MET416 Composite Materials

Module 2

Types of Fibers used in Composites

1) Fiber – reinforced composite materials consist of fibers of

high strength and modulus embedded in or bonded to a
matrix with distinct interfaces (boundaries) between them.
2) In this form, both fibers and matrix retain their physical and
chemical identities, yet they produce a combination of
properties that cannot be achieved with either of the
constituents acting alone.
3) In general, fibers are the principal load – carrying
members, while the surrounding matrix keeps them in the
desired location and orientation, acts as a load transfer
medium between them, and protects them from
environmental damages due to elevated temperatures and
humidity.
4) Thus, even though the fibers provide reinforcement for the
matrix, the latter also serves a number of useful functions
in a fiber – reinforced composite material.
Basic building blocks in fiber-reinforced composites.

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1. Manufacturing of a composite structure starts with the

incorporation of a large number of fibers into a thin
layer of matrix to form a lamina (ply).
2. The thickness of a lamina is usually in the range of 0.1
– 1 mm (0.004 – 0.04 in.).
3. If continuous (long) fibers are used in make in the
lamina, they may be arranged either in a unidirectional
orientation (i.e., all fibers in on direction) or in a
bidirectional orientation (i.e., fibers in two directions,
usually normal to each other), or in a multidirectional
orientation (i.e.,fibers in more than two directions).
 4. A lamina can also be constructed using discontinuous
(short) fibers in a matrix.
5. The discontinuous fibers can be arranged either in
unidirectional orientation or in random orientation.
6. Discontinuous fiber-reinforced composites have lower
strength and modulus than continuous fiber
composites.
7. However, with random orientation of fibers, it is
possible to obtain equal mechanical and physical
properties in all directions in the plane of the lamina.
8. The thickness required to support a given load or to
maintain a given deflection in fiber-reinforced
composite structure is obtained by stacking several
laminas in a specified sequence and then consolidating
them to form a laminate.
9. Various laminas in a laminate may contain fibers either
all in one direction or in different directions.

Fibers

•
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Fibers are the principal constituents in a fiber – reinforced
composite material.
• They occupy the largest volume fraction in a composite
laminate and share the major portion of the load acting on
a composite structure.
• Proper selection of the fiber type, fiber volume fraction,
fiber length, and fiber orientation is very important, since
it influences the following characteristics of a composite
laminate:

➢ Density
➢ Tensile strength and modulus
➢ Compressive strength and modulus
➢ Fatigue strength as well as fatigue failure mechanisms
➢ Electrical and thermal conductivities
➢ Cost
 Carbon Fiber

• Carbon fiber is made of thin, strong crystalline filaments

of carbon that is used to strengthen material.
• Carbon fiber can be thinner than a strand of human hair
and gets its strength when twisted together like yarn.
• Carbon Fiber is a polymer and is sometimes known as
graphite fiber.
• It is a very strong material that is also very lightweight.
Carbon fiber is five-times stronger than steel and twice as
stiff.
• Though carbon fiber is stronger and stiffer than steel, it is
lighter than steel; making it the ideal manufacturing
material for many parts.

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• Carbon fibers are manufactured from two types of

precursors (starting materials), namely, textile precursors
and pitch precursors.
• The most common textile precursor is polyacrylonitrile
(PAN).
• Filaments are wet spun from a solution of PAN and
stretched at an elevated temperature during which the
polymer chains are aligned in the filament direction.
• The stretched filaments are then heated in air at 200 Deg.
C – 300 Deg. C for a few hours.
• At this stage, the CN group s located on the same side of
the original chain combine to form a more stable and rigid
ladder structure.

The molecular structure of PAN, illustrated schematically,

contains highly polar CN groups that are randomly
arranged on either side of the chain. CN is considered a
carbon atom with three single bonds to a nitrogen atom.

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• In the next step, PAN filaments are carbonized by heating

them at a controlled rate at 1000 Deg. C –2000 Deg. C in
an inert atmosphere.
• Tension is maintained on the filaments to prevent
shrinking as well as to improve molecular orientation.
• With the elimination of oxygen and nitrogen atoms, the
filaments now contain mostly carbon atoms.

