B11 Inheritance

B11.1 Chromosomes and Genes

1. Define inheritance as the transmission of genetic information from
generation to generation
2. Define chromosome as a thread-like structure of DNA, carrying
genetic information in the form of genes
3. Define gene as a length of DNA that codes for a protein
4. Define allele as a version of a gene
5. Describe the inheritance of sex in humans with reference to XX and XY chromosomes
6. Define a haploid nucleus as a nucleus containing a single set of unpaired chromosomes, e.g. in gametes
7. Define a diploid nucleus as a nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes, e.g. in body cells
8. State that in a diploid cell, chromosomes are arranged in pairs and in a human diploid cell there are 23
pairs

B11.2 Cell Division

1. Define mitosis as nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical cells (details of stages are not
required)
2. State that the exact duplication of chromosomes occurs before mitosis
3. State the role of mitosis in growth, repair of damaged tissues, replacement of cells and asexual
reproduction
4. Define meiosis as reduction division in which the chromosome number is halved from diploid to haploid
resulting in genetically different cells (details of stages are not required)
5. State that meiosis is involved in the production of gametes.

B11.3 Monohybrid inheritance

1. Define genotype as the genetic make-up of an organism in terms of the alleles present
2. Define phenotype as the observable features of an organism
3. Define homozygous as having two identical alleles of a particular gene
4. State that two identical homozygous individuals that breed together will be pure-breeding
5. Define heterozygous as having two different alleles of a particular gene
6. State that a heterozygous individual will not be pure-breeding
7. Define dominant as an allele that is expressed if it is present
8. Define recessive as an allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant allele of the gene present
9. Use genetic diagrams to predict the results of monohybrid crosses and calculate phenotypic ratios,
limited to 1:1 and 3:1 ratios
10. Use Punnett squares in crosses which result in more than one genotype to work out and show the
possible different genotypes
11. Interpret pedigree diagrams for the inheritance of a given characteristic

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B11.4 Variation and Selection
1. Define variation as differences between individuals of the same species
2. Distinguish between phenotypic variation and genetic variation
3. State that continuous variation results in a range of phenotypes between two extremes, e.g. height in
humans
4. State that phenotypic variation is caused by both genetic and environmental factors
5. State that discontinuous variation is mostly caused by genes alone, e.g. A, B, AB and O blood groups in
humans
6. State that discontinuous variation results in a limited number of phenotypes with no intermediates, e.g.
tongue rolling
7. Record and present the results of investigations into continuous and discontinuous variation
8. Define mutation as a change in a gene or chromosome
9. State that ionising radiation and some chemicals increase the rate of mutation
10. Describe natural selection with reference to:
1. variation within populations
2. production of many offspring
3. competition for resources
4. struggle for survival
5. reproduction by individuals that are better adapted to the environment than others
6. passing on of their alleles to the next generation
11. Describe evolution as the change in adaptive features of a population over time as the result of natural
selection
12. Define the process of adaptation as the process, resulting from natural selection, by which populations
become more suited to their environment over many generations
13. Describe the development of strains of antibiotic resistant bacteria as an example of evolution by natural
selection
14. Describe selective breeding with reference to:
1. selection by humans of individuals with desirable features
2. crossing these individuals to produce the next generation
3. selection of offspring showing the desirable features
15. State the differences between natural and artificial selection
16. Outline how selective breeding by artificial selection is carried out over many generations to improve
crop plants and domesticated animals

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 Chromosomes and genes
Defining Inheritance & Related Terms
Inheritance
● Inheritance is the transmission of genetic information from generation to generation.

Chromosome
● Chromosomes are thread-like structure of DNA, carrying genetic information in the form of genes.

● They are located in the ______________ of cells.

Gene
● A gene is a length of DNA found on a chromosome which has a sequence of bases that code for specific
proteins. e.g. enzymes, collagen
● Genes control our characteristics as they are the code for the ______________ that play important roles
in what our cells do.

