James-Lange theory of Emotions

- William James (1948) and Carl Lange (1885) devised two distinct theories
surrounding physiology and emotions independently. While James emphasized the
various somatic and visceral responses to stimuli that can prompt conscious emotional
experiences, Lange had a specific emphasis. To Lange, emotion was a cardiovascular
event (Lang, 1994).

- William James’ (1884) theory of emotion proposed that there are a set of basic
emotions (such as anger), and that each of these emotions has its own associated
physical state (emotional measurement).
.

- James believed that the object of psychology was “a science of relations of mind and
brain,” and that it “must show how the elementary ingredients of the former
correspond to the elementary functions of the latter” .

How Does the James-Lange Theory Work?

- According to this theory, witnessing an external stimulus leads to a physiological

response. Your emotional reaction depends on how you interpret those physical
reactions.

Example
Suppose you are walking in the woods, and you see a grizzly bear. You begin to tremble, and
your heart begins to race. The James-Lange theory proposes that you will interpret your
physical reactions and conclude that you are frightened ("I am trembling. Therefore I am
afraid.")

- William James explained, "My thesis, on the contrary, is that the bodily changes
follow directly the PERCEPTION of the exciting fact and that our feeling of the same
changes as they occur IS the emotion."

For another example, imagine that you are walking through a dark parking garage toward
your car. You notice a dark figure trailing behind you and your heart begins to race.
According to the James-Lange theory, you then interpret your physical reactions to the
stimulus as fear. Therefore, you feel frightened and rush to your car as quickly as you can.

- Both James and Lange believed that while it was possible to imagine experiencing an
emotion such as fear or anger, your imagined version of the emotion would be a flat
facsimile of the real feeling.

Why? Because they felt that without the actual physiological response that they believed
precipitated the emotions, it would be impossible to experience these emotions "on demand."
In other words, the physical reaction needs to be present in order to actually experience real
emotion

Impact of the James-Lange Theory

James-Lange theory of emotion came to influence a century of empirical emotional research
and rebuttals of the James-Lange theory of emotion, notably Cannon-Bard’s 1927 critique,
have spurned long-standing debates in neuroscience and psychology (Lang, 1994).

Cannon-Bard theory of Emotion

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion (1927) states that changes of emotional state and changes in
the autonomic nervous system occur simultaneously but independently, both caused by the
arrival of the same sensory input at the thalamus.

Cannon-Bard’s “centralist” theory of emotion emphasizes how emotions affect, firstly, the
brain and nervous system. The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion assumes that stimuli elicit
physiological and “affective,” conscious emotional responses simultaneously.

Cannon-Bard (1925) proposed their theory of emotion as a direct response to the previously
predominant James-Lange theory of emotion. In the article,

The James-Lange Theory of Emotions: A Critical Examination and An Alternative

Theory (1927), Cannon offers five main criticisms of James-Lange: (TO BE WRITTEN
UNDER 1O MARKS OR FOR CRITICAL EVALUATION ONLY)

1. total separation of the viscera from the central nervous system does not alter
emotional behavior;
2. the same visceral changes occur in very different emotional states and in non-
emotional states;
3. the viscera are relatively insensitive structures;
4. visceral changes are too slow to be a source of emotional feeling; and finally,
5. artificial induction of the visceral changes typical of strong emotions does not produce
them.

Example 2
To clarify the James-Lange theory of emotion, consider someone who experiences road rage
while driving a car. Say that this person has just been cut off by a nearby car. This event is an
external stimulus.
In response to being cut off, the person’s heart may race, their face may flush, their jaw may
clench, and their hands may shake. The James-Lange theory of emotion would argue that
these physiological reactions are characteristic of anger.

Thus, the person experiencing these symptoms may feel angry as a direct response to these
reactions, and behave accordingly.

The James-Lange theory of emotion would also argue that, if someone had these
physiological reactions without a stimulus — say, if a machine somehow could raise their
heart rate and clench their jaw — then the person would still register the emotion of anger.

Facial Feedback Hypothesis (Important)

- The facial feedback hypothesis stems from the underlying principles of the James-
Lange theory of emotion in the belief that physiological responses to stimuli generate
emotion.

- In the words of facial feedback researcher Tomkins (1962), emotions are “sets of
muscle and glandular responses located in the face.”

- In one such study, Hennenlotter (2007) asked participants to perform a facial

expression imitation task before and after being injected with Botox, which paralyzes
and restricts the movement of facial muscles.