Conventional PAN Process

• The carbonized filaments are subsequently heat – treated

at or above 2000 Deg. C to make the structure more

•
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ordered and to turns toward a true graphitic form.
Pitch, a by-product of petroleum refining or coal coking, is
a lower cost precursor than PAN.
• Heating to temperatures above 300 Deg. C, polymerizes
(joins) these molecules into long, two-dimensional sheet
like structures.
• While passing through the spinner et die, the meso-phase
pitch molecules become aligned in the filament direction.
• The filaments are cooled to freeze the molecular
orientation, and subsequently heated between 200 Deg. C
and 300 Deg. C in an oxygen containing atmosphere to
stabilize them and make them infusible (to avoid fusing
the filaments together).
• In the next step, the filaments are carbonized at
temperatures around 2000 Deg. C.
• The rest of the process of trans forming the structure to
graphitic form is similar to that followed for PAN
precursors.
Carbon Fibre Fabrication

Fiberization

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Stabilization

• Before the fibers are carbonized, they need to be

chemically altered to convert their linear atomic bonding
to a more thermally stable ladder bonding.
• This is accomplished by heating the fibers in air to
about 390-590° F (200-300° C) for 30-120 minutes.
• This causes the fibers to pick up oxygen molecules
from the air and rearrange their atomic bonding pattern.
• The stabilizing chemical reactions are complex and
involve several steps, some of which occur
simultaneously.
• They also generate their own heat, which must be
controlled to avoid overheating the fibers.
 • Commercially, the stabilization process uses a variety
of equipment and techniques. In some processes, the
fibers are drawn through a series of heated chambers.
• In others, the fibers pass over hot rollers and through
beds of loose materials held in suspension by a flow of
hot air.
• Some processes use heated air mixed with certain
gases that chemically accelerate the stabilization.

Carbonization

• Once the fibers are stabilized, they are heated to a

temperature of about 1,830-5,500° F (1,000-3,000° C) for
several minutes in a furnace filled with a gas mixture that
does not contain oxygen.
• The lack of oxygen prevents the fibers from burning in the
very high temperatures.
• The gas pressure inside the furnace is kept higher than the

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outside air pressure and the points where the fibers enter
and exit the furnace are sealed to keep oxygen from
entering.
• As the fibers are heated, they begin to lose their non-
carbon atoms, plus a few carbon atoms, in the form of
various gases including water vapor, ammonia, carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, nitrogen, and others.
• As the non-carbon atoms are expelled, the remaining
carbon atoms form tightly bonded carbon crystals that are
aligned more or less parallel to the long axis of the fiber.
• In some processes, two furnaces operating at two
different temperatures are used to better control the rate
of heating during carbonization.

Graphitization

• The final step in the production of graphite is the

graphitization process
• Amorphous or baked carbon is converted to
electrographite by a thermal treatment at approximately
3000 Degree Celsius.
• Essentially any amorphous carbon material can be
graphitized. The potential crystallite growth and ordering
are latent within the baked carbon structure.
• Under the influence of temperature the crystallites grow
and rearrange in an ordered pattern of stacked parallel
planes. This transformation is accompanied by a change
in the physical properties of the material.
• The greater the degree of crystallite growth during heating
up, the better the graphitability (graphitization degree),
which effects the final resistivity achieved.
• The graphitization degree depends on the structure of the
basic material and the applied graphitization temperature.
• It can be determined by x-ray measurements

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Carbon Fiber –Structure

• Structurally, carbon fibers contain a blend of amorphous

carbon and graphitic carbon.
• Their high tensile modulus results from the graphitic form,
in which carbon atoms are arranged in a crystallographic
structure of parallel planes or layers.
• The carbon atoms in each plane are arranged at the
corners of interconnecting regular hexagons. The
 distance between the planes is larger than that between
the adjacent atoms in each plane.
• Strong co-valent bonds exist between the carbon atoms in
each plane, but the bond between the planes is due to van
der Waals - type forces , which is much weaker.
• This results in highly anisotropic physical and mechanical
properties for the carbon fiber.

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Arrangement of carbon atoms in a graphite crystal.