Allele
● Alleles are different ______________ of a gene. e.g. The ABO gene for blood group type has three
A B O
alleles, I , I and I

Chromosomes are coiled DNA and protein (collectively called chromatin) which contain genes coding for
specific proteins. The Human Genome Project, completed in 2003, revealed the structure of chromosomes to be
much larger and more complex than scientists previously had thought. Chromosome 1, the largest chromosome,
contains 2,968 genes. The smallest chromosome, the Y chromosome, contains 231 genes.

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Diploid and Haploid Nuclei

All humans have 23 different chromosomes in each cell. In most body cells, not including the ______________
(sex cells), we have 2 copies of each chromosome, leading to a total of ______________ chromosomes.

The nucleus of every body cell (also known as a somatic cells), have two copies of each which means we have
44 chromosomes. These cells are diploid cells, and the nuclei is referred to as diploid nuclei. These 22 pairs are
often called autosomes.

A diploid nucleus is a nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes. Body cells are diploid.

A haploid nucleus is a nucleus containing a single set of unpaired chromosomes. Gametes (egg and
______________ cells) only have one copy of each chromosome. They are ______________ and have a total of
23 chromosomes in each cell.

When gametes merge during ________________, the diploid cell (2n) that they form (called the
______________) acquires the full chromosomal complement.

An easy way to remember the difference between haploid and diploid is to remember: Haploid = Half the
normal number of chromosomes. Note that the human diploid chromosome number is 46. In an exam, you may
be given information about a different species, with a different number of chromosomes. Make sure you read
the question carefully.

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Inheritance of Sex

XX and XY Chromosomes

Sex is determined by an entire chromosome pair. Most other characteristics are determined by only one or a
few genes.
● Females have the sex chromosomes __________.

● Males have the sex chromosomes __________.

The sex chromosomes are the 23rd pair and they establish gender. As only a father can pass on a
Y chromosome, he is responsible for determining the sex of the child.

Human karyotype

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The only cells in the body which do not have chromosomes are the erythrocytes
(_____________________________), which do not have nuclei.

Autosomes carry the bulk of the genetic code. Thousands of genes are in each autosome, each in its specific
position (locus). The sex chromosomes carry several hundred genes.

For example, the gene locus for the ABO blood groups are always on chromosome 9, those for the rhesus (Rh)
blood type are on chromosome 1, and those for eye colour on chromosomes 15 and 19.

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The inheritance of sex can be shown using a genetic diagram called a Punnett square, with the X and Y
chromosomes taking the place of the alleles usually written in the boxes.

Sex Determination Punnett Square

X X Complete the Punnett Square.

What is the probability that any baby produced
could be a boy?
X What is the chance that any baby produced could be
a girl?
Y If a couple already had 2 children, both of whom
were girls, what is the probability that the next baby

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 Cell Division

Mitosis

Most body cells have two copies of each chromosome. Mitosis is a type of cell division which produces two
diploid cells that are genetically ______________. This is known as growth division because it increases the
number of cells and chromosome number is maintained.

Before cells divide, exact duplication of the ________________ must occur. The chromosome number must
double beforehand to make sure that when the cell splits, each cell still has two copies of each chromosome.

Mitosis is defined as nuclear division giving rise to two genetically identical cells. There is no genetic variation
as the two ______________ cells produced are genetically identical to the parent cell.

Mitosis is used to:

▪ create new cells in the body to ______________ damaged tissue

▪ Replacement of cells

▪ allowing for ______________ of the organism as mitosis produces new cells

▪ play a role in asexual reproduction - mitosis produces ______________ that are genetically

identical to the parent.

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Process:

Just before mitosis, each chromosome in the nucleus copies itself exactly (forms x - shaped chromosomes). The
chromosomes line up along the ______________ of the cell where cell fibres pull them apart. The cell divides
into two and each new cell has a copy of each of the chromosomes.

Importance:

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All cells in the body (excluding ______________) are produced by mitosis of the zygote. Mitosis is important
for replacing cells (e.g, skin cells, red blood cells) and for allowing growth by the production of new
______________ (e.g. when a zygote divides to form an embryo).

