Cell Division and
Variation
●
Objectives
Describe the relationship between DNA, chromatin and
chromosomes.
● Describe, with diagrams, the stages of mitotic cell division.
● Explain the importance DNA replication for maintaining genetic
stability.
● Discuss the role and importance of mitosis in growth, repair and
asexual reproduction.
● Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the processes involved in meiotic
cell division.
● Discuss how meiosis contributes to heritable variation.
● Explain why sexually produced organisms vary in characteristics.
Objectives
● Describe gene and chromosome mutations.
● Discuss the implications of changes in DNA nucleotide sequence for
cell structure and function in sickle cell anaemia.
● Explain why heritable variation is important to selection.
Relationship among DNA, chromatin, and chromosomes
Cell Cycle, Mitosis, Meiosis Outline
Chromosomes Structure and Types
Stages of the Cell Cycle
Mitosis cell division
■ Principle (Conserve chromosome number and genetic variation)
■ Purpose (Growth, Maintenance, Repair, Asexual Reproduction)
■ Process of mitosis: stages
Meiosis Cell Division
■ Principle (haploid/diploid, conserve chromosome number, increase genetic
variation)
■ Purpose (Gametogenesis, Genetic recombination)
■ Process of meiosis (stages, Crossing over, Independent Assortment)
Genetic variation further enhanced by random fertilization during sexual
reproduction
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Objectives- At the end of this lesson you should
be able to:
1. Describe the stages of the cell cycle
2. For both meiosis and mitosis
1. State the purpose
2. Illustrate/describe the process
3. Compare mitosis and meiosis
4. Explain how genetic variation is achieved
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Introduction
According to the cell theory all cells are formed by the division of
preexisting cells.
When a cell divides, copies of its genetic information (DNA) must
be precisely transmitted from parent to daughter cells.
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Introduction
DNA is copied (replicated) before cell division.
■ Remember that DNA is located in the nucleus of the cell,
coupled with proteins to form chromatin.
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Cell division in Prokaryotes
➔ Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission; they do not undergo
mitosis.
◆ Binary fission differs from mitosis in that no spindle is used.
➔ When a cell is about to divide, the circular chromosome
replicates itself (DNA synthesis) and attaches to the plasma
membrane.
➔ As the cell elongates, the chromosomes are pulled apart.
➔ When cell is approximately twice its original length, the plasma
membrane grows inward and a cell wall forms between the two
cells.
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The cell cycle and
Somatic Cell Division In Eukaryotes
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The cell cycle
➔ Generally, when cells reach a certain size they either stop growing,
or divide.
➔ Cells destined to become gametes undergo Meiosis
➔ All other regular cells that divide go through a regular sequence of
events known as the cell cycle; 3 main stages:
◆ Interphase, Mitosis and Cytokinesis
➔ Non dividing cells are in gap O
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The Cell Cycle
Cell cycle =
Interphase + Mitosis
Interphase = G1+S+G2
Mitosis = P+M+A+T
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1. Interphase
➔ The longest stage of cell cycle.
➔ The cell
◆ Is metabolically/ biochemically active but mechanically
inactive.
◆ Grows and prepares for division.
➔ Is divided into three stages; G1, G2 & S.
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Interphase in onion root tip
View of Cell in
interphase
DNA and Chromosome
replication occurs
u c l eus
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Stages of Interphase
G1 – Gap 1 (Growth phase)
● More organelles (like mitochondria, chloroplasts, ER) are produced
● Enzymes for DNA replication produced
● Nucleolus produces RNA
● Structural and functional proteins produced.
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Stages of Interphase
S (Synthesis)
● DNA replication occurs.
● Each chromosome becomes two chromatids (chromosome
replication).
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Stages of Interphase
G2 – Gap 2 (Growth phase)
● Mitochondria and chloroplasts divide (How?)
● Centrioles replicate
● Spindle fibre components form.
● Towards the end of interphase the chromatin starts to uncoil.
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The Chromosome
● At the start of cell division, chromatin condenses to form
chromosomes.
● Chromosomes are visible; they appear as long, thin threads.
They vary in shape.
● Each chromosome has two identical threads (genetic duplicates
from DNA replication) called chromatids
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Diagram showing the human chromosomes before replication of DNA
Diagram showing the human chromosomes after replication of DNA
The Chromosome
● Chromatids are joined at a point called the centromere.
● The centromere can be found anywhere along the length of the
chromosome.
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The Chromosome
Genes are found at specific locations along the chromosome called
loci (locus – singular).
