Chapter Six

Packet Switched Networks

OSI and IP models

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Lecture outlines
 Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
Token ring (IEEE 802.5)
 FDDI, DQDB
 Frame relay: SMDS: Internet working with SMDS,
 Internet protocol
 TCP and VDP, performance of TCP /IP networks
 DWDM, Fiber to home
 Intelligent networks

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 Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
• History
– Developed by Bob Metcalfe and others at Xerox PARC in mid-1970s
– Standardized by Xerox, DEC, and Intel in 1978
– LAN standards define MAC and physical layer connectivity
• IEEE 802.3 (CSMA/CD - Ethernet) standard – originally 2Mbps
• IEEE 802.3u standard for 100Mbps Ethernet
• IEEE 802.3z standard for 1,000Mbps Ethernet
• CSMA/CD: Ethernet’s Media Access Control (MAC) policy
– CS = carrier sense
• Send only if medium is idle
– MA = multiple access
– CD = collision detection
• Stop sending immediately if collision is detected

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 Ethernet Overview
• Most popular packet-switched LAN technology
• Bandwidths: 10Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps
• Max bus length: 2500m
– 500m segments with 4 repeaters
• Bus and Star topologies are used to connect hosts
– Hosts attach to network via Ethernet transceiver or hub or
switch
• Detects line state and sends/receives signals
– Hubs are used to facilitate shared connections
– All hosts on an Ethernet are competing for access to the
medium
• Switches break this model

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 Ethernet Frame Format

64 48 48 16 32

Dest Src
Preamble Type Body CRC
addr addr

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• Preamble: Repeating Flag that ID’s the sequence as an Ethernet
datagram . which is used in synchronizing and alerting the NIC.
• Destination Address: Unique identifier found on the Network
Interface Card that identifies the recipient.
• Source Address: Unique identifier found on the Network Interface
Card that identifies the sender.
• Length/Type Field: Tells the recipient what kind of datagram is
being received (IP, UDP, etc) and the length of the data.
• Data: What sort of data is being sent:46 to 1500 bytes (text, JPEG,
MP3, etc).
• Frame Check Sequence: Error detecting codes (If an error is
detected, the frame is discarded).

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 Fast Ethernet
 The Fast Ethernet standard (IEEE 802.3u) has been established
for Ethernet networks that need higher transmission speeds.

 This standard raises the Ethernet speed limit from 10 Mbps to

100 Mbps with only minimal changes to the existing cable
structure.

 Fast Ethernet provides faster throughput for video,

multimedia, graphics, Internet surfing and stronger error
detection and correction.

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• 100BaseT4
– to use voice grade cat 3 cables
– 3 pairs in each direction with 33.3 Mbps on each using a ternary
signaling scheme.
• total 4 pairs (2 of them bidirectional)
– Can be used with cat 5 cables (but waste of resources)
• 100Base-X
– Unidirectional data rate of 100 Mbps
– Uses two links (one for transmit, one for receive)
– Two types: 100Base-TX and 100Base-FX
• 100Base-TX
– cat5 UTP (one pair in each direction)
– at 125 Mhz with special encoding that has 20% overhead.
• 100Base-FX
– Optical fiber (one at each direction)
– Similar encoding

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 Gigabit Ethernet
 Gigabit Ethernet was developed to meet the need for faster
communication networks with applications such as multimedia
and Voice over IP (VoIP).

 Also known as “gigabit-Ethernet-over-copper” or 1000Base-T,

GigE is a version of Ethernet that runs at speeds 10 times faster
than 100Base-T.

 It is defined in the IEEE 802.3 standard and is currently used as

an enterprise backbone.

 Existing Ethernet LANs with 10 and 100 Mbps cards can feed
into a Gigabit Ethernet backbone to interconnect high
performance switches, routers and servers.
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 Gigabit Ethernet . . .

1000 BASE SX fiber - short wavelength

1000 BASE LX fiber - long wavelength
1000 BASE CX copper - shielded twisted pair
1000 BASE T copper - unshielded twisted pair

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 10 Gigabit Ethernet
 10 Gigabit Ethernet is the fastest and most recent of the Ethernet
standards.

 IEEE 802.3ae defines a version of Ethernet with a nominal rate of

10Gbits/s that makes it 10 times faster than Gigabit Ethernet.

 Unlike other Ethernet systems, 10 Gigabit Ethernet is based

entirely on the use of optical fiber connections.

 This developing standard is moving away from a LAN design that

broadcasts to all nodes, toward a system which includes some
elements of wide area routing.