Carbon Fiber – Properties

• High in stiffness
• High in tensile strength
• Has a low weight to strength ratio
• High in chemical resistance
• Temperature tolerant to excessive heat
• Has low thermal expansion

Carbon Fiber – Applications

• Bike frames
• Aircraft Wings
• Automotive drive shafts
• Tubing
• Containers
• Propeller blades
• Car components

Carbon Fiber – Advantages & Disadvantages

Types of Carbon Fibers

Pitch-based CF produces a viscoelastic (pitch) material

through distilling carbon-based materials. Pitch-based

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CF has a higher modulus and is used for manufacturing
in the aerospace industry.

PAN-based CF has greater ability to absorb mechanical

energy (toughness). These materials are used as robust
fibers and are cheaper than pitch-based materials.

Rayon-based CF used for specialized applications like

insulating heat for vacuum furnaces due to heat-
conducting properties.

Mesophase pitch based CF has high thermal

conductivity. Manufacturers use this material within the
field of thermal management.

Cellulose based CF are limited because of their low

carbon yield (10–30 % after carbonization) and they
require hot stretching to enhance mechanical strength
 Glass Fiber
• Glass fibers are the most common of all reinforcing fibers
for polymeric matrix composites (PMC).
• The principal advantages of glass fibers are local cost,
high tensile strength, high chemical resistance, and
excellent insulating properties.
• The disadvantages are relatively low tensile modulus and
high density (among the commercial fibers), sensitivity to
abrasion during handling (which frequently decreases its
tensile strength), relatively low fatigue resistance, and
high hardness (which causes excessive wear on moulding
dies and cutting tools).
• It is material made from extremely fine fibers of glass.
• Fiberglass is a lightweight, extremely strong, and robust
material.
• The material is typically far less brittle, and the raw
materials are much less expensive.
•
•
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Glass is the oldest, and most familiar, performance fiber.
Fibers have been manufactured from glass since the
1930s.
• Glass fiber products are categorized into four major
groups; chopped strands, direct draw rovings, assembled
rovings, and mat products.
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A-glass: With regard to its composition, it is close to

window glass. It is mainly used in the manufacture of
process equipment.

C-glass: This kind of glass shows better resistance to

chemical impact.

D- Glass: Boron trioxide is used as a starting material for

the synthesis. Other boron compounds such as boron
carbide used in the production. High heat resistance and
thermal shock resistance borosilicate glasses.

E-glass: This kind of glass combines the characteristics

of C-glass with very good insulation to electricity. E-glass
is basically a calcium alumino-borosilicate glass
containing less than 1% alkali calculated as Na2O.
 Glass Fiber – Fabrication

• Various ingredients in the glass formulation are first dry-

mixed and melted in a refractory furnace at about 1370
Deg. C.
• The molten glass is exuded through a number of orifices
contained in a platinum bushing and rapidly drawn into
filament s of ~10 mm in diameter.

• It is made from silica glass in a special manner, by forcing

the molten glass through fine apertures under high
pressure, when thread like mass is obtained.
• It is made either in the form of continuous strands alike
silk or in the staple form just like wool.
• A protective coating (size) is then applied on individual
filaments before they are gathered together into a strand
and wound on a drum.

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• The coating or size is a mixture of lubricants (which

prevent abrasion between the filaments), antistatic
agents (which reduce static friction between the
filaments), and a binder (which packs the filaments
together into a strand).
• It may also contain small percent ages of a coupling agent
that promotes adhesion between fibers and the specific
polymer matrix for which it is formulated.
 Output of forming Stage
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• The basic commercial form of continuous glass fibers is
a strand, which is a collection of parallel filaments
numbering 204 or more.
• A roving is a group of untwisted parallel strands (also
called ends) wound on a cylindrical forming package.
• Rovings are used in continuous moulding operations,
such as filament winding and pultrusion.
• They can also be pre-impregnated with a thin layer of
polymeric resin matrix to form prepregs. Prepregs are sub
sequentially cut into required dimensions, stacked, and cu
red into the final shape in batch moulding operations, such
as compression moulding and hand layup moulding.
• Chopped strands are produced by cutting continuous
strands into short lengths.
• Chopped strands ranging in length from 3.2 to 12.7 mm
(0.12 5–0.5 in.) are used in injection - moulding
operations.
• Longer strands, up to 50.8 mm (2 in.) in length, are mixed
with a resinous binder and spread in a two – dimensional
random fashion to form chopped strand mats (CSMs).
• Glass fibers are also available in woven form, such as
woven roving or woven cloth.

