrated in the autumn-winter period in 2009/210,

254 while in 2010/2011 there was also an abundant rainfall throughout the spring-summer period. The

255 air temperatures were particularly low in December 2010 and February 2011 when they dropped

256 several times below 0 °C with a peak of – 5 °C. Throughout the eggplant cultivation period the

257 average air temperature was slightly higher in 2011 than 2010 (22.1 vs. 21.4 °C, respectively).

258

259 3.2. Cover crop and residue characteristics

260 At cover crop termination, the cover crop aboveground biomass was significantly affected by

261 year x cover crop interaction (P < 0.05). It was higher in 2009/2010 than 2010/2011, except in hairy

262 vetch that showed similar values both years (Table 1). However, cover crop aboveground biomass
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263 was generally higher in hairy vetch, intermediate in oat, and lower in oilseed rape, while its nitrogen

264 content tended to be higher in hairy vetch, followed by oilseed rape, and oat. As expected the C:N

265 showed a similar trend to that of the nitrogen content. At final eggplant harvesting, the cover crop

266 aboveground residue biomass was notably reduced (Table 1), although there was a significant cover

267 crops x cover crop residue management interaction (Fig. 3). The reduction of cover crop

268 aboveground biomass ranged from 41.5% in oat RS to 76.1% in hairy vetch CT, and it was

269 generally higher in CT, intermediate in MT, and lower in RS, except for hairy vetch that showed

270 similar values in CT and MT soil tillage (Fig. 3). As expected the cover crop aboveground biomass

271 released an abundant amount of N, especially in hairy vetch where the N released was more than

272 twice compared to oat and oilseed rape (Fig. 4). Moreover in hairy vetch the N released was higher

273 when the tillage was deeper (CT>MT>RS). At eggplant harvesting, the N remaining in the cover

274 crop residues ranged from 51.8 kg of N ha-1 in hairy vetch RS to 8.0 kg of N ha -1 in oilseed rape CT.

275 It was generally similar in oat regardless soil tillage management, while it was higher in RS than CT

276 and MT in hairy vetch and in oilseed rape (Fig. 4).

277

278 3.3. Soil inorganic N and eggplant leaf SPAD values

279 The inorganic soil nitrogen (NO3-N + NH4-N) was always abundant following the legume

280 cover crop (Table 2). At cover crop termination, it was about 60% higher in hairy vetch than the

281 other treatments, and greater differences were observed after eggplant cultivation. In fact, at final

282 eggplant harvest, the inorganic soil N ranged from 15.3 to 36.7 mg N kg -1 dry soil in no cover RS

283 and in hairy vetch RS, respectively. The lowest soil inorganic N was generally observed in oat and

284 no cover, while in oilseed rape the mineral nitrogen was a little higher. However only in hairy vetch

285 the residue management had an effect on soil inorganic N at final eggplant harvesting, which was

286 higher in RS, intermediate in MT, and lower in CT (Table 2).

287 The SPAD values generally tended to increase after eggplant transplanting reaching the

288 highest values in the middle of the cropping period which then tended to decrease up to the final
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289 eggplant harvesting. However several differences were observed among cover crops and cover crop

290 residue management. (Fig. 5). In hairy vetch, the SPAD values were high and similar in RS, MT,

291 and CT throughout the cropping period, while in oat they were generally low especially in CT and

292 MT at the beginning of the cropping period. In contrast the SPAD values observed in oilseed rape

293 and no cover tended to be generally lower in RS compared to MT and CT.