 As it is still very new, which of the standards will gain commercial

acceptance has yet to be determined.
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 Token ring (IEEE 802.5)
• The Token Ring network was originally developed by IBM in
the 1970s.
• It is still IBM's primary local-area network (LAN) technology.
• Resource sharing
– Round Robin
– simple placeholder frame that is passed from station to
station around the ring.
• A station may send data only when it has possession of the
token
• Token ring allows each station to send one frame per turn

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Access Method :Token Passing

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Access Method :Token Passing . . .
• This token is passed from NIC (yellow box) to NIC in sequence
until it encounters a station with data to send.

• That station (a,b,c,d) waits for the token to enter its network
board

• If the token is free, the station may then send a data frame

• It keeps the token and sets a bit inside its NIC as a reminder
that it has done so, then sends its one data frame.

• This data frame proceeds around the ring, being regenerated

by each station.

• Each intermediate station examines the destination address,

finds that the frame is address to another station and relays it
to its neighbor
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• The intended recipient recognizes its own address, copies
the message, checks for errors and changes four bits in the
last byte of the frame to indicate address recognized and
frame copied
• The full packet then continues around the ring until it
returns to the station that sent it

• The sender receives the frame and recognized itself in the

source address field

• It then examines the address-recognized bits

• If they are set, it knows the frame was received.

• The sender then discards the used data frame and release
the token back to the ring
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 FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
• FDDI is a standard developed by the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) for transmitting data on optical fibers
• Supports transmission rates of up to 200 Mbps
• Uses a dual ring
– First ring used to carry data at 100 Mbps
– Second ring used for primary backup in case first ring fails
– If no backup is needed, second ring can also carry data,
increasing the data rate up to 200 Mbps
• Supports up to 1000 nodes
• Has a range of up to 200 km

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17
 COMPARISON
FEATURES FDDI ETHERNET TOKEN RING
TRANSMISSION 125 Mbaud 20 Mbaud 8 & 32 Mbaud
RATE
DATA RATE 100 MBPS 10 MBPS 4 & 16 MBPS

SIGNAL 4B/5B (80% MANCHESTER DIFFERENTIAL

ENCODING EFFICIENT) (50% MANCHESTER
EFFICIENT) (50% EFFICIENT)
MAXIMUM 100 KM 2.5 KM CONFIGURATION
COVERAGE DEPENDENT
MAXIMUM 1000 1024 250
NODES
MAXIMUM 2 KM (MULTIMODE 2.5 KM 300 M
DISTANCE FIBER) (RECOMMENDED
BETWEEN 40 KM (SINGLE- 100 M)
NODES MODE FIBER)

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 Distributed-Queue Dual-Bus network (DQDB)

 Distributed-Queue Dual-Bus network (DQDB) is a distributed multi-

access network that
 supports integrated communications using a dual bus and
distributed queuing
 provides access to local or metropolitan area networks, and
 supports connectionless data transfer, connection-oriented data
transfer, and isochronous communications, such as voice
communications.
 IEEE 802.6 is an example of a network providing DQDB access methods.

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 Characteristics of DQDB

• Works on Data-link layer (specially in MAC sub-layer)

• Used in data, voice and video transmissions
• Used in data over cable services
• Provides connection-oriented, connection less services &
asynchronous services
• Distance up to 200 KM
• Medium: Copper or Fiber
• At distance up to 160 KM approx speed is 44.73 Mbps
(Copper)
• At distance up to 100 KM approx speed is 150 Mbps
(Fiber)
• Transmission Rate: 34 Mbps to 150 Mbps
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 DQDB Architecture

• Each bus supports traffic in only one direction

• Beginning of bus is denoted by a square and end by a triangle
• Bus B traffic moves from right to left and Bus A traffic from left to
right
• Each bus connects to stations directly through input and output
ports

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DQDB Architecture . . .
• The DQDB is composed of a two bus lines with stations attached to both
and a cell (Empty slots) generator at the start of each bus.

• The buses run in parallel in such a fashion as to allow the cells generated
to travel across the stations in opposite directions.

• The cell generator (head-end) is constantly producing empty cells

consisting of fifty-three bytes (a five byte header and a forty-eight byte
payload).