Glass Fiber – Structure

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A typical molecular structure of an amorphous glass
fiber containing silica network

Glass Fiber – Properties

Physical Strength: Fiberglass has a greater strength-to-

weight ratio than steel. This makes it ideal for producing
high-performance materials.

Electrical properties: Fiberglass is an excellent electrical

insulator even at low thicknesses.

Non-combustible: Fiberglass has the advantage of being

naturally non-combustible because it is a mineral
material. Flame cannot spread or be sustained by it.
Fiberglass does not burn, smoke, or emit toxic
compounds when heated.

Fiberglass is not affected by changes in temperature and

humidity.

Organic compatibility: Fiberglass can have various sizes

and can be combined with a wide range of synthetic resins
and mineral matrices like cement.

Durable: Fiberglass is resistant to decay and is unaffected

by pests and rodents.

Thermal conductivity: Fiberglass has a low thermal

conductivity that makes it ideal for use in construction.

Dielectric permeability: Fiberglass is suitable for

electromagnetic windows due to its insulating properties.
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Glass Fiber – Applications

Construction: Fiberglass is used in house building as well

as flat roofing.

Transportation: Fiberglass is extensively used in

transportation. Fiberglass components can be found on
almost every make and model of vehicle, including body
parts & panels

Aerospace & Defence: A wide range of products, including

test equipment, ducting, enclosures, and more, are made
from Fiberglass.

Beverage industry: Fiberglass is used in bottling lines and

brewing houses.
Chemical industry: In this industry, fiberglass grating,
mixed with resin, is used as an anti-slip safety feature.

Marine Industry: Fiberglass is used as a protective

material in docks and marinas to prevent salty seawater
from causing damage, such as rust and corrosion.

Food processing: Fiberglass is used for slip resistance

and prevents machine corrosion from blood in food
processing plants.

Aquaria & Ponds: Many garden ponds are also

constructed from fiberglass due to its water resistance.

Glass Fiber – Advantages & Disadvantages

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Different Forms of Glass Fibre available in market

Natural Fibers
• Examples of natural fibers are jute, flax, hemp, ramie, sisal,
coconut fiber (coir), and banana fiber (abaca).
• All these fibers are grown as agricultural plants in various
parts of the world and are commonly used for making
ropes, carpet backing, bags, and so on.
• The components of natural fibers are cellulose
microfibrils dispersed in an amorphous matrix of lignin
and hemicellulose.
• Depending on the type of the natural fiber, the cellulose
content is in the range of 60 – 80 (weight %) and the lignin
content is in the range of 5 – 20 (weight %).
• In addition, the moisture content in natural fibers can be
up to 20 (weight %).

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 Types of Natural Fibers:

There are two types of natural fibers that are discussed

below.

➢ Plant Fiber: Plants fibers are obtained from various parts

of plants like leaves, wood, fruits, flowers, stems etc.
➢ Animal Fiber: Animal fibers are extracted from animals
like silk, wool, etc.

The natural fibers names are given below:

Wood: From wood, we get softwood and hardwood

Stem/Bast: From stem, we get flax, jute, hemp, kenaf, and
ramie
Leaf: From leaf, we get sisal, abaca, pineapple, banana,
palm, fique, henequen
Seed/Fruit: From seed, we get cotton, coconut
Grass: From grass, we get bamboo, rice
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Animals: From animals, we get wool, silk, angora, mohair
etc.
 Boron Fiber