- The researchers found that those who had been injected with Botox experienced less
activation of brain regions associated with emotional processing when asked to
imitate angry facial expressions.

- Unable to imitate negative facial expressions, Hennenlotter et. al. postulated that
Botox injections would lead to fewer negative emotions, and that the drug could be
used to treat symptoms of depressions. Further studies have supported the facial
feedback hypothesis.

- For example, there has been evidence that smiling while reading cartoons correlates
with greater levels of amusement (Hennenlotter, 2007), and that those with facial
paralysis are more likely to experience depression (Hennenlotter, 2007).

- This hypothesis was tested by Hennenlotter, who used Botox to treat ten patients with
depression by means of suppressing muscles associated with frowning. Negative
effects decreased in all patients, with nine no longer experiencing depressive
symptoms.
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Two Factor Theory of Emotion

According to one major theory of emotion, there are two key components:
 ● physical arousal and
● a cognitive label

The experience of emotion involves first having some kind of physiological response which
the mind then identifies.

One of the earliest cognitive theories of emotion was one proposed by Stanley Schachter and
Jerome Singer, known as the two-factor theory of emotion.

Schachter and Singer felt that physical arousal played a primary in emotions.
The two-factor theory of emotion focuses on the interaction between physical arousal and
how we cognitively label that arousal. In other words, simply feeling arousal is not enough;
we also must identify the arousal in order to feel the emotion.

Imagine you are alone in a dark parking lot walking toward your car. A strange man suddenly
emerges from a nearby row of trees and rapidly approaches. The sequence that follows,
according to the two-factor theory, would be much like this:
1. I see a strange man walking toward me.
2. My heart is racing and I am trembling.
3. My rapid heart rate and trembling are caused by fear.
4. I am frightened!

The process begins with the stimulus (the strange man), which is followed by the physical
arousal (rapid heartbeat and trembling). Added to this is the cognitive label (associating the
physical reactions to fear), which is immediately followed by the conscious experience of the
emotion (fear).

The immediate environment plays an important role in how physical responses are identified
and labelled. In the example above, the dark, lonely setting and the sudden presence of an
ominous stranger contributes to the identification of the emotion as fear.

Schachter and Singer’s Experiment (add in case of 10 marks)

● In a 1962 experiment, Schachter and Singer put their theory to the test. A group of
184 male participants was injected with epinephrine, a hormone that produces arousal
including increased heartbeat, trembling, and rapid breathing.

● All of the participants were told that they were being injected with a new drug to test
their eyesight. However, one group of participants was informed of the possible side-
effects that the injection might cause while the other group of participants was not.
Participants were then placed in a room with another participant who was actually a
confederate in the experiment.
 ● The confederate either acted in one of two ways: euphoric or angry. Participants who
had not been informed about the effects of the injection were more likely to feel either
happier or angrier than those who had been informed.

● Those who were in a room with the euphoric confederate were more likely to interpret
the side effects of the drug as happiness, while those exposed to the angry confederate
were more likely to interpret their feelings as anger.

● Schacter and Singer had hypothesized that if people experienced an emotion for
which they had no explanation, they would then label these feelings using their
feelings at the moment.

● The results of the experiment suggested that participants who had no explanation for
their feelings were more likely to be susceptible to the emotional influences of the
confederate.

Criticism of Two-Factor Theory (In case of Critical evaluation)

- Other researchers have only partially supported the findings of the original study and
have at times shown contradictory results.

- In replications by Marshall and Zimbardo, the researchers found that participants were
no more likely to act euphoric when exposed to a euphoric confederate than when
they were exposed to a neutral confederate.

- In another study by Maslach, hypnotic suggestion was used to induce arousal rather
than injecting epinephrine. The results suggested that unexplained physical arousal
was more likely to generate negative emotions no matter which type of confederate
condition they were exposed to.

- Other criticisms of the two-factor theory include, sometimes emotions are

experienced before we think about them. Other researchers have supported James-
Lange's initial suggestion that there are actual physiological differences between
emotions.
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BRAIN AREAS ASSOCIATED WITH EMOTIONS

Emotions can be explained in biological and neurological terms. The limbic system,
autonomic nervous system, and reticular activating system all interact to assist the body in
experiencing and processing emotions.