• Upstream & Downstream

• As Bus A is configured
• Stations 2 & 3 are considered to be upstream w.r.t station 1
• Stations 1 & 2 are considered to be downstream w.r.t. station 3
• As Bus B is configured
• Station 2 & 3 are considered to be downstream w.r.t. station 1
• Stations 1 & 2 are considered to be upstream w.r.t. station 3
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 DQDB working
• Head-ends generate fixed size cells in both directions (cell generators)
• To transmit, a host must know whether the destination is to its right or its left
• If right, the host must send on left bus
• If left, the host must send on the right bus
• A “Distributed Queue” is used to make sure that cells are transmitted on a
first-come first-serve basis.
DQDB Cell Format
• Segment Type (ST): Identify the cell as one of the following:
• Single Segment
• First Segment
• Intermediate Segment
• Last Segment
• Message Identifier (MID): MID is the same for all DQDB cells from the same MAC
frame. This allows the identification of intermediate segments.
• Information: Actual Data
• Length (LEN): The length of the information field.
• CRC: For error correction

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 Fame Relay
• Frame Relay (FR) is a high-performance WAN protocol that
operates at the physical and data link layers of the OSI
reference model.
• FR originally was designed for use across Integrated Service
Digital Network (ISDN) interfaces.
• Today, it is used over a variety of other network interfaces
as well.
• FR is an example of a packet-switched technology.
• Packet-switched networks enable end stations to
dynamically share the network medium and the available
bandwidth.

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 Frame Relay Devices
• Devices attached to a Frame Relay WAN fall into the
following two general categories:
– Data terminal equipment (DTE)
• DTEs generally are considered to be terminating equipment for a
specific network and typically are located on the premises of a
customer.
• Example of DTE devices are terminals, personal computers, routers,
and bridges.
– Data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE)
• DCEs are carrier-owned internetworking devices.
• The purpose of DCE equipment's is to provide clocking and switching
services in a network, which are the devices that actually transmit
data through the WAN.

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26
 Switched Multimegabit Data Service(SMDS)
 Is the first high speed broadband service offered to the public.
 It is designed to connect multiple LANs together.

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 SMDS Network Components
 SMDS networks consist of several underlying devices to provide
high-speed data service. These include
 customer premises equipment (CPE),
 carrier equipment, and the
 subscriber network interface (SNI).
 CPE is terminal equipment typically owned and maintained by
the customer. CPE includes end devices, such as
 Terminals
 personal computers,
 Intermediate nodes, such as routers, modems, and
multiplexers. Intermediate. 28
 The SNI is the interface between CPE and carrier equipment. This
interface is the point at which the customer network ends and
the carrier network begins.
 The function of the SNI is to render the technology and operation
of the carrier SMDS network transparent to the customer.

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 Internet Protocol
 The Internet Protocol (IP) is a network-layer (Layer 3) protocol that
contains addressing information and some control information that
enables packets to be routed.
 Packets are delivered from the source to the destination using IP
address
 IP by itself is something like the postal system. It allows you to
address a package and drop it in the system, but there's no direct
link between you and the recipient.
 IP includes a set of rules that process the idea of unreliable packet
delivery.
◦ How hosts and routers should process packets
◦ How & when error messages should be generated
◦ The Conditions under which packets can be discarded

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 Internet Protocol . . .
 IP provides an unreliable connectionless best effort service (also
called: “datagram service”).
Unreliable: IP does not make an attempt to recover lost packets
Connectionless: Each packet (“datagram”) is handled
independently. IP is not aware that packets between hosts may
be sent in a logical sequence
Best effort: It only gives best effort delivery. (packets can be delayed,
corrupted, lost or out of order)
Consequences:
•Higher layer protocols have to deal with losses or with
duplicate packets

• Packets may be delivered out-of-sequence

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 IP Services
• IP supports the following services:
• one-to-one (unicast)
• one-to-all (broadcast)
• one-to-several (multicast)

• IP multicast also supports a many-to-many service.

• IP multicast requires support of other protocols (IGMP, multicast routing)

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 IP Orientation
 IP (Internet Protocol) is a Network Layer Protocol.

TCP UDP Transport

Layer

Network
ICMP IP IGMP
Layer

Network
ARP Link Layer
Access

Media

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Packet Propagation

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 Journey to IP Versions . . .
 IPV(1-3) : were not formally assigned.
 IPV4 : TCP/IP , 32bit IP address currently used.
 IPV5 : Internet Stream Protocol (SP)
 Experimental Protocol
 Never Introduced for public use.
 IPV6 : Designed to replace IPV4 , 128bit IP address

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 Features of IPV4 . . .
Connectionless protocol and best effort based.
 Simplicity
 It is simpler and easy to remember
 Require less memory
 Familiarity
 Millions of devices are already knowing it
 Existing infrastructure already support it
Benefits of IPV4
 Widely support
 Shorter & Sweeter (header)
 Support of all Operating Systems
 All commonly used protocols are supported

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 Shortcoming of IPV4 . . .
 IPV4 specification didn’t identify any security
mechanism.
 Millions of class A addresses are wasted.
 Many class B addresses also wasted.
 Not so many organizations are so small to
have a class C block.
 Class E addresses were reserved for future
purposes.

