Center of Electrical Power Engineering Studies (CEPES)

Faculty of Electrical Engineering

Universiti Teknologi MARA, MALAYSIA

Electrical Machines – EPO 540

- Transformer -
Engr. Mohamad Fauzi bin Omar
(IEM, BEM, MIEEE, IAENG)
Senior Lecturer
Faculty of Electrical Engineering
Universiti Teknologi MARA, MALAYSIA

Semester: MAC - SEPT 18

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autotransformer
Three-Phase Step down Leakage transformer
transformer

Laminated core transformer Small toroidal core

transformer
Current transformer 2
Cut-away view of
three-phase oil-
cooled transformer

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Chapter 2: Transformer

● Transformer is used to convert one level of AC voltage into another

level of AC voltage through the action of magnetic field.

● It can be either to step-up or step-down the voltage.

● It is needed for the purpose of transmitting electric energy.

● A transformer consists of two or more windings coupled by mutual

magnetic flux.

● Ferromagnetic cores are used to provide tight magnetic coupling and

high flux densities.

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● One winding is connected to the power source (receive energy) is
referred as primary or input winding.

● The other winding is connected to an electric load (discharge

energy) is referred as secondary or output or load winding.

● The winding with the higher number of turns will have high voltage
and is called the high-voltage (HV) winding.

● The winding with the lower number of turns is called the low-voltage
(LV) winding.

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● When current flows through the primary winding, an alternating flux
will be produced whose amplitude will depend on the primary voltage,
the frequency of applied voltage and the number of turns.
● The mutual flux (flux that remains in the core and links both
windings) produce by primary will induce a voltage in secondary.

● The secondary voltage value will depend on the number of

secondary turns, magnitude of the mutual flux and the frequency.
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● There are three types of losses occur in a magnetic core;
i. eddy current losses
- represent the resistive heating losses. It occurs when the flux
density changes rapidly in the core.
ii. hysteresis losses
- Occur due to nonlinear relationship between magnetic field strength
(H) and magnetic flux density (B).
iii. leakage flux.
- Occur due to the flux that escape the core and pass through only
one of transformer winding.

● In is necessary to laminate the iron sheets to reduce eddy currents

and hysteresis that cause heating of the core.

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● The transformer is called a step-down transformer when the
secondary voltage is lower than the primary voltage.

● The transformer is called a step-up transformer when the

secondary voltage is higher than the primary voltage.

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o Two type of core constructions:

N1  500
N 2  400
Core Type
Shell Type Winding
Winding

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2.1: Ideal Transformer
Ideal transformer has the following properties:

o Winding resistances are negligible

o No leakage reactance (core loss = 0)
o Permeability of core is infinite (µ → ∞) & Σ MMF = 0

Ideal transformer 10
 ZL

Ideal transformer

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2.2: Practical Transformer
Where the winding resistance, flux leakage and core loss are consider

Where:
R1 & R2 = Primary & secondary
resistance.

X1 & X2 = Primary & secondary

leakage flux

Equivalent circuit Im is required to establish flux

in the core. The effect is
represented with Xm

Rc is due to the core loss

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i) Equivalent circuit referred to primary

Total equivalent resistance , Req1 R1 a 2 R2

Total equivalent reactance , 2
X eq1 X1 a X 2
ii) Equivalent circuit referred to secondary
E1
R1’ X 1’ X2
E 2 E1 ' 
a
I1’ I2

V 1’ V2
V1 ' V1
Rc1’ Xm1’ a
I1 ' aI1
X l1
Total equivalent resistance , Req 2 R R1 X l1 '  2
2
a2 a
X eq1
Total equivalent reactance , X  R
R1 '  21 13
eq2
a2 a
Determination of Equivalent Circuit Parameters
• To predict behaviour of the transformer, circuit parameters (R1, X1, X2’,
R2’, RC1, Xm1) must be known
• They can be calculated from the dimension and properties of the
materials used.
• However, some are difficult to be obtained.
• Therefore, use a simple direct method – by performing tests that involve
power consumption known as;
i. NO LOAD (OPEN CIRCUIT) TEST &
ii. SHORT CIRCUIT TEST