• Boron has been utilized in many different fields. One of

these areas is boron fiber.
• Boron fiber is a kind of metallic fiber consisting of boron
atoms in ribbon form.
• The most prominent feature of boron fibers is their
extremely high tensile modulus, which is in the range of
379–414 GPa.
• Coupled with their relatively large diameter, boron fibers
offer excellent resistance to buckling, which in turn
contributes to high compressive strength for boron fiber-
reinforced composites.
• The principal disadvantage of boron fibers is their high
cost, which is even higher than that of many forms of
carbon fibers.
• For this reason, its use is at present restricted to a few
aerospace applications.
•
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Boron fibers are manufactured by chemical vapour
deposition
• (CVD) of boron onto a heated substrate (either a tungsten
wire or a carbon monofilament).
• The most common substrate used in the production of
boron fibers is tungsten wire, typically 0.0127 mm (0.0005
in.) indiameter.
• It is continuously pulled through a reaction chamber in
which boron is deposited on its surface at 1100 Deg. C –
1300 Deg. C.
• The speed of pulling and the deposition temperature can
be varied to control the resulting fiber diameter.
• Currently, commercial boron fibers are produced in
diameters of 0.1, 0.142, and 0.203 mm (0.004, 0.0056, and
0.008 in.), which are much larger than those of other
reinforcing fibers.
 Boron Fiber – Properties

• These are ceramic monofilament fiber with Circular cross

section.
• Boron is brittle hence large diameter results in lower
flexibility.
• Thermal coefficient mismatch between boron and
tungsten results in thermal residual stresses during
fabrication cool down to room temperature.
• Boron fibers are usually coated with Silicon Carbide. So
that, it protects the surface during contact with molten
metal when it is used to reinforce light alloys. Further, it
avoids the chemical reaction between the molten metal
and fiber.
• Strong in both tension and compression.
• Exhibits linear axial stress-strain relationship up to 650
Deg. C.

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Boron Fiber Fabrication
• The CVD (Chemical Vapor Deposition) is a process in
which one material is deposited onto a substrate to
produce near theoretical density and small grain size for
the deposited material.
• In CVD the material is deposited on a thin filament.
• The material grows on this substrate and produces a
thicker filament.

• The passage taken place for Few mins

• During the process, atoms diffuse into tungsten core to
produce complete boridization
• Formation of WB4 and W2B5 occurs
• The size of the final filament is such that it could not be
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produced by drawing or other conventional methods of
producing fibers.
• It is the fine and dense structure of the deposited material
which determines the strength and modulus of the fiber.
• Boron Fiber is produced in single-filament reactors by
chemical vapor deposition, boron fiber exhibits a unique
combination of high compression strength, high modulus
and large diameter.
• It provides superior compression properties compared to
carbon fiber based composites.
• Elemental boron is deposited on a fine tungsten wire
substrate and produced in diameters of 102-micron and
142-micron.
• The resulting fiber is essentially amorphous boron with a
fully borided-tungsten core.
 Boron Fiber – Structure

• Elemental boron is deposited on a fine tungsten wire

substrate and produced in various dia
• The resulting fiber is essentially amorphous boron with a
fully borided tungsten core
• Thermal coefficient mismatch between boron and
tungsten results in thermal residual stresses during
fabrication cool down to room temperature.
• Boron fibres are usually coated with SiC or so that it
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protects the surface during contact with molten metal
when it is used to reinforce light alloys. Further, it avoids
the chemical reaction between the molten metal and fibre.

Boron Fiber –Applications

 Properties of Boron Fiber

• Boron fiber exhibits a unique combination of high

compression strength, high modulus and large
diameter.
• It provides superior compression properties compared
to carbon fiber-based composites.
• No other composite material has higher compressive
strength properties than Boron fiber & boron fiber
composites
• When using boron fiber composites, a designer can
reduce the laminate thickness resulting in higher
performance at a lower mass
• Hy-Bor® is used in space applications like the Google
Earth Cameras because its zero CTE & High Elastic
Modulus
• No galvanic corrosion with boron fiber

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Boron Fiber – Advantages & Disadvantages
 Aramid Fiber

• Aramid fibers are highly crystalline aromatic polyamide

fibers that have the lowest density and the highest tensile
strength – to – weight ratio among the current reinforcing
fibers.
• Kevlar 49 is the trade name of one of the aramid fibers
available in the market.
• As a reinforcement, aramid fiber s are used in many
marine and aerospace applications where light weight,
high tensile strength, and resistance to impact damage
(e.g., caused by accidentally dropping a hand tool) are
important.
• Like carbon fibers, they also have a negative coefficient of
thermal expansion in the longitudinal direction, which is
used in designing low thermal expansion composite
panels.
• The major disadvantages of aramid fiber – reinforced
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composites are their low compressive strengths and
difficulty in cutting or machining.
• There are two main types of aramid fibers.