294

295 3.4. Yield, nitrogen uptake and nitrogen in the residual biomass of the eggplant

296 There were significant year x cover crops (P < 0.05) and cover crops x cover crop residue

297 management (P < 0.01) interactions on the marketable eggplant fruits, eggplant straw weight and

298 their nitrogen content. Eggplant performed generally better in 2010 than 2011 except in oat which

299 showed similar values between the years (Table 3). However, the amount of marketable eggplant

300 fruits (on a fresh weight basis) varied considerably and ranged from 38.0 to 6.7 Mg ha -1 of fresh

301 matter (hereafter called FM). It was high in hairy vetch, especially in RS and MT, intermediate in

302 oilseed rape MT and CT, while it was low in oat MT and in no cover RS. A similar trend was

303 observed in the straw weight of eggplant (Table 3). Nitrogen uptake of marketable eggplant fruits

304 was similar in both years except for oilseed rape, which was higher in 2010 compared to 2011

305 (Table 4). It tended to be higher in hairy vetch, followed by oilseed rape, no cover and oat. High

306 values of nitrogen uptake were observed in hairy vetch MT and RS, in oilseed rape MT, in oat RS

307 and in no cover MT and CT (Table 4). A similar trend was noticed for nitrogen uptake of eggplant

308 straw (Table 4). There were significant relationships between the total sum of the SPAD reading

309 measured throughout the eggplant growing season and the nitrogen uptake of eggplant fruit (R 2=72)

310 and the eggplant straw (R2=0.76) (Fig. 6).

311

312 3.5. Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE) and Agronomic Efficiency (AEN)

313 Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) of eggplants varied greatly depending on cover crop species

314 and residue management (Fig. 7). It tended to be higher when compared to no cover RS and lower
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315 when compared to no cover MT. However, the NUE was always positive in hairy vetch regardless

316 the residue management ranging from 70.7% to 31.2%. It was negative in oat except in RS and CT

317 when compared with no cover RS, while the NUE in oilseed rape was always positive in MT and

318 when compared with RS no cover (Fig. 7).

319 There were significant year x cover crops (P < 0.01) and cover crops x cover crop residue

320 management interactions (P < 0.05) on the nitrogen agronomic efficiency of nitrogen (AEn) (Table

321 5). It showed a similar trend observed for NUE when compared to no cover. The AE n was similar

322 between the experimental years in hairy vetch and oat, while it was higher for oilseed rape

323 regardless the no cover managements in 2010 compared to 2011 (Table 5). However, the AE n varied

324 considerable and ranged between 15.9 and – 27.3 kg of eggplant dry fruit per kg N mineralized from

325 cover crop. It was generally high in hairy vetch especially in RS (> 11), while it was always

326 negative in oat MT residue management (<-12). In oilseed rape the AE N showed higher values in

327 MT, than CT and RS residue management.

328

329 4. DISCUSSION

330 Differences in the cover crop aboveground biomass and its nitrogen content observed between years

331 can be attributed to the large variability of climatic conditions throughout the cover crop growing

332 season (Gabriel and Quemada, 2011; Brennan and Boyd, 2012). In 2010/2011 the significant

333 reduction of aboveground biomass production, observed in oat and above all in oilseed rape, was

334 probably due to the severe frost damage that occurred in December in the early stages of the cover

335 crops (Fig. 2). Hairy vetch was more cold tolerant and appears suitable to be used as winter cover

336 crop in Mediterranean environment and is capable of accumulating a large amount of aboveground

337 biomass and nitrogen (Campiglia et al., 2010a). In fact, at cover crop termination hairy vetch added

338 a quantity of nitrogen accumulated in the aboveground biomass to the system that was

339 approximately three times higher than that provided by oat and oilseed rape. This organic nitrogen

340 was made available to the subsequent eggplant crop through the mineralization process. Several
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341 studies have shown that the residue decomposition and nitrogen mineralization are important

342 microorganismdriven processes related to the chemical characteristics of the organic residues (Ruffo

343 and Bollero, 2003; Nourbakhsh, 2006; Sainju and Whitehead, 2006). As a general rule, if the

344 amount of nitrogen content in organic residues is larger than that required by the microbial biomass,

345 there is a net mineralization with the release on inorganic nitrogen (Rosecrance et al., 2000). The

346 low C/N ratio observed in the hairy vetch residues probably determined a higher mineralization rate

347 compared to oat and oilseed rape residues, which were characterized by a higher C/N ratio.