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NO LOAD (OPEN
NO LOAD CIRCUIT)
(OPEN TEST
CIRCUIT) TEST ►To determine Rc & Xm

2
VOC 2 V
R  OC Poc is core loss of transformer
POC  C
RC POC POC VOC IOC cos OC

V IC IOC cos OC

I C  OC I m  I OC 2 IC
2

RC
 I m IOC sin OC
X VOC
m
Im
• Open circuit High-Voltage side and apply Low-Voltage on the LV side (low
power is easily available) 15
SHORT CIRCUIT
SHORT TEST
CIRCUIT TEST ►To determine Req & Xeq

PSC I SC 2 Req R  PSC Psc is Copper loss

eq
I SC 2
VSC
Z  2 2
eq
I SC X eq  eq eq

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 2.3 EFFICIENCY

• Equipment is desired to operate at high efficiency. In transformer, the
efficiency is high compared with other electrical machines because there is
no rotational loss.
OutputPower(PO )  PO
  P Losses
InputPower(Pi ) O

• Losses in transformer = Pc (Core loss) and Pcu (Copper loss)

 Pout
Pout  Pc  Pcu
• Core loss (Pc) depends on the peak flux density, B. Transformer connected
to constant supply voltage, therefore core loss ≈ constant and can be
obtained from the NO LOAD TEST.

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• Copper Loss (Pcu) can be determined if the currents in the winding and
their resistance are known.
2 2
Pcu I1 R1  I 2 R2

I12 Req1 I 2 2 Req 2

Pcu is a function of the load current

• Therefore, given any load condition (with pf)
Pout V2 I 2
cos2 Load power factor

V2 I 2 cos 2 2
 V I cos  P I R
2 2 2 C 2 eq 2

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2.4 VOLTAGE REGULATION

• Loads connected to secondary are usually designed to operate at constant

voltage.

• However, current drawn form the transformer results in a voltage drop in the
internal impedance of the transformer. (Zeq)

• Consider Figure above: V1

When switch is open (no-load condition), V2 
NL 
a
When switch is closed (with load), V2 L V2 NL V2 Due to voltage drop in IZeq

Voltage change depends on the nature of the load

• Large voltage change is undesirable! 22

• Figure of merit used to identify characteristics of voltage change in a
transformer is called Voltage Regulation (VR).
V2 V2
Voltage regulation (VR in %)  NL FL
100%
V2 FL

• Voltage Regulation should be as small as possible.

(usually less than 10%).

• VR could be positive or negative depending on the nature of the load.

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• Consider equivalent circuit referred to primary

V2 ' NL  V2 ' FL V2 ' L V2 ' RATED

VR  V'
2 FL
V2 ' FULLLOAD
V2 ' FL

• Phasor diagram based on Figure before:

V1 V2 'I2 ' Req I 2 ' X eq

• If the load is removed (no-load condition):
V1 V2 '
rated
V2 ' NL V1 Hence, VR  FL
V2 ' FL 24
PHASOR DIAGRAM

Lagging Leading

2 eq1 2 2
2 2

Unity

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 AUTOTRANSFORMER
• A special connection of transformer where a common winding is mounted on the
core and secondary is taken by tapping the winding.
• This means that the primary and secondary of an autotransformer are physically
connected.
• However the basic principle of operation is similar as the two winding
transformer: V
1  N1  I 2 a
V2 N 2 I1
• to prove the ratio, consider an autotransformer below.
mmf of ab, NI (N1 N 2 )I1
N1I1 N 2 I1
 
1
N1I1 1 (1)
 a 
mmf of bc, NI N 2 (I 2 I1 )
N
 1 I 2 I1  (2)
a
For a balance ampere turns (1) = (2)
 1 N1 I
N1 I 1  I1 
 2
1  a
 a 
 I 31
 2 a
I1
Advantages of autotransformer connection:
a) Lower leakage reactances
b) Lower losses
c) Lower exciting current
d) Increased kVA rating
e) Variable output voltage

Disadvantage:
a) Direct connection between primary and secondary windings / No
isolation.