Genes affect some characteristic of the organism
Genes exist in different forms called alleles.
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Chromosomes
The number of chromosomes
■ = chromosome number (CN).
■ varies from species to species
■ is usually the same for individuals within a species.
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Chromosomes
Species CN
Allium cepa (onion) 16
Zea mays (maize) 20
Lycopersicum esculentum (tomato) 24
Canis familiaris (dog) 78
Felis cattus (cat) 38
Homo sapiens (human) 46
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Chromosomes – occur in pairs
Homologous
Chromosomes
Maternal Chromosome Paternal Chromosome
Centromere Centromere
Chromatid
Chromatid Telomere
Homologue Homologue 30
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Somatic Cell Division - Mitosis
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Mitosis
Principle
■ Conservation of chromosome number
■ Conservation of genetic variation
Purpose
■ Growth, Maintenance, Repair, Asexual Reproduction
Process
■ Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase
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Mitosis
This is the division that results in all daughter cells having the
same number of chromosomes as the parent (2n gives 2n; n
gives n).
Mitosis is a continuous process in reality but for
descriptive/convenient purposes it divided into stages.
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Mitosis Stages
1. Prophase; (coil)
2. Metaphase; (align)
3. Anaphase; (separate)
4. Telophase (uncoil)
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Mitosis - Prophase
The duplicated chromatin completes condensation and becomes
visible as chromosomes.
At this stage chromosomes stain well and appear as two
chromatids joined at the centromere.
Spindle fibers develop, spanning the cell from pole to pole (made
from microtubules).
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Mitosis - Prophase
Centrioles, if present, move to the poles.
In animal cells short microtubules called asters radiate from the
centrioles.
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Mitosis - Prophase
The nuclear membrane disassembles
and the nucleolus disappears.
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Prophase
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Mitosis - Metaphase
Chromosomes move to the equator of the cell and line up attaching
to the spindle at the centromere.
This is the stage at which the chromosomes are most clearly seen.
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Metaphase
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Mitosis - Anaphase
The centromeres split and chromatids move apart as the fibres
contract.
They move to opposite poles (NB. now referred to as
chromosomes) with the centromeres leading.
On reaching the poles karyokinesis (division of the nucleus) ends.
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Anaphase
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Mitosis - Telophase
Chromosomes uncoil and lengthen to eventually become invisible
again.
The spindle disintegrates.
The nuclear envelope reforms.
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Telophase
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Cytokinesis
Cell division (Cytokinesis)
The division of the cytoplasm (cytokinesis) follows the division of
the nucleus (karyokinesis).
Cytokinesis differs for plants and animal cells.
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Cytokinesis - Animal cells
In animal cells
Cell membrane constricts/indents (pinches) inwards across the
centre (with the aid of microfilaments) until the cell separates.
Division furrow.
Most widely accepted theory of division furrow production is the
“Contractile Ring Theory”.
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Cytokinesis –
Contractile Ring Theory - Steps
I. The dividing cell elongates before cytokinesis.
II. As the cell elongates, contractile proteins (e.g., Actin & Myosin) in
the cell cortex concentrate at the equator, forming a ring-like
structure.
III. The ring contracts, forming the division furrow at the equator.
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Contractile Ring Theory
IV. After the cells divide,
contractile proteins are
redistributed throughout the
cortex of each daughter cell.
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Cytokinesis - Plant cells
In plant cells
A cell plate is formed across the equator of the cell.
Cell plate formed by fusion of pectin containing vesicles
produced by the Golgi body (dictyosome); they form the new
middle lamella.
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Cytokinesis - Plant cells
Cellulose is laid down on this plate to form a new cell wall.
A new plasma membrane is also formed from the membranes of
the vesicle.
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Cytokinesis
Animal cell Plant cell
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Cytokinesis
Mitosis occurs in most animal cells (somatic cells)
In plants mitosis is confined to meristematic cells (located behind
root & shoot tips and buds).
At the end of cell division the two daughter cells produced each have
the same number of chromosomes as the mother cell.
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Mitosis- purpose
1. Maintenance
Produces daughter cells which are exact copies (genetically) of the
parental cell.
This ensures genetic stability/ conservation.
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Mitosis- purpose
2. Growth
If tissues increase by growth, it is essential that the new cells look
exactly as the existing cells and have the same number of
chromosomes.
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Mitosis- purpose
Growth
Also, growth from a unicellular zygote into a mulitcellular
organism requires that the same number of chromosomes be
kept.
The cells then differentiate to form tissues, organs and organ
systems.