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 IPV4 Supporting devices
 PCs
 Servers
 Modems
 Routers
 Printers
 Cameras
 Smart Phones
 Tablets & Gaming Systems
 Just about anything else connecting to the Internet

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IPV6 provides a platform on new internet
functionality that will be needed in the
immediate future and provide flexibility for
future growth and expansion.

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Benefits of IPV6

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 TCP and UDP
 TCP
The TCP provides reliable transmission of data in an IP
environment.
 TCP corresponds to the transport layer (Layer 4) of the
OSI reference model.
 The services TCP provides are :
 stream data transfer
 reliability
 efficient flow control
 full-duplex operation, and
 multiplexing.
TCP offers reliability by providing connection-oriented,
end-to-end reliable packet delivery through an
internetwork 41
 Establishing a TCP Connection

• Three-way handshake to establish connection

– Host A sends a SYN (open) to the host B
– Host B returns a SYN acknowledgment (SYN ACK)
– Host A sends an ACK to acknowledge the SYN ACK
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TCP Header

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 TCP Packet Field Descriptions
 Source Port and Destination Port—Identifies points at which upper-layer source and
destination processes receive TCP services.
• Sequence Number—Usually specifies the number assigned to the first byte of data in the
current message. In the connection-establishment phase, this field also can be used to
identify an initial sequence number to be used in an upcoming transmission.
• Acknowledgment Number—Contains the sequence number of the next byte of data the
sender of the packet expects to receive.
• Data Offset—Indicates the number of 32-bit words in the TCP header.
• Reserved—Remains reserved for future use.
• Flags—Carries a variety of control information, including the SYN and ACK bits used for
connection establishment, and the FIN bit used for connection termination.
• Window—Specifies the size of the sender’s receive window (that is, the buffer space
available for incoming data).
• Checksum—Indicates whether the header was damaged in transit.
• Urgent Pointer—Points to the first urgent data byte in the packet.
• Options—Specifies various TCP options.
• Data—Contains upper-layer information.

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 TCP application examples
When to use TCP:
 When an application need a reliable transport

Examples

 File Transfer Protocol : FTP (21)

 Secure Shell: SSH (22)
 Teletype Network: TELNET (23)
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol: SMTP (25)
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol: HTTP (80)
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 User datagram protocol (UDP)
 User datagram protocol or (UDP) is the internetworking
protocol that is part of the TCP/IP suite.
 It resides within Layer 4 (Transport Layer) of the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.
 UDP provides a connectionless service for application-
level procedures.
 Since it is connectionless, UDP is basically an unreliable
service, and hence delivery and duplicate protection are
not guaranteed.

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 UDP Header Format

 UDP Destination Port: identifies destination process

 UDP Source Port: optional – identifies source process
for replies, or zero
 Message Length: length of datagram in bytes,
including header and data
 Checksum: optional -- 16-bit checksum over header
and data, or zero

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 UDP Properties
UDP provides an unreliable datagram service
 Packets may be lost or delivered out of order
 Message split into datagrams, user sends datagrams
as packets on network layer
 No buffer at either sending or receiving side
 Unreliable but fast
 Full duplex
 Application must deal with lost packets

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 UDP Application Examples
 When to use UDP
 Reduce the requirement of computer resources
 The checking scheme has provided completely by the
application program
 When using the Multicast or Broadcast to transfer
 The transmission of Real-time packets
 Examples
 Trivial File Transfer Protocol, TFTP
 Simple Network Management Protocol, SNMP
 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, DHCP
 Domain Name System, DNS
 Routing Information Protocol, RIP
 Real-Time Transport Protocol, RTP

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 TCP vs. UDP
TCP UDP
 connection-oriented connectionless
 confirmed service unconfirmed service
 high overhead low overhead
(header 20 bytes) (header 8 bytes)
 flow control no flow control

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 TCP/IP Networks
 TCP/IP is a set of protocols developed to allow cooperating computers to
share resources across a network.
 TCP/IP is a layered protocol but does not use all of the OSI layers.
 Though the layers are equivalent in operation and function.
 The network access layer is equivalent to OSI layers 1 and 2.
 The Internet Protocol layer is comparable to layer 3 in the OSI model.
 The host-to-host layer is equivalent to OSI layer 4.
 These are the TCP and UDP (user datagram protocol) functions.
 The application layer is similar to OSI layers 5, 6, and 7 combined.
 The most well known network that adopted TCP/IP is --> Internet.
( The Biggest WAN).