Stem Cells

Many tissues in the human body contain a small number of unspecialised cells. These are called
______________ cells and their function is to divide by mitosis and produce new daughter cells that can
become specialised within the tissue and be used for different functions.

Meiosis

Meiosis is reduction division in which the ______________ number is halved from diploid to haploid. The
number of chromosomes must be ______________ when the gametes (sex cells) are formed. Otherwise there
would be double the number of chromosomes after they join at fertilisation in the ______________ (fertilized
egg).

Meiosis results in genetically ______________ cells.

It starts with chromosomes doubling themselves as in mitosis and lining up in the centre of the cell. After this
has happened the cells divide twice so that only one copy of each chromosome passes to each gamete. We
describe gametes as being haploid - having half the normal number of chromosomes. Because of this double
division, meiosis produces four haploid daughter cells.

It is used in the production of gametes (sex cells – ____________ and sperm, _____________ grains and
ovum).

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Process

Before cells divide, exact duplication of chromosomes must occur.

● First division: chromosomes pair up along the centre of the cell, __________________ occurs and then

cell fibres will pull the pairs apart, each new cell will have one of each recombinant chromosome pair.

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 ● Second division: chromosomes line up along the centre of the cell, cell fibres will pull them apart (as

with mitosis).
A total of four haploid daughter cells will be produced.

Importance

Meiosis occurs in the production of gametes. It produces genetic ________________ in the offspring.

Meiosis produces genetic variation by forming new combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes every

time a gamete is made, meaning that when gametes fuse randomly at __________________, each offspring will
be different from any others.

Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
Two daughter cells produced Four daughter cells
Daughter cells are diploid Daughter cells are haploid
Daughter cells are genetically identical to each Daughter cells are genetically different from
other and the parent cell each other and the parent cell
One cell division Two cell divisions
For growth and repair Production of gametes
No genetic variation Genetic variation

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 Monohybrid Inheritance
We have two copies of each chromosome, which means we have two copies of each gene and therefore two
alleles for each gene. Alleles are the different ________________ of the gene. Each allele codes for a different
________________. One allele is inherited from the ______________ and the other from the ______________.
The alleles may be the same or ________________. For example, an individual has two copies of the gene for
eye colour, but one allele could code for brown eyes and one allele could code for blue eyes.

Dominant alleles
A Dominant allele is one that is expressed (produces that characteristic) if it is present. This means you need to
have only ____________ dominant allele from either parent in order for the allele to be expressed in the
phenotype. Dominant alleles are represented by ______________ letters.

Recessive alleles
A Recessive allele is one that is only expressed when there is no ______________ allele present. If a dominant
allele is present the recessive allele will remain hidden. This means that it requires two copies of the allele (one
from each parent) in order for it to show up in the phenotype. Recessive alleles are represented by lower-case
letters.

Key Terms

Genotype
The genotype is the combination of alleles that are present. They control each characteristic or the genetic
makeup of an organism. The genotype is written using the letters representing the alleles. For example, AA, Aa,
or aa.

Phenotype
The phenotype is the observable __________________ of an organism. E.g. eye colour, being female/male, hair
colour.

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Offspring inherit characteristics from both their mother and father. They inherit one gene from each.

If the mother and father pass down the same allele for a particular trait, e.g. they both pass down the allele for
blue eyes, the offspring will have two identical alleles for this trait, which is referred to as homozygous. An
individual could be:
● homozygous dominant (having two copies of the dominant allele) eg AA

● homozygous recessive (having two copies of the recessive allele) eg aa

If two different alleles are passed down then the offspring will have two different alleles for the gene, which is
called heterozygous. Eg Aa

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We cannot always tell the genotype of an individual by just looking at the phenotype. A phenotype associated
with a dominant allele will be seen in a _________________________________ or ___________________
individual.

If two individuals who are both identically homozygous for a particular characteristic are bred together, they
will produce offspring with exactly the same genotype and phenotype as the parents. They are described as
being ‘pure bred’ as they will always produce offspring with the same characteristics.

