Addis Ababa Institute of Technology

School of Chemical and Bio Engineering

ChEg 3216
Thermal Unit Operation
Instructor: Brook Tesfamichael (Ph.D.)
Assistant Professor of Chemical Engineering
SCBE, AAiT, AAU
Email: [Link]@[Link]

2022/23 A.Y.
 Chapter III
Evaporator

2022/23 © Brook T.
 Evaporation and Boiling

Both evaporation and boiling are a liquid-to-vapor phase change processes.

Evaporation occurs at the liquid–vapor interface when

the vapor pressure (Pvap) is less than the saturation
pressure of the liquid (Psat) at a given temperature.
• involves no bubble formation or bubble motion

Boiling occurs at the solid–liquid interface when a liquid

is brought into contact with a surface temperature (Ts)
maintained sufficiently above the saturation temperature
of the liquid (Tsat) at a given pressure.
• when the Ts > TSat, heat transfer from the solid to the
liquid convectively
• involves formation and rise of the bubbles

3
 Evaporation Concepts
 Evaporation is a special case of heat transfer to a boiling liquid.
 This particular heat transfer application is so common and important
that it is treated as a separate unit operation.
 Concentration by evaporation is normally stopped before the solute
begins to precipitate; if not, the operation is better considered
as crystallization.
 Evaporation is the formation of vapor from a liquid.
 Crystallization is the formation of solid crystals from a liquid
 Evaporation is usually treated as the separation of a liquid mixture
into a liquid product (concentrate or thick liquor) and a vapor
byproduct, although in special cases such as water treating and
desalination, the vapor is the product instead of the thick liquor.
 Evaporation Vs Drying & Distillation

Evaporation is similar to drying in that both drive

off volatiles, but is different in that the
product/residue is a liquid.

Evaporation differs from distillation because both

components in a distillation system are volatile.
Evaporation normally produces a single vapor
fraction, distillation several.
It differs from distillation in that the vapor usually
is a single component, and even when the vapor is
a mixture, no attempt is made in the evaporation
step to separate the vapor into fractions
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 Evaporation and Evaporator
Evaporation – it is a process of vaporizing a volatile liquid or that of a
solvent from a solution, slurry or suspension to concentrate a non-volatile
solute by the application of heat/steam
Common solutes: Caustic soda, Caustic potash, sodium sulfate, sodium chloride,
phosphoric acid and urea) from a solvent
Common solvent: Water

Evaporator – is a heat exchanger used for concentrating solutions using

evaporation process.

Some purposes of Evaporator

 Concentration of milk, sodium chloride, fruit and vegetable juices.
 Concentration of cane sugar juice in a sugar plant
 Concentration of an aqueous solution of ammonium sulphate in a fertilizer plant
 Concentration of dilute recycled sodium hydroxide in an alumina plant and many
others
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 Evaporator
Three functional sections are available in evaporator
 Heat exchangers: heat transfer between feed and steam
 Evaporation section: liquid boils and evaporates
 Separator: vapor leaves liquid and passes off to other equipment

Three sections contained in a vertical cylinder

In the heat exchanger section (calandria), steam
condenses in the outer jacket
Liquid being evaporated boils on inside of the tubes
and in the space above the upper tube stack
As evaporation proceeds, the remaining liquors
become more concentrated
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 Evaporator
 Different types are categorized by the length and alignment
(horizontal or vertical) of the evaporator tubes. The evaporation tubes
may be located inside or outside of the main vessel where the vapor is
driven off.
 Because many materials cannot tolerate high temperatures,
evaporators often operate at reduced pressure so that the boiling point
will also be reduced.
◦ Lower the pressure applied on the surface of a liquid, lower is the energy required
to expand the liquid molecules into the gas phase
◦ Water boils @ 99.97oc under standard pressure at sea level but @ 93.4oc at 1,905
meters altitude
 In many (most) cases, evaporators operate under a vacuum. This
means that a vacuum pump or jet ejector vacuum system is required
on the last effect.
 Types of Evaporator

• Natural circulation
– first developed commercially
– represent the large number of units in operation
– the density difference between the liquid and
vapor generated is utilized to create circulations
– tubes: horizontal or vertical with liquid inside or
outside the tubes