348 Consequently the residues of hairy vetch probably started to mineralize very quickly immediately

349 after the cover crop termination (Kramberger et al., 2009) and supplied more mineral nitrogen to the

350 soil than oat and oilseed rape (Kuo and Sainju, 1998). Moreover, based on the data on soil inorganic

351 N concentration measured at cover crop termination, we assume that hairy vetch could have

352 released fixed nitrogen into the soil even before its termination determining a high level of soil

353 mineral nitrogen before eggplant transplanting (Campiglia et al., 2014b). Although this effect is

354 favorable for the growth of the following eggplant crop, it may result in a high risk of nitrogen

355 leaching in the wet spring seasons. As suggested by Brennan and Boyd (2012) a legume-cereal

356 cover crop mixture, instead of a sole legume, could be considered in order to avoid nitrogen losses

357 because it combines the N scavenging of the non-legume with the N fixing ability of the legume.

358 The management of the cover crop aboveground biomass strongly influenced residue
359 decomposition.

360 In this experiment the reduction of the cover crop aboveground biomass was generally faster in

361 tilled (CT and MT) than in no-tilled soil (RS). When fresh plant material is incorporated into the

362 soil, mineralization occurs faster than when the materials are left on the soil surface (Mulvaney et

363 al., 2011). In fact, in oilseed rape and oat the reduction of the cover crop residues was higher in CT

364 than in MT. A deeper soil tillage, as occurred in CT, probably caused a greater dilution of the cover

365 crop residues in the soil compared to MT, therefore the contact between the organic materials and

366 soil microorganisms increased and accelerated the mineralization process (Mulvaney et al., 2011).

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367 The higher soil inorganic nitrogen content in hairy vetch at eggplant harvesting compared to oilseed

368 rape, oat, and no cover treatments was probably due to the greater amount of nitrogen supplied by

369 the legume. Hairy vetch as a winter cover crop, generally increases soil mineral nitrogen in both no-

370 tilled and tilled soils in summer vegetable cropping systems (Ruffo and Bollero, 2003; Sainju and

371 Whitehead, 2006; Campiglia et al., 2010a). However, when incorporated into the soil hairy vetch

372 residues can release a large amount of mineral nitrogen in a short period of time (Kuo and Sainju,

373 1998) which makes it difficult to synchronize the nitrogen uptake of the crop especially in summer

374 vegetables such as eggplant which showed a slow growth in the first period after transplanting.

375 Therefore, the high amount of nitrogen released from the hairy vetch cover crop, especially when

376 soil-incorporated in conventional tillage (CT), may be lost if it is not caught by the subsequent crop,

377 while leaving the residues on the soil surface as organic dead mulch can be a viable management

378 practice to delay the mineralization process (Campiglia et al., 2010b). Moreover mulch can increase

379 soil moisture content and stabilize temperature fluctuations that improve nitrogen utilization by the

380 eggplant crop (Sainju et al., 2003). This hypothesis is supported by the eggplant yield and nitrogen

381 uptake of eggplant marketable fruits which had higher values in RS than CT residue management.

382 On the contrary, the oat residues mineralized slowly and the nitrogen uptake by the eggplant grown

383 in CT and MT was lower than that in no cover without cover crop residues. This effect could be due

384 to the high C/N value of the residues which may have promoted the immobilization of the available

385 soil mineral nitrogen (Rosecrance et al., 2000). When the oat residues were left on the soil surface

386 and arranged in strips, the mineralization process was delayed further due the reduced contact

387 between the residues and the soil. Consequently in oat treatments, the eggplant yield and the

388 nitrogen uptake by eggplant fruit significantly increased in RS compared to MT and CT. Therefore,

389 even if the use of cover crops with a high C/N (i.e. oat) decreases the yield of the following

390 vegetable crop, this negative effect can be mitigated with an adequate residue management such as

391 using mulch instead of green manuring strategies or applying high rates of nitrogen fertilizer to

392 eggplant, although this practice is not advisable from an ecological point of view (Kramberger et al.,
47 16
48
 49

393 2014). The oilseed rape residues showed intermediate C/N and nitrogen content values between oat