A ____________________ individual can pass on different alleles for the same characteristic each time it is
bred. Therefore, it will produce offspring with a different genotype and phenotype from the parents.
Heterozygous individuals are ____________ pure-breeding.

The term ‘pure breeding’ indicates that the individual is homozygous for that characteristic.

Genetic Diagrams

Monohybrid inheritance is the inheritance of characteristics controlled by a single gene (mono = one). This can
be determined using a genetic diagram known as a Punnett square. A Punnett square diagram shows
the possible combinations of ______________ ( ______________ ) that could be produced in the offspring.
From this the ratio of these combinations can be worked out. Punnett squares can be used to make predictions of
possible characteristics of offspring.
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Remember, the ________________ allele is shown using a capital letter and the ________________ allele is
shown using the same letter but lower case.

Example: The height of pea plants is controlled by a single gene that has two alleles: tall and short
• The tall allele is dominant and is shown as T.
• The small allele is recessive and is shown as t.

How to construct a Punnett Square

1. Determine the parent genotypes.
2. Select a letter that has a clearly different lower case, for example: Aa, Bb, Dd.
3. Split the alleles for each parent and add them to the Punnett square at the top and left.
4. Fill in the middle four squares of the Punnett square to work out the possible genetic combinations in the
offspring.
5. You may be asked to comment on the ratio of different allele combinations in the offspring, calculate the
percentage chances of offspring showing a specific characteristic or just determine the phenotypes of the
offspring.
6. Completing a Punnett square allows you to predict the probability of different outcomes from
monohybrid crosses.

For each genotype below, indicate whether it is homozygous dominant, homozygous recessive, or heterozygous:

TT _____________________ Bb _____________________

DD _____________________ Ff _____________________

tt _____________________ dd _____________________

Dd _____________________ ff _____________________

Tt _____________________ bb _____________________

BB _____________________ FF _____________________

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17
 A purebred short plant is
crossed with a purebred
tall plant
This shows that there is
a 100% chance that all
the offspring will be
tall.

The next example shows the possible allele combinations of the offspring produced when two of the offspring
from the first cross are bred together:

There is more variation in this

cross.
Phenotypic ratio is a 3:1 ratio of
tall : short, meaning each
offspring has a 75% chance of
being tall and a 25% chance of
being short.
The F2 generation is produced
when the offspring of the F1
generation (pure-breeding
parents) are allowed to
interbreed.

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This example shows the results of crossing a heterozygous plant with a short plant:

The heterozygous plant will be ______________ with the genotype Tt. The short plant is showing the
recessive phenotype and so must be homozygous recessive – tt.

The results of this cross are as follows:

Phenotypic ratio = 1 tall : 1 short

This means there is a 50%
chance of the offspring being
tall and a 50% chance of the
offspring being short.

Always write the ________________ allele first, followed by the recessive allele. If you are asked to use your
own letters for the alleles in a Punnett square, choose a letter that is obviously different as a capital from the
lower case so the examiner has no doubt as to which is dominant and which is recessive. For example, C and c
are not very different from each other, whereas A and a are.

Identifying an unknown Genotype

Breeders can use a test cross to find out the ______________ of an organism showing the dominant phenotype.
This involves crossing the unknown individual with an individual showing the recessive phenotype - if the
individual is showing the recessive phenotype, then its genotype must be homozygous recessive.

By looking at the ratio of phenotypes in the offspring, we can tell whether the unknown individual is
homozygous dominant or heterozygous.

‘A plant breeder has a tall plant of unknown genotype. How can they find out whether it is homozygous
dominant or heterozygous?’

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The breeder should do a test cross of the unknown genotype with a ______________ plant. The short plant is
showing the recessive phenotype and so must be ________________ recessive – tt.

If the tall plant is homozygous dominant, all offspring produced will be ______________. If the tall plant is
heterozygous, ______________ the offspring will be tall and the other ______________ will be short.

Pedigree Charts

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A pedigree chart is like a family tree that shows the genetic relationships between members of the same family.
It is used to trace the pattern of inheritance of a specific characteristic (usually a disease) through generations of
a family.