• Forced circulation
 Types of Evaporator

Quintuple-Effect, Forced-Circulation NaCl Evaporator

 Types of Evaporator

Three-stage, Forced-Circulation Evaporator used to

concentrate wet process phosphoric acid
 Types of Evaporator
Horizontal Tube Evaporator

For preparing distillated water for

boiler feed
 Types of Evaporator
Calandria Evaporator
It was the “Standard Evaporator”, now
called as calandria evaporator, or vertical
short tube evaporator
Used mainly for batch concentration of
liquids
 Types of Evaporator

Standard Evaporator
• Cross sectional area of
central downtake: 75 –
150% of the total cross
sectional flow area of tubes
• Tubes: 1 to 4 inch dia; 3 to 5
ft long
– Std: 2 inch dia, 5 ft long
Types of Evaporator
 Types of Evaporator

Basket Type Evaporator

 Types of Evaporator
Long Tube Vertical Evaporator
 Types of Evaporator
Rising film Evaporator
 Types of Evaporator
Falling film Evaporator
 Types of Evaporator
Forced Circulation Evaporators

a) With internal heating element b) With external heating element

 Types of Evaporator
Forced-Circulation Evaporator with external heating element

A: Product
B: Vapor
C: Concentrate
D: Heating System
E: Condensate
1) Heat Exchanger
2) Flash Vessel (Separator)
3) Circulation Pump
4) Concentrate Pump
 Evaporator - Applications
Long Tube Vertical Evaporators Forced-Circulation Evaporators:
• Acid Sulfite Liquor Ammonium Sulfate
• Ammonium Nitrate Calcium Chloride
• Calcium Chloride CitricAcid
• Caustic Soda
Magnesium Chloride
• Coffee Extract Mono-Sodium Glutamate
• Kraft Liquor Sodium Carbonate Monohydrate
• Magnesium Chloride Sodium Chloride
• Phosphoric Acid (Bright Dip)
Sodium Dichromate
• Pickle Liquor
Sodium Sulfate
• Sodium Aluminate
Super-Phosphoric Acid Urea
• Sodium Nitrate
Wet Process Phosphoric Acid
• Sodium Sulfate
• Soybean Oil Calandria Evaporators:
• Sugars The calandria evaporator can be used for many of the
• Sulfuric Acid applications described for both forced- circulation
• Syrups and LTV rising-and -falling-film evaporators.
• Tomato Juice
• Urea
 Types of evaporator based on effect

Evaporators are classified by the number of effects as:

1. Single-effect evaporator
2. Multiple-effect evaporator

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 Single effect evaporator
• The feed enters at TF
• Saturated steam at TS enters the heat- exchange
section.
• Condensed steam leaves as condensate or drips.
• The solution in the evaporator is assumed to be
completely mixed
• Hence, the concentrated product and the
solution in the evaporator have the same
composition.
• Temperature T1 is the boiling point of the
solution.
• The temperature of the vapor is also T1, since it
is in equilibrium with the boiling solution.
• The pressure is P1, which is the vapor pressure
of the solution at T1.
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 Multiple effect of evaporator
• A single-effect evaporator as shown in the above Fig. is wasteful of energy.
• The latent heat of the vapor leaving is not used but is discarded.
• Much of this latent heat, however, can be recovered and reused by employing a
multiple - effect evaporator.
• A simplified diagram of a forward-feed triple-effect evaporation system is shown
in Fig. below

25
 Multiple effect of evaporator …
• If the feed to the first effect is near the boiling point at the pressure in
the first effect, 1kg of steam will evaporate almost 1 kg of water.
• The first effect operates at a temperature that is high enough that the
evaporated water serves as the heating medium to the second effect.
• Here, again, almost another kg of water is evaporated, which can then
be used as the heating medium to the third effect.
• As a very rough approximation, almost 3 kg of water will be evaporated
for 1 kg of steam in a three-effect evaporator.
• Hence, the steam economy, which is kg vapor evaporated/kg steam
used, is increased.
• This also holds approximately for more than three effects.
• However, the increased steam economy of a multiple-effect evaporator
is gained at the expense of the original first cost of these evaporators.