394 and hairy vetch. They had a similar effect on eggplant yield to that observed in oat when they were

395 left on soil surface, while the eggplant yield increased compared to oat especially in MT when they

396 were green manured. The small quantity of mineral nitrogen deriving from the mineralization

397 process of oilseed rape was probably more easily caught by the shallow eggplant root system (Aujla

398 et al., 2007) when the residues were concentrated in the upper soil layer (10 cm) than when diluted

399 in 30 cm of soil layer. This hypothesis is supported by the nitrogen uptake by marketable eggplant

400 fruits which was much higher in MT than in CT even if the reduction of the aboveground biomass

401 was more consistent in CT than MT. Therefore, the ability of the eggplant to uptake the nitrogen

402 coming from the mineralization of cover crop aboveground biomass varied greatly not only in

403 relation to the different cover crop species but also according to the cover crop residue management.

404 Therefore, the nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) and the agronomic efficiency (AEn) of eggplant

405 grown on cover crop residues were variable. Both indices were very high in hairy vetch residues,

406 while they were low, even negative, in oat residue although significant differences were observed in

407 relation to cover crop residue management. According to this study it seems that when the nitrogen

408 supply by cover crop residues is high and the C/N ratio of the material is low, such as in hairy vetch

409 (C/N=13), it is preferable to use a RS strategy to delay the mineralization rate of nitrogen and avoid

410 the risk of losing nitrogen into the environment. When the nitrogen supply by cover crop residues is

411 small and the C/N ratio is intermediate, such as oilseed rape (C/N=29), it is advisable to use MT

412 considering that the mineralized nitrogen is easily caught by a shallow root system. When the

413 nitrogen supply by cover crop residues is small and the C/N ratio of the material is high, such as in

414 oat (C/N=47), it is preferable to adopt a RS strategy in order to avoid the immobilization of the

415 available soil mineral nitrogen. However, considering that the NUE of eggplant was generally

416 negative following oat cover crop, a large amount of mineral fertilizers may be required to reduce

417 the yield gap compared to the eggplant grown following hairy vetch and oilseed rape cover crops. In

418 this study the SPAD readings of eggplant leaves detected the eggplant nitrogen deficiencies and
50 17
51
 52

419 there was a strong relationship between the nitrogen uptake by eggplant and the total sum of the

420 SPAD reading throughout the growing season. Therefore, SPAD readings could be useful tools for

421 adjusting nitrogen fertilizer rates in summer vegetable crops after cover crop cultivation due to the

422 uncertainty of nitrogen availability throughout the mineralization processes of cover crops residues

423 (Miguez and Bollero,

424 2006). However, the nitrogen supplied by the cover crop could be even higher than the requirements

425 of the subsequent main crop. In this study, after eggplant harvesting, a considerable quantity of

426 nitrogen was left in the system as both soil mineral nitrogen and organic nitrogen still present in the

427 residual cover crop biomass of the hairy vetch especially in RS conditions. Therefore, the nitrogen

428 accumulated by cover crops is only partially recovered by the succeeding crop, a part of cover crop

429 nitrogen enriches the soil organic nitrogen pool and it can be mineralized later (Tonitto et al., 2006).

430 This outcome suggests that when legume cover crops are used in intensive vegetable cropping

431 systems, it may be necessary to enhance nitrogen recovery and reduce the potential of nitrogen loss

432 by capturing the excess of nitrogen before it is lost. As suggested by Campiglia et al (2014a), the

433 residual nitrogen could be used alternatively and profitably by cultivating an autumn-winter

434 vegetable such as endive or savoy cabbage in close rotation with the summer vegetable.

435

436 5. CONCLUSIONS
437

438 The combination of winter cover crop species and cover crop residue management affected the

439 speed of the residue decomposition, the release of nitrogen and the performances of the subsequent

440 vegetable crop. The results of this study showed that the mineralization of the cover crop

441 aboveground biomass was always faster when the residues were incorporated into the soil

442 [conventional tillage (CT) and minimum tillage (MT)], than when they were left on the soil surface

443 and arranged in mulch strips (RS). In particular the reduction of oilseed rape and oat residues was

444 also accelerated by a deeper soil tillage such as that carried out in CT. However, the reduction of the

53 18
54
 55

445 cover crop aboveground biomass throughout the following eggplant cropping seasons, was mainly

446 due to the chemical characteristics of the cover crop species such as nitrogen content and C/N ratio.