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52
 Application Layer

 Application layer protocols defined the rules when implementing

specific network applications.
 Examples :
 FTP – (File Transfer Protocol)
 Telnet – ( Remote Terminal Protocol)
 SMTP – (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
 HTTP – (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)

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 Transport Layer
 End to End data transfer……
 Examples :
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
 Connection oriented (connection established before
data exchanged)
 Reliable delivery of data
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
 Connectionless service
 Delivery is not guaranteed (unreliable)
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 Internet Layer
 Internet layer protocols define the rules of how to find the routers
for a packet to the destination.
 It only gives best effort delivery. (packets can be delayed,
corrupted, lost or out of order)
 Examples :
 IP – Internet Protocol (Provide packet delivery)
 ARP – Address Resolution Protocol (Defined the procedure of
network address / mac address translation)
 ICMP – Internet Control Message Protocol (Defined the procedure
of error message transfer)
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 Network Accesse Layer
 Also known as Network Interface Layer.
 The Network Access Layer is the layer in the TCP/IP model at
which data is transmitted and received across the physical
network.
 Mostly in hardware
 A well known example is Ethernet
 Examples :
 Ethernet
 Token Ring
 Frame Relay
 ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
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 DWDM
• Definition
– Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) is a fiber-
optic transmission technique that employs light
wavelengths to transmit data parallel-by-bit or serial-by-
character.
• It transmits multiple data signals using different wavelengths of
light through a single fiber.
• Incoming optical signals are assigned to specific frequencies
within a designated frequency band.
• The capacity of fiber is increased when these signals are
multiplexed onto one fiber
• Transmission capabilities is 4-8 times of TDM Systems with the
help of Erbium doped optical amplifier.
• It lengthens the distances of transmission to more than 300 km
before regeneration .

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 Why DWDM?
 Transparency—Because DWDM is a physical layer architecture, it
can transparently support both TDM and data formats such as
ATM, Gigabit Ethernet, ESCON, and Fiber Channel with open
interfaces over a common physical layer.
 Scalability—DWDM can leverage the abundance of dark fiber in
many metropolitan area and enterprise networks to quickly meet
demand for capacity on point-to-point links and on spans of
existing SONET/SDH rings.
 Dynamic provisioning—Fast, simple, and dynamic provisioning
of network connections give providers the ability to provide high-
bandwidth services in days rather than months.
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 DWDM Functional Schematic

 Generating the signal—The source, a solid-state laser, must

provide stable light within a specific, narrow bandwidth that
carries the digital data, modulated as an analog signal.
 Combining the signals—Modern DWDM systems employ
multiplexers to combine the signals. There is some inherent loss
associated with multiplexing and demultiplexing. This loss is
dependent upon the number of channels but can be mitigated
with optical amplifiers, which boost all the wavelengths at once
without electrical conversion.
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 Transmitting the signals—The effects of crosstalk and
optical signal degradation or loss must be reckoned with
in fiber optic transmission. These effects can be
minimized by controlling variables such as channel
spacing, wavelength tolerance, and laser power levels.
Over a transmission link, the signal may need to be
optically amplified.
 Separating the received signals—At the receiving end,
the multiplexed signals must be separated out. Although
this task would appear to be simply the opposite of
combining the signals, it is actually more technically
difficult.
 Receiving the signals—The demultiplexed signal is
received by a photodetector.
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 Basic Components & Operation
 DWDM is a core technology in an optical transport network. The
essential components of DWDM can be classified by their place
in the system as follows:
 Transmitter : - Changes electrical bits to optical pulses
• - Is frequency specific
• - Uses a narrowband laser to generate the optical pulse
 Multiplexer/ Demultiplexer:
• - Combines/separates discrete wavelengths
 Amplifier:
• - Pre-amplifier boosts signal pulses at the receive side
• - Post-amplifier boosts signal pulses at the transmit side
 Optical fiber (media):
• - Transmission media to carry optical pulses
• - Many different kinds of fiber are used
• - Often deployed in sheaths of 144–256 fibers
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 Receiver (receive transponder)
• Changes optical pulses back to electrical bits
• -Uses wideband laser to provide the optical pulse

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Reading Assignment
Fiber To Home (FTTH)
Intelligent Network

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End

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