26
 Multiple effect of evaporator …
 In a single-effect evaporator, steam provides energy for
vaporization and the vapor product is condensed and removed
from the system.
 In a double-effect evaporator, the vapor product off the first
effect is used to provide energy for a second vaporization unit.
 Triple- effect evaporator problems are familiar to generations
of engineering students. This cascading of effects can continue
for many stages.
 Multiple-effect evaporators can remove much larger amounts
of solvent than is possible in a single effect.
 Multiple effect of evaporator …
 In a multiple effect arrangement, the latent heat of the vapor product off of
an effect is used to heat the following effect. Effects are thus numbered
beginning with the one heated by steam. It will have the highest pressure.
Vapor from Effect I will be used to heat Effect II, which consequently will
operate at lower pressure. This continues through the train: pressure drops
through the sequence so that the hot vapor will travel from one effect to the
next.
 Normally, all effects in an evaporator will be physically the same in terms
of size, construction, and heat transfer area. Unless thermal losses are
significant, they will all have the same capacity as well.
 Evaporator trains may receive their feed in several different ways. The feed
order is NOT related to the numbering of effects. Effects are always
numbered according to decreasing pressure (steam flow).
 Multi-effect evaporator arrangements
Method of feeding arrangement in Multiple effect evaporators

1. Forward Feed arrangements

2. Backward Feed arrangements
3. Mixed Feed arrangements
4. Parallel Feed arrangements
 Multi-effect evaporator arrangements

 Forward Feed arrangements follow the pattern I, II, III.

These require a single feed pump (reduced fixed costs).
They typically have reduced economy (higher operating
costs) since the cold feed must be raised to the highest
operating temperature. These also tend to have the most
concentrated liquour, which tends to be the most viscous, in
the lowest temperature effects, so their may be difficulties
getting a good overall heat transfer coefficient.
Multi-effect evaporator arrangements
 Multi-effect evaporator arrangements

Feed moves from higher pressure(in effect-2) to low pressure (in-effect 4), so pumping
of liquor is not required
Product is obtained at the lowest temperature
This method is suitable for scale-forming liquid because concentrated product is
subject to lowest temperature
They typically have reduced economy (higher operating costs) since the cold
feed must be raised to the highest operating temperature
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 Multi-effect evaporator arrangements
 Backward Feed arrangements go III, II, I. These need
multiple pumps to work against the pressure drop of the
system; however, since the feed is gradually heated they
usually have better economies. This arrangement also
reduces the viscosity differences through the system and so
is better for viscous solutions.
Multi-effect evaporator arrangements
 Multi-effect evaporator arrangements

In backward-feed the feed enters in the last effect and moves towards( i.e IV-III-II-I)
It is suitable for cold feed, because the heat used for increasing the temperature in IV
effect is already used for heating 3 times. This will give more economy

The liquid moves from low-pressure(IV) to high pressure chambers(III-II-I)

pumping is required

35
 Multi-effect evaporator arrangements
 Mixed Feed arrangements offer a compromise, with the
feed entering in the middle of the system (i.e. II, III, I). The
final evaporation is done at the highest temperature so
economies are still better than forward feed, but fewer
pumps are required than in a backward feed arrangement.
Multi-effect evaporator arrangements
 Multi-effect evaporator arrangements

The feed enters in the intermediate effect, moves forward and then
backward to effect-1(III-IV-II-I)
Liquid moves from higher pressure(III) to low pressure(IV), hence no pump is
required
Liquid moves from IV-II-I requires pump

Product is obtained from highest temperature(I) hence low viscosity

38
 Multi-effect evaporator arrangements
 Parallel Feed arrangements split the feed stream and feed
a portion to each effect. This is most common in
crystallizing evaporators where the product is likely to be a
slurry.
Multi-effect evaporator arrangements
 Multi-effect evaporator arrangements