This can be used to work out the probability that someone in the family will inherit the genetic disorder.
• Males are represented by squares, females by circles.
• Horizontal lines indicate marriages/partnerships
• Trait or characteristic of interest shown in a dark colour
• Vertical lines indicate children. The first child is shown on the extreme left, then next follows to the
right, with last-born child on the extreme right.

Pedigree charts can be used to determine:

● Genotypes and phenotypes of family members

● Whether an allele is dominant or recessive

● The probability of a child inheriting an allele or trait

● The probability of a child inheriting a genetic disorder

This family pedigree shows:

both males and
females are affected
every generation has
affected individuals
That there is one
family group that has no
affected parents or
children
the other two families
have one affected parent
and affected children as
well

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 Variation and Selection

Variation

Variation refers to the differences between each organism in a species. Variation is beneficial to a species as it
allows natural selection to occur and reduces the risk of extinction from disease.

1. Genetic variation
Each organism in a species has a different set of DNA. Genetic variation is increased during meiosis,
which produces gametes. Each ______________ has a different set of alleles, which means that when
the two gametes fuse an entirely new set of genes are produced.

Examples of genetic variation in humans include:

● blood group

● eye ______________

● gender

● ability to roll tongue

● whether ear lobes are free or fixed

2. Phenotypic variation
It is the difference in features between individuals of the same species. The phenotype of an organism
refers to its observable characteristics, such as height or hair colour.
Phenotypical variation can be caused by either
• Genetic (caused entirely by genes) or
• Environmental factors (caused entirely by the environment in which the organism lives)

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 For example, the potential height of an organism is decided by the ________________ which come
from the parents. Some organisms will never reach this height as they do not receive enough
________________ from their environment.

Environmental Factors

Environmental factors can affect the ______________ of an individual. In this instance ‘environmental’ simply
means ‘outside of the organism’ and so can include factors like climate, diet, culture, lifestyle and accidents
during its lifetime.
Examples include:
● An accident leading to scarring on the body.

● Eating too much and not leading an active lifestyle will cause weight gain.

● Being raised in a certain country will cause you to speak a certain language with a certain accent.

● A plant in the shade of a big tree will grow taller to reach more light.

Discontinuous variation

Discontinuous Variation is when there are distinct differences for a characteristic. There are no intermediate
phenotypes. You either have the __________________ or you don’t. Discontinuous variation is usually caused
by ________________ variation alone. For example, you are either one blood group or another, A, B, AB or O
- you can't be in between.

Such data is called discrete data. It is controlled by alleles of a single gene or a small number of genes. The
differences between individuals with the same parents are the result of crossing over and independent
assortment during meiosis. The environment has ________________ effect on this type of variation.

When graphs of this data

are plotted discontinuous 23
gives a ‘step–like’ shape.
Continuous Variation

________________ variation is when there are very many small degrees of difference for a particular
________________ between individuals and they can be arranged in order. With continuous variation, there is a
complete range of measurements from one extreme to the other and they can usually be measured on a scale.
Examples include height, mass, and finger length. Although genes decide what characteristics we inherit, the
surrounding environment will affect how these inherited characteristics develop.

For example:
- Milk yield in cows is determined not only by their genetic make-up but is also significantly affected by
_____________________ factors such as pasture quality, diet, weather, and the comfort of their surroundings.
Continuous variation is due to the genotype and the environment.

- A plant that is deprived of water may be __________________ an identical plant that has access to a good
water supply.

Continuous features often vary because of a combination of genetic and environmental causes.
For example:
• Tall parents will pass ______________ to their children for height.
• Their children have the genetic potential to also be ______________.
• However if their diet is ______________ then they will not grow very well
• Therefore their _________________ also has an impact on their height

Variations that are due to the environment are called non-inheritable factors.