• Example 2.6 (PC Sen)

• Problem 2.17 (PC Sen)

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PER-UNIT (PU) SYSTEM:

Two major advantages in using a per-unit system:

• Parameters and variables expressed in pu quantity have a narrow
numerical range; simplifies computations and make it possible to quickly
check the corrections of the computed values.
• No need to refer circuit quantities from one side to another, therefore a
common mistakes is removed.
Definition:

● Usually base values of power and voltages are selected first. Base values
for current and impedance are calculated as follows:

● In transformer, base power is the same for primary and secondary.

However, the base voltage, Vbase are different and usually assigned to the
rated voltage.

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● Also in a transformer, voltages, currents and impedance expressed in a
per-unit system have the same per-unit values either side of winding.

● Full-load copper loss in pu system

2
I R12 Req1
PCU I R Req1 in pu system PCU pu

FL 1 FL
Pbase

I R12 Req1 R
PCU   Z Req1 pu
eq1
FL pu V I
R1 R1 B1

Transformer resistance represents in pu system also represents the full

load copper loss.

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3-PHASE TRANSFORMER

● 3-phase system is used to generate and transmit bulk/massive electrical

energy.
● 3-phase transformers are required to step down or step up voltages in the
various stages of power transmission.
● 3-phase transformer can be built:
(i) Connecting a bank a 3 single-phase transformers.
(ii) Constructing a 3-phase transformer on a common magnetic structure.
● A set of 3 similar 1-phase transformers may be connected to form a 3-
phase transformer.
● The primary and secondary windings may be connected in either wye (Y)
or delta (∆) configurations.
● Possible configurations:
(i) Y-∆ : commonly used to STEP DOWN a high voltage to a lower
voltage.
(ii) ∆-Y : commonly used to STEP UP voltage
(iii) ∆-∆ : ‘open-delta’ or V connection which one transformer can be
removed.
(iv) Y-Y : rarely used due to problem with exciting current and induced
voltages.
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Example: Y-∆ connection

IL1 IL2 =√3 aIL1

VLL1 VLL1
√3 aIL1 √3 a
VLL1
n

Y-∆ connection Y-∆ connection

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PHASE SHIFT
● Some of 3-phase transformer connection results in a phase shift between
the primary and secondary line-to-line voltages.
● Consider a 3-phase transformer with Y-∆ configuration:

Phase shift in line-

to-line voltages in
a three-phase
transformer

● This property of phase shift in Y-∆ or ∆-Y connections can be used

advantageously in some application: Multipulse Rectifiers
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SINGLE-PHASE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
● Analysis of one phase is sufficient to determine the variables on the two
sides of the transformer provided that three (3) transformers are identical
with the source and load are balance.
● Can be conveniently obtained if all sources, transformer windings and
load impedances are considered to be Y-connected.
● Y-∆ transformation can be used for the ∆-connected load.

Y-∆ transformation

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● Example Y-∆ connection and ∆ load.

U seful if transformer connected

to load or power supply through
FEEDERS
-transmission line imped3a9nce
etc.
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT IN 3-PHASE CIRCUIT

● There are 2-values to be considered, phase and line value.

i) Star Connected (Y) ii) Delta Connected (∆)

L
L
P
P
P
P
L
L

IP = IL IP = IL /√3

VP = VL/√3 VP = VL

VL = √3 VP IL = √3 IP
The line voltage lead the phase The line current lead the phase
voltage by 30° current by 30° 40
3-PHASE POWER EQUATIONS

i) Real / Active Power,  3VI  cos 

ii) Reactive Power,  3VI  sin 

iii) Apparent Power, S 3 3VI 

However in Line quantities

  3VLL I L cos

  3VLL I L sin 

  3VLL I L

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