447 Hairy vetch showed a residue reduction approximately 2-fold higher than oat residues and an

448 approximately 3fold higher amount of nitrogen was released compared to oilseed rape and oat. As a

449 consequence in hairy vetch treatments, the eggplant yield and the nitrogen uptake by eggplant crop

450 were much higher than those observed in the other treatments. An interactive effect of the winter

451 cover crop species and cover crop residue management was observed on nitrogen use efficiency

452 (NUE) and the agronomic efficiency (AEn) of eggplant. Both indices were high and always positive

453 in hairy vetch, while they were low and even negative in the oat and oilseed rape residues.

454 However, the NUE and the AEn of eggplant grown in presence of hairy vetch and oat residues were

455 generally higher in RS compared to MT and CT, while in presence of oilseed rape residues the NUE

456 and the AEn was higher in MT. We conclude that when legume cover crop residues are incorporated

457 into the soil the release of nitrogen could be in excess in respect to the nitrogen demand of the

458 following vegetable summer crop, therefore leaving the cover crop residues on the soil surface as

459 dead mulches may be a feasible strategy for slowing down the mineralization process and

460 enhancing the synchronization between nitrogen release and crop requirements throughout the

461 cropping season. This could increase the nitrogen use efficiency of the following summer vegetable

462 crop and leave a consistent quantity of residual nitrogen in the system which could be profitably

463 used when cultivating an autumn-winter crop in close rotation.

464

465 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

466 This research was funded by the University of Tuscia. The authors wish to thank Claudio

467 Stefanoni and Fulvia Gatti for their technical assistance and for participating in data collection. The

468 authors would also like to thank Dr. Eric Brennan, from USDA ARS Crop Improvement and

469 Protection Research, who provided valuable comments and suggestions while this manuscript was

470 being written.

56 19
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471

472
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504 conditions in Central Italy. Ann. Forest Sci. 71, 885-895.

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523 nitrogen and on the yield and nitrogen content of maize. Eur. J. Agron. 31, 103–109.

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541 Nyiraneza J., Snapp S., 2007. Integrated Management of Inorganic and Organic Nitrogen and
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543 Poudel D., Horwath W., Mitchell J., Temple S., 2001. Impacts of cropping systems on soil nitrogen
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550 annuum L.). Crop. Prot. 44, 109-119.

551 Rosecrance R.C., Mccarty G.W., Shelton D.R., Teasdale J.R., 2000. Denitrification and N
552 mineralization from hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth) and rye (Secale cereale L.) cover crop
553 monocultures and bicultures. Plant Soil 227, 283–290.

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555 degree-days and decomposition-days. Agron. J. 95, 900–907.

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558 Sainju U.M., Singh B.P., Whitehead W.F., Wang S., 2007. Accumulation and Crop Uptake of Soil
559 Mineral Nitrogen as Influenced by Tillage, Cover Crops, and Nitrogen Fertilization. Agron. J.
560 99, 682-691.

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562 yields and improve soil and environmental qualities. ScientificWorldJournal 3, 768–89.

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564 Schomberg H.H., Endale D.M., 2004. Cover crop effects on nitrogen mineralization and availability
565 in conservation tillage cotton. Biol. Fertil. Soils 40, 398–405.

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567 cover crops compared to direct incorporation. Plant Soil 270, 101–112.

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571 high cover crop residue. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 28, 559–565.

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574 Ecosyst. Environ. 112, 58–72.