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Mitosis- purpose
3. Repair/regeneration
Dead or damaged cells must be replaced by exact copies of the
original cells in order to return the tissue to its original condition.
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Mitosis- purpose
4. Asexual reproduction
If a species has successfully colonized a particular habitat, there is
little advantage in the short term to produce different offspring
which may be less successful.
It is better for the species to quickly establish a colony of
individuals which are similar to the parent.
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Mitosis- purpose
Asexual reproduction is the means of reproduction of many
unicellular and other simple organisms e.g., Amoeba, Hydra.
In plants, this is a form of vegetative propagation in which the
bud on part of the stem grows a new plant which eventually
becomes detached from the parent and lives independently
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Meiosis
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Meiosis
Principle: diploid to haploid
■ Conservation of chromosome number in sexually produced
offspring
■ Increase genetic variation
Purpose:
■ Gametogenesis
■ Genetic variation
Crossing over
Independent Assortment
Process of meiosis:
■ Meiosis 1 =Prophase1, Metaphase1, Anaphase1, Telophase1
■ Meiosis 2 =Prophase2, Metaphase2, Anaphase2, Telophase2 62
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Meiosis
This division of the cell results in the daughter cells having only
half (haploid) the number of chromosomes (n) as the parent cell.
The parent is called diploid (2n) as it contains the full
complement of chromosomes (two complete sets of
chromosomes
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Meiosis
In sexual reproduction, two sex cells (gametes)
are fused to form a single cell (zygote).
To prevent zygotes from having too many
chromosomes, each gamete must contain only
half of the parental number of chromosomes.
This is ensured by meiosis.
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Meiosis
Meiosis occurs in the formation of gametes; sperm and ova in
animals and spores, pollen, ova in plants.
At the end of meiosis, four haploid (n) daughter cells are produced
from one cell.
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Meiosis
Two cell divisions occur
In the 1st meiotic division, prophase is very different from that in
mitosis.
The 2nd division is very similar to mitosis.
The process is continuous
Symbols I and II are used to distinguish between the first and
second divisions.
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Phases of Meiosis
Meiosis I Meiosis II
1. Prophase I 5. Prophase II
i. Leptotene
ii. Zygotene 6. Metaphase II
iii. Pachytene 7. Anaphase II
Diplotene
iv.
v. Diakinesis
8. Telophase II
2. Metaphase I
3. Anaphase I
4. Telophase I
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Chromosomes
All organisms have two sets of chromosomes – one from the
female and the other from the male.
They both determine the same characteristics having the same
sequence of genes.
They also appear alike having the same shape, size and
centromere position.
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Chromosomes
One of these pairs is the sex chromosomes that determines the
gender of the offspring.
All other pairs are called autosomes.
Chromosomes are duplicated before meiosis starts. The
centromere holds duplicates together
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Meiosis I - Homologous
chromosomes separate
First meiotic division (Reduction division) Prophase I
Duplicated chromosomes pair up in homologous pairs.
One member of each pair is a homologue.
One homologue is the paternal chromosome (duplicated) and the
other the maternal chromosome (duplicated)
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Meiosis I - Prophase I
Lengthy and complex
Therefore placed in 5 stages
i. Leptotene - replicated chromosomes are threadlike and are
being condensed
ii. Zygotene - homologous chromosomes start to pair up
iii. Pachytene - homologous chromosomes paired
iv. Diplotene - sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes
visible; crossing over just visible
v. Diakinesis - chromatids diverge so chiasmata clearly visible;
spindle develops
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Prophase I
Meiosis I -Prophase I
The process of the homologous chromosomes coming together is
called synapsis.
Each pair is called a bivalent but consists of a four-stranded
structure, ie 4 chromatids (tetrad).
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Pairing of Homologous Chromosomes
Meiosis I -Prophase I
During synapsis, chromatids associate closely so they can wrap
around each other.
Towards the end of prophase I they start repelling each other, but
remain joined at points called chiasmata (chiasma – singular).
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Meiosis I - Prophase I
At chiasmata breakage and rejoining can occur so that portions of
one homologue can end up on portions of the other (crossing
over).
Spindle fibres form, centrioles if present migrate to the poles, and
the nucleolus and nuclear membranes disappear
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Meiosis I - Prophase I
Parental
Homologous Chromatids
Chromosomes
Chromatid
Maternal Paternal Chiasma Recombinant
Chromosome Chromosome Chromatids
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Crossing Over and Recombination
Meiosis I - Prophase I
Prophase I -
Leptotene Zygotene
Summarized
- [Link]
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Pachytene Diplotene - Diakenesis
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Meiosis I
Metaphase I
Paired chromosomes (bivalents) line up at the equator by
their centromeres (two in this case).