➢ Meta- aramid
➢ Para- aramid

• The term meta and para refers to the location of chemical

bonds in the structure of aramid fibers.

• The chemical bonds of a para-aramid fibers are more

aligned in the long direction of the fibers.
• The meta-aramid fibers are not aligned they are in zigzag
pattern there for they are not developed the higher tensile
strength of the para-aramid bonds.
• Different trade names of aramid fibers are Kevlar,
Technora, Tawron, Nomex etc.
 Aramid Fiber – Structure

• Structure consists of relatively rigid polymer chains with

linked benzene rings and amide bonds.
• The molecular structure of aramid fibers, such as Kevlar
49 fibers, is given below

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• The repeating unit in its molecules contains an amide (–

NH) group (which is also found in nylons) and an aromatic
ring.
• The aromatic ring gives it a higher chain stiffness
(modulus) as well as better chemical and thermal stability
over other commercial organic fibers, such as nylons.
 Aramid Fiber – Fabrication

• Kevlar 49 filaments are manufactured by extruding an

acidic solution of a proprietary precursor (a
polycondensation product of terephthaloyol chloride and
p-phenylene diamine) from a spinneret.

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• During the filament drawing process, Kevlar 49 molecules

become highly oriented in the direction of the filament
axis.
• Precipitation bath contains ammonia like chemical
solution.
 Aramid Fiber – Properties

• Form strong bonds that are resistant to heat.

• Aramid fibers have medium to ultra-high strength,
medium to low elongation and moderately high to ultra-
high modulus.
• All aramids contain amide links that are hydrophilic.
However, not all aramid products absorb the same
moisture.
• They burn only with difficulty because of limited oxygen
Index values.
• High Strength.
• Good chemical resistance.

Aramid Fiber – Applications

• It is usually used as fiber reinforcement for polymer matrix

composites.
•
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Ballistic protective applications such as bullet proof vests.
Protective apparel such as gloves and motorcycle
protective clothing.
• Sails for sailboats, yachts etc.
• Belts and hosing for industrial and automotive
applications.
• Aircraft body parts and Boat hulls.
• Fiber optic and electromechanical cables.
• Friction linings such as clutch plates and brake pads.
• Gaskets for high temperature and pressure applications.

Aramid Fiber – Advantages & Disadvantages

 Whiskers

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a) Continuous long fibers b) whiskers/short fibers c)
particles

• Whiskers are monocrystalline, short fibers with extremely

high strength.
• This high strength, approaching the theoretical strength,
comes about because of the absence of crystalline
imperfections such as dislocations.
• Being monocrystalline, there are no grain boundaries
either.
• Typically, whiskers have a diameter of a few μm and a
length of a few mm.
• Their aspect ratio (length/diameter) can vary between 50
and 10,000.
• Whiskers, however, do not have uniform dimensions or
properties.
• This is perhaps their greatest disadvantage, i.e., the
variability in properties is extremely large.
• Handling and alignment of whiskers in a matrix to produce
a composite are other problems.

Whiskers – Properties & Characteristics

• High strength
• High Chemical Resistance
• High Thermal Resistance

➢ When it is used as a reinforcement material for composite

materials, its high aspect ratio improves those
mechanical properties.
➢ It is chemically stable
➢ It can be used in ceramics which contact with food
directly.
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➢ It can be dispersed in water.
➢ It has very high dielectric constant.

Whiskers – Applications

• Reinforcement materials for hard ceramics used in cutting

tools – For turbines and jet engines.
• Reinforcement materials for hard ceramics for wear
resistant applications – Excellent abrasion resistance
than hardened steels.
• Ceramics capable of microwave heating – For cooking
and industrial heating.
• Reinforcement materials for plastics.
 Whiskers – Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages:

• High moduli strengths and low densities

• Resist temperature, mechanical damage and oxidation
• Strength varies inversely with effective diameter

Disadvantages:

• No unform properties
• Handling is difficult

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