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 67 1
68 2
69 3
70 4
71 5
72 6
575 Table 1. The effect of year x cover crops interaction on the cover crop aboveground biomass, its
576 nitrogen content and C/N ratio at cover crop termination and on cover crop aboveground biomass
577 decomposed at eggplant harvesting. Values belonging to the same variable followed by the same
578 letter are not significantly different according to LSD (0.05), in rows for year (upper case letter) and
579 columns for cover crop (lower case letter).
580
581

Cover crop C/N Nitrogen content Decomposed cover crop

aboveground biomass ratio biomass at eggplant
(Mg m-2 of DM) (%) harvesting
(%)
2009/2010 2010/2011 2009/2010 2010/2011 2009/2010 2010/2011
Hairy vetch 6.09 aA 6.27 aA 12.7 c 3.1 aA 3.0 aA 72.4 aA 71.6 aA
Oat 6.07 aA 5.29 bB 46.5 a 1.1 cA 1.2 cA 44.3 cA 53.8 bA
Oilseed rape 4.78 bA 2.79 cB 29.4 b 1.7 bB 2.0 bA 68.3 bA 57.6 bB
582 7
583 8
584 9
585 10

73 23
74
 75 1
76 2
77 3
78 4
79 5
80 6
81 7
586 11

82 24
83
 84 1 year x cover crops
85 2
86 3
87 4
88 5
89 6
90 7
587 Table 2. Mean effect of cover crop at cover crop termination and interaction effect of cover crops x
588 cover crop residue management at eggplant harvesting on soil inorganic nitrogen (NH 4 + NO3)
589 concentration at 0 – 30 cm depth. Values belonging to the same characteristic and treatment without
590 common letters are statistically different according to LSD (0.05), in rows per nitrogen fertilization
591 level (upper case letter) and columns per cover crop (lower case letter). RS = Residues left on the
592 soil surface in no-tilled soil, MT = Minimum tillage, and CT = Conventional tillage.
593
594
595 8

596 Soil inorganic N concentration Soil inorganic N concentration at cover crop

597 termination at eggplant final harvest
598 (mg inorganic N kg-1 dry soil) (mg inorganic N kg-1 dry soil)
599 RS MT CT
Hairy vetch 33.8 a 36.7 aA 30.0 aB 23.6 aC
Oat 19.7 b 16.9 cA 17.3 cA 15.7 cA
Oilseed rape 20.3 b 19.4 bA 22.2 bA 19.6 bA
No cover 22.9 b 15.3 cA 19.1 cA 16.1 cA
600 9

91 25
92
 93 1
94 2
95 3
96 4
97 5
98 6
99 7
601 10

100 26
101
102 1 year x cover crops
103 2
104 3
105 4
106 5
107 6
108 7
602 Table 3. The effect of cover crops interaction and x cover crop residue management interaction on
603 the marketable fruit yield and the straw weight of eggplant crop. Values belonging to the same
604 characteristic with different letters in rows for years or residue management (upper case letter), and
605 in columns for cover crops (lower case letter) are statistically different according to LSD (0.05). RS
606 = Residues left on the soil surface in no-tilled soil, MT = Minimum tillage, and CT = Conventional
607 tillage. FM = Fresh Matter.
608
609 Marketable eggplant fruit yield
610 (Mg ha-1 of FM)
611 Treatments
612
613 Year Cover crop residue management

2010 2011 RS MT CT
Hairy vetch 36.5 aA 33.9 aB 38.0 aA 36.1 aA 31.6 aB
Oat 13.4 dA 12.9 cA 18.4 bA 6.7 dC 14.3 cB
Oilseed rape 25.9 bA 15.4 bB 17.6 bB 24.7 bA 19.7 bB
No cover 20.2 cA 13.4 bcB 11.3 cC 21.4 cA 17.7 bB
Straw weight

109 27
110
111 1
112 2
113 3
114 4
115 5
116 6
117 7
(Mg ha-1 of
DM)
Year Cover crop residue
management
2010 2011 RS MT CT
3.4 aA 3.5 aA
Hairy vetch 3.2 aB 3.5 aA 3.3 aB
Oat 1.8 cA 1.6 cA 2.1 bA 1.4 cB 1.7 cB
Oilseed rape 2.6 bA 2.2 bB 2.1 bB 2.7 bA 2.5 bA
No cover 2.5 bA 2.0 bB 1.6 cB 2.7 bA 2.5 bA
8
9
10
11