The way the members of the pair orientate themselves is
completely random and is not influenced by the arrangement
of the other pairs - Independent assortment.
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Independent Assortment
The
arrangement
determines
the
combination
entering
different
gametes.
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Genetic Variation in Sexual reproduction
Main sources of genetic variation
■ Crossing over in Prophase 1
■ Independent assortment in Metaphase 1
Genetic variation further enhanced by
■ Random mate choice
■ Many gametes produced
■ Mutation when gametes are being produced
■ Random fertilization after sexual reproduction
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Meiosis I
Metaphase I Anaphase I 89
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Meiosis I
Anaphase I
Pairs separate as they move to opposite poles
Only one member of each homologue is present at each
pole.
Note that each chromosome still has two chromatids and the
centromeres did not split.
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Meiosis I
Telophase I
Chromosomes uncoil, nuclear
envelope reforms
Spindle disappears
Cytoplasm division occurs
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Meiosis II - Sister Chromatids separate
Prophase II
Nucleolus disappears, nuclear envelope disassembles
Centrioles if present moves to the poles
The poles are now at right angles to the plane of the first
division
Spindle develops.
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Meiosis II
Prophase II
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Meiosis II - Metaphase II
Metaphase II
Chromosomes line up singly at the equator by their centromeres
attaching to the spindle
Diagram showing one
cell undergoing
Metaphase II
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Metaphase II
Meiosis - Anaphase II
Anaphase II
Chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.
Diagram showing one cell undergoing
Anaphase II
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Anaphase II
Meiosis - Telophase II
Telophase II
Chromosomes unwind and become indistinct
Nuclear envelope and nucleolus reform
Spindle disappears
Cytoplasm division occurs. Four haploid cells result at the end of
the process
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Telophase II
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Overview of Meiosis
2n= 4 chromosomes
n= 2 chromosomes
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OVERVIEW OF MEIOSIS
Meiosis - Importance
The long term survival of a species is dependent on its ability to
adapt to an environment which constantly changes.
It has to be able to colonize a range of habitats.
The offspring must therefore be different for their parents as well
as each other (variation) to successfully colonize.
Meiosis ensures that this occurs.
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Meiosis - Importance
1. Production and fusion of haploid gametes.
The genotype of one parent is mixed with that of the other when
gametes fuse randomly.
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Meiosis - Importance
2. Genetic variation by random distribution of chromosomes
during metaphase I.
When members of homologous pairs arrange themselves at the
equator of the cell, they do so independently of each other and
randomly.
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Independent Assortment
Meiosis - Importance
So, which chromosome of a given pair goes to which pole is
unaffected by the behaviour of the chromosomes in other pairs.
New genetic combinations are produced in this way
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Meiosis - Importance
3. Genetic variation by Crossing over
During prophase I, equivalent portions of homologous chromosomes
may be exchanged, that is, genes from female chromosomes can
exchange genes with chromosome from male parent.
New genetic combinations are produced and linked genes can be
separated.
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Crossing Over
Meiosis - Importance
4. Meiosis is essential in evolution.
A varied stock of individuals is produced, and by natural
selection, those best suited to existing conditions survive.
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Meiosis - Importance
5. Meiosis ensures that at some stage in the life cycle haploid
gametes are produced.
If this did not occur, the chromosome number would double with
every generation
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Mitosis - Meiosis comparison
MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Occurs in body/ somatic cells Germ cells (gametogenesis)
Single division Two successive divisions
Prophase not divided into sub-stages Prophase I has 6 substages
(Proleptotene, Leptotene, Zygotene,
Pachytene, Diplotene and
Diakinesis).
Homologous chromosomes remain Homologous chromosomes pair.
separate. Each pair of homologous chromosomes
Each chromosome consist of 2 consist of 4 chromatids (Tetrad).
chromatids).
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Mitosis - Meiosis comparison
MITOSIS MEIOSIS
No synapsis, chiasmata formation for Synapsis, chiasmata formation occur for
exchange of genetic material. exchange of genetic material.
Each of the two daughter cells will have Each of the four daughter cells will have
the same number of chromosomes ½ the number of chromosomes as
as the parent cell. the parent cell.
A diploid cell (2n) produces two A diploid cell produces four haploid
diploid cells by a mitotic division. cells (n) by a meiotic division.
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