It is suitable where the feed has to be concentrated slightly

41
 Evaporator Performance measures
There are three main measures of evaporator performance:

1. Capacity (kg vaporized / time)

2. Economy (kg vaporized / kg steam input)
3. Steam Consumption (kg / hr)

Note that the measures are related, since

Consumption = Capacity/Economy.
 Evaporator Performance measures
 Economy calculations are determined using enthalpy balances.
 The key factor in determining the economy of an evaporator is the number
of effects.
 In single effect evaporator the amount of water evaporated per kg of steam
fed is always less than one and hence economy is less than one.
 Multiple effect evaporators have higher economy but lower capacity than
single effect.
 The thermal condition of the evaporator feed has an important impact on
economy and performance. If the feed is not already at its boiling point,
heat effects must be considered. If the feed is cold (below boiling) some of
the heat going into the evaporator must be used to raise the feed to boiling
before evaporation can begin; this reduces the capacity. If the feed is above
the boiling point, some flash evaporation occurs on entry.
 Boiling Point Elevation
 Since evaporators dealing with boiling solutions, and in particular with solutions with non-
volatile solutes, any calculations must account for the effect of boiling point elevation.
 The vapor pressure of an aqueous solution is less than that of pure water at the same
temperature; so the boiling point of the solution will be higher than that of the water. This is
called Boiling Point Elevation (BPE) or vapor pressure lowering.
 The boiling point of a solution is a colligative property -- it depends on the concentration of
solute in the solution, but not on what the solute and solvent are.
 When working problems involving heat transfer to or from boiling solutions, it is necessary
to adjust the temperature difference driving force for the boiling point elevation.
 Note that the equilibrium vapor rising from a solution exhibiting boiling point elevation will
exist at a temperature and pressure such that it is superheated with respect to pure vapor.
The vapor rises at the solution boiling point, elevated with respect to the pure component
boiling point. The vapor, however, is solute free, so it won't condense until the extra heat
corresponding to the elevation is removed, thus it is superheated.
 Boiling Point Elevation
• Increase in boiling point over that of water is known as the boiling point elevation
(BPE) or vapor pressure lowering of solution

• The boiling point of a solution is a colligative property -- it depends on the

concentration of solute in the solution, but not on what the solute and solvent are.

• When working problems involving heat transfer to or from boiling solutions, it

is necessary to adjust the temperature difference driving force for the boiling
point elevation.

• Therefore, in order to get the real temperature difference (or driving force)
between the steam temperature and the solution temperature, the BPE must be
subtracted from the temperature drop

• An empirical rule known as Duhring rule is suitable for estimating the BPE of a strong
solution

45
 Duhring's Rule
 The boiling point of a given solution is a linear function of the boiling
point of water at the same temperature.
 For strong solutions, one can take advantage of Duhring's Rule

To use a Duhring plot:

1. For a particular system pressure, determine the boiling temperature of
pure water. This can be done from a vapor pressure equation or steam
table.
2. Enter the plot from the bottom (the water boiling point), trace up to the
diagonal line representing the NaOH fraction, then trace left to read the
solution boiling point from the vertical axis.
3. The boiling point elevation is the difference between the two
temperatures.
 Duhring's Rule …
• The boiling point of a given solution is a linear function of the boiling point
of water at the same temperature
• For strong solutions, one can take advantage of Duhring's Rule

To use a Duhring plot:

1. For a particular system pressure, determine the boiling temperature of

pure water. This can be done from a vapor pressure equation or steam table

2. Enter the plot from the bottom (the water boiling point), trace up to the
diagonal line representing the NaOH fraction, then trace left to read the
solution boiling point from the vertical axis.
3. The boiling point elevation is the difference between the two temperatures.

47
Duhring's Rule …
 Boiling Point Elevation

Duhring plot for boiling point of sodium chloride solution.

49
 Boiling Point Elevation

Duhring plot for boiling point of sodium Hydroxide solution.

50
 Boiling Point Elevation
Example

As an example of use of the chart, the pressure in an evaporator is given as

25.6 kPa (3.72 psia) and a solution of 30% NaOH is being boiled. Determine
the boiling temperature of the NaOH solution and the boiling-point
elevationn BPE of the solution over that of water at the same pressure.

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 Boiling Point Elevation
Solution

From the steam tables, the boiling point of water at 25.6 kPa is 65.6 °C.