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Mutations

Variation can also arise due to mutations. Mutations are ________________ in the base-pair sequence in a gene
or chromosome. They are random genetic changes. When DNA is damaged or changed it alters the genetic
message carried by that gene. If a mutation occurs in a _______________ then it will be affect all the cells of
the individual which develops from that gamete and it can be inherited.

If it occurs in a somatic cell, then only that individual is affected – the mutation will not be inherited.
Inherited mutations include:
• Downs syndrome
• Sickle cell ________________
• Haemophilia
• Albinism

Mutations in bacteria can lead to drug ________________. Because bacterial reproduction/growth is rapid,
resistance can occur relatively quickly.

Offspring may be better suited or worse off:

o If better suited, they will survive to breed and pass on mutation to offspring.
o If not better suited, they will die or not breed and the mutation is removed from the population.

Most mutations have no effect on the phenotype as the ________________ that a mutated gene produces may
work just as well as the ________________ from the non–mutated gene. A mutation may lead to the
development of a new ________________ and so a new phenotype. If it does, it may have a small effect on the
organism. Occasionally, the new allele gives the individual a survival advantage over other members of the
species. For example, a bird develops a mutation leading to a change in feather colour which makes it more
attractive to birds of the ________________ sex. This causes the bird to breed more frequently and have more
chances of passing on the mutated phenotype to the next generation.

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Mutations can also lead to harmful changes that can have dramatic effects on the body – for example, sickle cell
anaemia in humans. Mutations happen spontaneously and continuously but their frequency can be increased by
exposure to the following:
• Gamma rays, x–rays and ultraviolet rays – all types of ionising radiation which can break
chemical bonds and cause changes in base sequences.
• Certain types of chemicals – e.g. tar in tobacco.

Mutation can cause cells to become cancerous, which is why the above are linked to increased incidence of
different types of cancer. Certain chemicals/substances can increase the rate of mutation. These are called
________________.
Common mutagens include:
• Radiation from x-rays/ radioactive compounds
• UV radiation from the sun
• Cigarette smoke
• Some viruses and bacteria
• Some metals. E.g. cadmium, nickel
• Alcohol

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Adaptations

An adaptive feature is an inherited feature that helps an ________________ to survive and ________________
in its environment. Adaptive features are the inherited functional features of an organism that increase its
fitness. Fitness is the probability of an organism ________________ and reproducing in the environment in
which it is found.

A typical question might be

to explain how the leaf area
and distribution and density
of stomata help different
species of plant survive in
their different habitats.

Hydrophytes and Xerophytes

Xerophytes
Xerophytes are plants adapted to live in extremely dry conditions.
Common adaptations include:
• Thick waxy cuticle – the cuticle cuts down
water loss in two ways: it acts as a barrier to
evaporation and the shiny surface reflects heat
and so lowers temperature.
• Sunken stomata: stomata may be sunk in pits in
the epidermis; moist air trapped here lengthens
the diffusion pathway and reduces evaporation
rate.

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 • Leaf rolled with stomata inside and an inner surface covered in hairs – traps moist air and prevents air
movement across stomata which reduces transpiration.
• Small leaves: many xerophytic plants have small, needle-shaped leaves which reduce the surface area
and therefore the evaporating surface.
• Extensive shallow roots allowing for the quick absorption of large quantities of water when it rains.
• Thickened leaves or stems which contain cells that store water.
Hydrophytes

Hydrophytes are plants adapted to live in extremely ______________ conditions. Common adaptations include:

● Large air spaces in their leaves to keep them close to the

surface of the water where there is more light for

___________________.

● Small roots as they can also extract nutrients from the

surrounding ________________ through their tissues.

● Stomata are usually open all the time and mainly found on

the upper epidermis of the leaf where they can exchange

gases much more easily with the air.

Selection

Natural selection

This is a theory proposed by Charles Darwin in the 1800’s and is still widely held today. It is sometimes
referred to as “________________ of the fittest”. Fitness refers to how well the organism is adapted to suit its
environment - not physical fitness. In any environment, the individuals that have the best adaptive features are
the ones most likely to survive and reproduce. This results in ________________ selection.
It can be summarised as:

● ________________ within populations – most populations have individuals that vary slightly from one

another due to different genes. Some slight variations may better adapt some organisms to their
environments than others.

