Observation: Where a

Researcher Observes and Records

Participants’ Behaviour, But Does Not
Manipulate Any Variables.

Observations can be used as part of an experiment. I get participants to solve a puzzle in a hot or
cold room, then I observe them to see how stressed they look. I’m using an observation as part of
my experiment (manipulating an IV to measure the effects on a DV). If I just use an observation
to gather data on how stressed people are, with no manipulation or conditions, then I am carrying
out observation research, not an experiment.

Different types of observation:

Naturalistic:
This technique involves observing participants in their natural environment. It’s often used
where it would be unethical to manipulate variables.

Strengths:

 Participants are in their normal environment so are more likely to show valid behaviours
 Participants less likely to be aware they are being observed so will be genuine
 Useful for obtaining observations in situations where intervention would be unethical,
e.g. investigating behaviours in domestic abuse, you may observe couples outside a night
club on a Saturday night.
Weaknesses:

 Extraneous variables can rarely be controlled so reduces validity

 Difficult to ensure reliability of data collection, however, this can be overcome by
recording behaviours via video tape/camera.
 If observers are identified validity is compromised.

Controlled Observation:
This technique involves a situation being slightly controlled by the researcher, but with no
[Link] conducted in a laboratory type setting. For example the Milgram study. The picture
below is of a study by Milgram which was a controlled observation.

Strengths:

 Data recording is likely to be reliable becuase there is a specific focus that allows data to
be collected in a consistent manner.
 Extraneous variables can be controlled therefore increasing validity.
 Compared to experiments, a much greater range of behaviours can be explored giving a
useful insight into human behaviour

Weaknesses:

 Participants are in an unfamiliar environment so may not react naturally

 Participants will be aware that they are in an artificial situation so they may not react
naturally
 Difficult to completely represent the reality of a complex social setting so lacks
ecological validity.

Overt Observation: Participants know that they are being observed. For example the TV Big
Brother or any reality TV shows would be an example of an overt observation.

Strengths:

 Reduces ethical issues as the participants are aware that they are being observed.
 If observed for long periods of time, people tend to forget about observers and behave
more naturally, particularly when being filmed.

Weaknesses:

 Increase of social desirability as they are aware of being observed, they may change their
behaviour in a way that they feel is favourable to others, which decreases validity.
 Increase chance of demand characteristics, as the participant is aware of the researcher,
they may change their behaviour in order to fit in with what they think the researcher
wants to see.

Covert: Participants do not know they are being observed.

Strengths:

 Increases validity as participants aren’t aware of being observed, they are more likely to
act naturally.
 Less demand characteristics as the participant isn’t aware of the researcher, there would
be less chance of them changing their behaviour to fit in with the researchers
expectations.

Weaknesses:

 It creates ethical issues as the participant has not consented to being observed. This
makes it difficult to follow other ethics such as right to withdraw, debrief etc.
 If the participant becomes aware of the researchers presence, they may change their
behaviour, thus decreasing validity.

Unstructured:
Recording everything observed during the observation

Strengths:

 Increases validity as the researcher is taking into account all behaviours that are going on.
This ensures that more valid conclusions are made of behaviour, as a wide perspective is
gathered, not a small focussed one.
 Applicable to a wide range of contexts. This is a key strength as this method is extremely
easy to use when collecting data on many different situations of behaviour.

Weaknesses:

 Harder to record as the researcher has to pat attention to everything around them, this
may cause behaviours to be missed and reduce validity.
 Harder to establish reliability because there is limited focus, therefore if it were to be
replicated, the focus is likely to be different in relation to the individual carrying out the
observation.
 Open to observer bias as the researcher may only note down behaviours that support their
own theories, or behaviours that reflect what they hoped to find.

Structured:
Using predefined coding categories for behaviour :

Strengths:

 Easier to record as there is a specific focuc on certain behaviours. This increases the
validity, as the researcher is not distracted by other behaviours, or behaviours that may be
irrelevant to the research aim.
  Easier to establish inter-rater reliability. Due to the clear, planned focus on behaviour, the
research could be easily used and understood in a consistent way, also improving
replicability.

Weaknesses:

 Can reduce validity as there is a clear focus, behaviours that may be important may be
missed due to it not being part of the planned behaviours.
 Open to observer bias as the researcher may interpret behaviours in a way that fits into
the planned behavioural categories, therefore reducing validity as it may not reflect what
actually happened.

Participant observation:
The researcher is involved with the people they are observing:

Strengths:

 Only way to observe some behaviours i.e. cults/gangs

 Greater accuracy and detail as the participant is involved in the behaviour. This allows
the researcher to make more valid conclusions about behaviour as they have a greater
insight and perspective

Weaknesses:

 Harder to remain objective as the researcher may get lost in the moment and begin to
interpret behaviour at a personal level (building of relationships) which may be more
opinionated rather than what is actually happening.
 The presence of the researcher can influence behaviour, reducing validity.