From the above Fig for 65.6 °C (150 °F) and 30% NaOH, the boiling point
of the NaOH solution is 79.5 °C (175 °F).

The boiling-point rise is 79.5 - 65.6 = 13.9 °C (25°F).

52
 Effect of the feed state on the capacity
 If the feed to the evaporator is at the boiling temperature
corresponding to the absolute pressure in the vapor space, all the heat
transferred through the heating surface is available for evaporation
and the capacity is proportional to q.
 If the feed is cold, the heat required to heat it to its boiling point may
be quite large and the capacity for a given value of q is reduced
accordingly, as heat used to heat the feed is not available for
evaporation.
 if the feed is at a temperature above the boiling point in the vapor
space, a portion of the feed evaporates spontaneously by adiabatic
equilibration with the vapor-space pressure and the capacity is greater
than that corresponding to q. This process is called flash evaporation.

53
 Multiple-Effect Evaporator Systems
• When condensing steam is used to evaporate water from an
aqueous solution, the heat of condensation of the higher
temperature condensing steam is less than the heat of
vaporization of the lower-temperature boiling water.
consequently, less than 1 kilogram of vapor is produced per
kilogram condensation of heating steam. This ratio is called the
economy.
• To reduce the amount of steam required and, thereby, increase the
economy, a series of evaporators, called effects, can be used.
• The increased economy is achieved by operating the effects at
different pressures, and thus at different boiling temperatures, so
that vapor produced in one effect can be condensed to supply the
heat in another effect.
54
 Evaporator calculation

 Evaporator problems require solution of the

system material and energy balances with the
accompanying property and heat transfer
equations. Solution would be rather
straightforward, except that often the required
thermodynamic properties are only available in
tabular or graphical form.
 Single-effect evaporator calculation
 Single effect evaporator calculations are fairly basic. Usually it is
possible to solve the material and energy balances analytically by
a sequential approach.
 Typically, the operating temperature is not provided. Usually, the
operating pressure or temperature of the vapor condenser is
known, and can be used to determine the temperature using steam
tables, etc. You may need a different steam table than you
normally use, since not many textbook tables have good coverage
of the vacuum range commonly used in evaporators.
 Don't forget to allow for boiling point elevation. Remember that
when BPE is present, the vapor will be superheated.
 You also should be prepared for side calculations -- steam
consumption, evaporator economy, etc.
 Multi-effect evaporator calculation
 Typically, multiple effect evaporator calculations require an iterative solution
procedure because so many of the required properties, etc., depend on unknown
intermediate temperatures. Fortunately, the overall approach is basically the same
for the majority of problems, requiring only minor adjustments to compensate for
problem quirks.
 In a typical evaporator problem, you are given the steam supply pressure, the
operating pressure of the final effect, values for the overall heat transfer coefficient
in each effect, the feed pattern, and the feed and product compositions. You also
know that the effects are all to have the same heat transfer area.
 You typically want to find the steam consumption and the heat transfer area, and
one or more of the temperatures, flows, and compositions from within the system.
 The overall strategy is to estimate intermediate temperatures, solve the material
balances for the solvent vapor flow rates, use these to determine the heat transferred
in each effect, and from that information find the heat transfer area. If the areas are
not equal, you revise the temperature estimates and repeat the procedure.
Example 2
A single-effect evaporator is used to concentrate 9070 kg/h of a 5% solution of
sodium chloride to 20% solids. The gauge pressure of the steam is 1.37 atm;
the absolute pressure in the vapor space is 100 mm Hg. There is a BPE of 37
oc. The overall heat transfer coefficient is estimated to be 1400 W/m2 oc. The

feed temperature is 0oC. Calculate the amount of steam consumed, the

economy, and required heating surface.

Data: Boling point of water at 100mmhg=51oc

Enthalpy of vapor= 2664kJ/kg oc
Heat of vaporization of the steam at 1.37 atm= 2182kJ/kg oc
Condensation temperature of the steam at 1.37 atm=126.1 oc

58
 End of Lecture 3

Next……

Chapter 4 on

Other Selected Heat Transfer Equipment

2022/23 © Brook T.