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 ● When organisms ________________, they produce more offspring than the environment is able to

support.

● This leads to ________________ for food and resources which results in a ‘struggle for survival’. Most

populations do not increase in size rapidly.

● This leads to reproduction by individuals that are better adapted to the environment than others –

survival of the fittest.

● The alleles that produce those characteristics are passed to offspring at a ________________ rate than

those with characteristics less suited to survival. This means that in the next generation, there will be a
__________________ number of individuals with the better adapted variations in characteristics.

Over time, negative characteristics are lost from the species as organisms with those characteristics are not able
reproduce.

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There are many examples of natural selection. They all follow the sequence described. Within a
__________________ there is always variation and chance mutations, some individuals will develop a
phenotype (characteristic) that gives them a survival ________________ and therefore will:

● live longer

● breed more

● and be more likely to pass their genes on

Repeated over generations, the ‘mutated’ phenotype will become the norm.

Antibiotic Resistance:

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The genes for antibiotic resistance are passed on with a much greater frequency to the next generation.
Eventually the whole population of bacteria becomes antibiotic-resistant because these bacteria are best suited
to their environment. This is an example of natural selection that humans have helped to develop due to overuse
of antibiotics in situations where they were not necessary. For example:
● for treatment of non-serious infections

● routine treatment of animals in agriculture

● failure to finish prescribed courses of antibiotics

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria infections and diseases are harder to control as it is difficult to find antibiotics that
some strains of bacteria are not resistant to. For example, MRSA (Methicillin resistant staphylococcus aureus)
is a very dangerous bacterial strain that is resistant to most antibiotics. If someone gets infected with MRSA
they cannot be treated easily.

Also, the number of new antibiotics discovered has slowed significantly.

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Selective Breeding/Artificial Selection

Selective breeding is non-random breeding where ________________ select animals or plants with desirable
features and breed these together to make more offspring with these desirable features. Not all offspring will
show the characteristics you want so those offspring that do show the desired characteristics are selected and
bred together. This process has to be repeated for many successive ________________ before you can
definitely say you have a ‘new breed’ which will reliably show those selected characteristics in all offspring.

Artificial selection describes intentional breeding for certain traits, or combination of traits. The term was used
by Darwin to contrast it with ________________ selection, in which the differential reproduction of organisms
with certain traits is attributed to improved survival or reproductive ability.

Humans select animals and plants with traits of interest. For example, ______________ with high milk
production, ______________ with good wool colour, or animals with disease resistance. They breed from these
organisms only to produce larger populations with these characteristics. This is how breeds of animals have
developed over time. The deliberate exploitation of artificial selection has become very common in
experimental biology, as well as the discovery and invention of new drugs.

As this breeding is controlled by humans, it is known as artificial selection. Artificial selection can also be
unintentional; it is thought that domestication of crops by early humans was largely unintentional.

An example of an animal that has been selectively bred by humans in many ways to produce breeds with many
different characteristics is the domestic ______________. All breeds are descended from wolves.

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German Shepherd dogs were originally bred as working dogs to herd sheep as they are known for their
intelligence and agility. Humans selectively breed these dogs to exaggerate desirable qualities, such as their
sloping backs and large ears. This involves crossing dogs which show these traits so that the alleles are passed
on to their offspring.

Plants are selectively bred by humans for many reasons:

• disease resistance in food crops
• increased crop yield
• hardiness to weather conditions
• better tasting fruits
• large or unusual flowers

Selective breeding of wild

brassicas has given rise to
cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli,
brussels sprouts, kale and
kohlrabi.

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Artificial Selection vs Natural Selection

Natural Selection Artificial Selection

Occurs naturally Occurs due to human interference
Results in development of populations with features Results in the development of populations with
that are better adapted to their environment and features that are useful to humans and not necessarily
survival to survival of the individual
Usually takes a long time Takes less time as only individuals with the desired
features are allowed to reproduce

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