118 28
119
 1
120 year x cover crops
2
121
3
122
4
123
5
124
6
125
7
126
614 Table 4. The effect of cover crops interaction and x cover crop residue management interaction on
615 the nitrogen uptake of fruits and straw of eggplant crop. Values belonging to the same characteristic
616 with different letters in rows for years or residue management (upper case letter), and in columns
617 for cover crops (lower case letter) are statistically different according to LSD (0.05). RS = Residues
618 left on the soil surface in no-tilled soil, MT = Minimum tillage, and CT = Conventional tillage.
619
620 Nitrogen uptake of marketable eggplant fruit
621 (kg N ha-1)
622 Treatments
623 Year Cover crop residue management
2010 2011 RS MT CT
Hairy vetch 93.8 aA93.98 aA 99.7 aA 100.1 aA 82.0 aB
Oat 29.3 dA28.92 cA 40.5 bA 15.5 dC 31.4 cB
Oilseed rape 58.7 bA37.20 bB 42.5 bB 55.8 bA 45.5 bB
No cover 38.5 cA33.65 bA 27.2 cB 41.0 cA 40.0 bA
Nitrogen uptake of eggplant straw
(kg N ha-1)
624 Year Cover crop residue management
2010 82.9 2011 CT
aA 73.7 aB RS MT
Hairy vetch 70.7 aB 88.4 aA 75.8 aB
Oat 34.6 cA 32.5 cA 42.5 bA 25.2 cC 33.0 cB
Oilseed rape 58.0 bA 45.8 bB 41.4 bB 59.8 bA 54.5 bA
No cover 53.9 bA 40.7 bB 32.4 cC 58.0 bA 51.5 bB
8
9

127 29
128
 1
129
2
130
3
131
4
132
5
133
6
134
7
135
625 Table 5. The effect of cover crops interaction and x cover crop residue management interaction on
626 agronomic efficiency (AEn) of nitrogen compared to no cover managed in no-tilled soil (RS),
627 minimum tillage (MT), and conventional tillage (CT), respectively. Values belonging to the same
628 characteristic with different letters in rows for years or residue management (upper case letter), and
629 in columns for cover crops (lower case letter) are statistically different according to LSD (0.05).
630
631

632 AEN compared to RS no cover

633 (Kg of eggplant dry fruit per kg N mineralized from cover crop)
634 Treatments
635 Year Cover crop residue management
636 2010 2011 RS MT CT
Hairy vetch 13.6 aA 13.0 aA 15.9 aA 14.3 aA 10.7 aB
Oat -1.6 bA 0.2 cA 8.3 bA -12.5 bC 2.1 cB
Oilseed rape 11.7 aA 6.1 bB 5.3 bB 13.9 aA 7.2 bB
637 AEN compared to MT no cover
638 (Kg of eggplant dry fruit per kg N mineralized from cover crop)
639 Year Cover crop residue management
640 2010 2011 RS MT CT
Hairy vetch 11.9 aA 12.3 aA 14.5 aA 12.7 aAB 9.8 aB
Oat -5.0 bA -5.3 cA 3.6 bA -16.9 bC -2.2 cB
Oilseed rape 8.1 aA 3.4 bB 1.8 bB 11.2 aA 4.2 bB
641 AEN compared to CT no cover
642 (Kg of eggplant dry fruit per kg N mineralized from cover crop)
643 Year Cover crop residue management
644 2010 2011 RS MT CT
Hairy vetch 8.9 aA 9.1 aA 11.2 aA 9.7 aAB 6.1 aB
Oat -14.1 cA -16.8 cA -6.5 bA -27.3 cC -12.5 cB
Oilseed rape 4.1 bA -10.9 bB -8.5 bB 2.5 bA -4.2 bB
645
646
647
648
649
650