Non participant observation:

The researcher remains separate from the person they are observing:

Strengths:

 Easier to remain objective as the participant is away from disrtactions and can remain
focused – increasing validity.
 The researcher has less influence on behaviour therefore chances of researcher effect are
reduced. The participant is likely to be less influenced by the researcher.

Weaknesses:

 If participants are unaware that they are being observed as part of a non-participant
observation, it can raise ethical issues such as consent and the right to withdraw.
 Less detail and accuracy as the researcher is at a distance from the participants, therefore,
some behaviours maybe interpreted or recorded inaccurately – reducing validity.
Observation sampling methods:
Sometimes an environment can be too busy to try and record everything that is happening. So we
decide how we are going to ‘sample’ the behaviour:

Event Sampling:
A data collection technique that uses a checklist of possible activities, which are tallied as they
occur.

Strengths:

 Records are easy to obtain and analyse as researchers can clearly see the total number of
behaviours foe each event. This can make analysis extremely quick and easy, especially
when looking for most or least common behaviours.
 More reliable observations as the events are already planned, therefore it could be easily
replicated to measure consistency of observational behaviours.

Weaknesses:

 Can miss important behaviours due to having set events already planned, other
behaviours that were not considered are missed – reducing validity.
 If many events occur at once it may lead to behaviours not being recorded – reducing
validity.
 It gives no indication of the amount of time spent on each behavioural category, therefore
it can sometimes lead to less valid conclusions about behaviour.

Time Sampling:
Behaviour, as specified on a predetermined checklist, is observed and recorded at specific time
intervals (e.g. every 10 minutes for a period of 15 seconds)

Types of time sampling:

Instantaneous scan sampling: The action performed at the start of each preset interval is
recorded. For example, if an observer were watching one child’s aggressive behaviour in the
playground, they might record at the start of every 10 second interval i.e. 10, 20, 30, 40 seconds,
whether he or she displayed [Link] [Link]-aggression 3. Interacting with others. They
would ignore the child’s activity at any other time.

Predominant activity sampling: The same time periods and categories can be used, but instead
the researcher watches throughout the whole interval and only records the behaviour that the
individual performed the most during that time.

One-zero sampling: The researcher can use the same time intervals as outlined above, but
instead, they would record whether the behaviours occurred or not in the time period. For
example, going back to the child aggression study, within the 10 seconds i the researcher could
have seen all three behaviours (aggression, non-aggression, interaction with others), and
therefore would tick all of them.

Strengths:

 Less likely to miss behaviours as the researcher usually has a short time to focus on
recording behaviour, therefore is more likely to be accurate.
 It can give an indication of how much time is spent on each behaviour.

Weaknesses:

 Behaviours that occur outside the time intervals are not accounted for, therefore may
reduce validity as important behaviours may be missed.
 Can be hard if lots of behaviour occurs at once
 Can miss events not coded for – reducing validity

Inter-rater reliability:
Researchers observing the same behaviour and coding the behaviour in the same way. If there is
low inter-rater reliability it suggests:
–the coding of behaviour is either vague or lacks validity
–they’re not observing the same event.

Just having multiple observers DOES NOT provide inter-rater reliability; they have to
agree first. The only way to improve inter-rater reliability is to carry out a PILOT STUDY!

Designing observations:
Behavioural categories – clearly defined behaviours are identified, which can be observed and
recorded. These may be placed on a checklist and tallied every time that behaviour occurs.

Task – what behavioural categories could be included in an observation of:

a) A student doing their homework? – Making notes/biting pen/scratching head
b) A child in a room with toys?
c) A teacher in a classroom?

Coding Frames – Allow for more specific behaviours to be observed with in a behaviour
category. Codes and abbreviations can be used to record the severity of behaviours or a different
sub-type within a category.

Example of Behavioural Category – Kicking, Punching

Example Codes – Kung Fu Kick – KFK,
Severity of strength of the Kicks–K1,K2,K3,K4,K5

Strengths of observations in general:

  See how people behave rather than how they say they behave.
 Allows us to study variables it would be unethical to manipulate e.g. behaviour in
prisons.
 Useful as pilot to generate hypothesis for future research.

Weaknesses of observations:

 Difficult to replicate
 Does not provide us with thoughts or feelings, only behaviour
 No manipulating variables, so can’t establish cause and effect
 Observer bias
 Observer effect
 Time consuming and requires careful preparation

To increase validity of observations:

 Carry out a covert observation so participants don’t change their behaviour (observer
effect)
 Double blind observations to reduce observer bias
 Clearly operationalised coding system.

To increase reliability of observations:

 Clearly operationalised coding system

 Check inter-rater reliability
 Train researchers to use coding system to ensure there is a consistent understadning of the
behavioural categories
 Conduct a pilot study to check behaviour categories