136 30
137
138 1 year x cover crops
139 2
140 3
141 4
142 5
143 6
144 7
651 Figure 1. Plan of the eggplant seedling geometry in: residues left on the soil surface in no-tilled soil
652 (RS), minimum tillage (MT), and conventional tillage (CT).
653
654 50 cm 50 cm
655
656
657
658 8
659 9
660 10 33 cm
661 11 RS
662 12
663 13
664 14 Mulch Mulch
665 15
666 16
667 17
668 18
669 19
670 20 33 cm
671 21 MT
672 22
673 23
674 24 10 cm Tilled soil
675 25
676 26
677 27
678 28
679 29
680 30 33 cm
681 31
682 32 CT
683 33
684 34
685 35 30 cm Tilled soil
686 36
687 37
688 38
689 39 25 cm 100 cm 25 cm
690 40

145 31
146
147 1
148 2
149 3
150 4
151 5
152 6
153 7
691 41
692 42
693 43
694 44
695 45
696 46
697 47
698 48
699 49

154 32
155
 1
156
2
157
3
158
700 Figure 2. Rainfall, minimum and maximum average air temperatures at the experimental site at
701 10day intervals from September 2009 to September 2011.
702

703

159 33
160
161 Figure
704 3. The effect of cover crop x cover crop residue management interaction on cover crop
705 aboveground biomass reduction at eggplant harvesting. Values belonging to the same characteristic
706 followed by the same letter are not significantly different according to LSD (0.05). RS = Residues
707 left on the soil surface in no-tilled soil, MT = Minimum tillage, and CT = Conventional tillage.
708

100
Cover crop biomass reduction (%)

a a
75 b c
c
d d
e
50 f

25

0
RS MT CT RS MT CT RS MT CT

709
Oat Oilseed rape Hairy vetch
710
711
712
713
714
715
716

162 34
163
164 1
165 2
166 3
167 4
168 5
717 Figure 4. The effect of cover crop x cover crop residue management interaction on the N released
718 throughout eggplant growing season and the remaining N in the cover crop aboveground biomass at
719 eggplant harvest. Values belonging to the same characteristic followed by the same letter are not
720 significantly different according to LSD (0.05). RS = Residues left on the soil surface in no-tilled
721 soil, MT = Minimum tillage, and CT = Conventional tillage.
722 6
200
N released a
b
Nitrogen (kg ha-1)

160 N remaining c
120

80
d d a
e e e b
e
40 cd c cd d c
e e
0
RS MT CT RS MT CT RS MT CT

723
7 Oat Oilseed rape Hairy vetch
724 8
725 9
726 10

169 35
170
 1
171 Figure
2
172
3
173
4
174
5
175
727 5. The effects of cover crop and cover crop residue management on chlorophyll content
728 (SPAD readings) of eggplant leaves during the growing cycle of the crop. Data correspond to the
729 2011 and 2012 growing seasons. Error bars represent ± standard error from mean (n = 60). RS =
730 Residues left on the soil surface in no-tilled soil, MT = Minimum tillage, and CT = Conventional
731 tillage.
732

733

734
735
736
737
738

176 36
177
178 1
179 2
180 3
181 4
182 5
739 Figure 6. Relationship between the Nitrogen uptake of eggplant fruit or straw and the total sum of
740 the SPAD reading measured throughout the eggplant growing season. Data correspond to the
741 2009/2010 and 2010/2011 growing seasons and the significance level is *** significant at P < 0.001
742 level.
743
Nitrogen uptake (Kg N ha-1)

744

745 Total SPAD readings

746 6
747 7
748 8
749 7. Effect of cover crop x cover crop residue management interaction on the N use efficiency
750 (NUE) of eggplant compared no cover managed in no-tilled soil (RS), minimum tillage (MT) no
751 cover, and conventional tillage (CT) no cover. Values belonging to the same variable and treatment
752 followed by the same letter are not significantly different according to LSD (0.05).
753

183 37
184
185 1 Figure
186 2
187 3
188 4
189 5

754
755 7

190 38
191
192 1
193 2
194 3
195 4
196 5
756 8

197 39
198