The Limbic System :

 - The limbic system is the area of the brain most heavily implicated in emotion and
memory.
- Its structures include the hypothalamus, thalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus.
- The hypothalamus plays a role in the activation of the sympathetic nervous system,
which is a part of any emotional reaction.
- The thalamus serves as a sensory relay centre; its neurons project signals to both the
amygdala and the higher cortical regions for further processing.
- The amygdala plays a role in processing emotional information and sending that
information on to cortical structures
- . The hippocampus integrates emotional experience with cognition.

The processes of the limbic system control our physical and emotional responses to
environmental stimuli. This system categorises the experience of an emotion as a pleasant or
unpleasant mental state. Based on this categorization, neurochemicals such as dopamine,
noradrenaline, and serotonin increase or decrease, causing the brain's activity level to
fluctuate and resulting in changes in body movement, gestures, and poses.

The Amygdala
- The amygdala plays a decisive role in the emotional evaluation and recognition of
situations as well as in the analysis of potential threats. It handles external stimuli and
induces vegetative reactions.
- Research suggests that the amygdala is involved in mood and anxiety disorders.
Changes in amygdala structure and function have been found in adolescents who
either are at risk for or have been diagnosed with a mood or anxiety disorder. It has
also been suggested that functional differences in the amygdala could be used to
differentiate individuals suffering from bipolar disorder from those suffering from
major depressive disorder .

The Hippocampus

- The hippocampus is also involved in emotional processing.

- Individuals suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) show marked
reductions in volume in several parts of the hippocampus.
- Studies have found improvements in behavior as well as increase in hippocampal
volume following either pharmacological or cognitive behavioral therapy in
individuals suffering from PTSD

The Autonomic Nervous System

- The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is part of the peripheral nervous system in
humans. It is regulated by the hypothalamus and controls our internal organs and
glands, including such processes as pulse, blood pressure, breathing, and arousal in
response to emotional circumstances.
 - The ANS can be further subdivided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
systems.
- When activated, the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) controls the endocrine glands
to prepare the body for emergency action.
- SNS activation causes the adrenal glands to produce epinephrine (also known as
adrenaline), which results in the "fight-or-flight" response. The fight-or-flight
response involves increased blood flow to the muscles, increased heart rate, and other
physiological responses that enable the body to move more quickly and feel less pain
in situations perceived to be dangerous.
- Conversely, the parasympathetic nervous system (PN) functions when the body is
relaxed or at rest; it helps the body store energy for future use.
- Effects of PN activation include increased stomach activity and decreased blood flow
to the muscles
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PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF FEAR AND AGGRESSION

FEAR
- The integration of components of fear are controlled by Amygdala
- It becomes active when an emotional relevant stimuli are presented: smoke, fragrance,
face etc
- Amygdala consist of many (12) regions and subregions where 5 are of major:
Medial nucleus, lateral nucleus, basal nucleus, accessory basal nucleus, central
nucleus

Medial Nucleus A group of sub-nuclei of the amygdala that receives

sensory input, including information about the presence of
odours and pheromones, and relays it to the medial basal
forebrain and hypothalamus.

Lateral nucleus A nucleus of the amygdala that receives sensory

information from the neocortex, thalamus, and
hippocampus and send projections to the basal, accessory
basal and central nucleus of the amygdala.

Central Nucleus The region of the amygdala that receives information from
the basal, lateral, and accessory basal nuclei and sends
projections to a wide variety of regions in the brain;
involved in emotional responses.

Central Nucleus
The central nucleus of the amygdala is the single most important part of the brain for
emotional responses provoked by aversive stimuli. When threatening stimuli are present, both
the neural activity of the central nucleus and the production of Fos protein increase. Its
damage makes the animal tame and activation makes it aggressive. LeDoux and his
colleagues have shown that the central nucleus is necessary for the development of a
conditioned emotional response

Amygdala (In Humans)

- Some investigators have sug gested that anxiety disorders are caused by hyperactivity
of the central nucleus of the amygdala.
- These studies found that stimulation of parts of the brain (for example, the
hypothalamus) produced autonomic responses that are often as sociated with fear and
anxiety but that only when the amygdala was stimulated did people also report that
they actually fit afraid

Anger and Aggression

Aggressive behaviors are species-typical; that is, the patterns of movements (for ex ample,
posturing, biting, striking, and hissing) are orga nized by neural circuits whose development
is largely programmed by an animal's genes. Usually happens in a defensive or predation
behaviour.

IN HUMANS: Several studies have found that serotonergic neurons play an inhibitory role
in human aggression. For example, a depressed rate of serotonin release are associated with
aggression and other forms of antisocial behavior, including assault, arson, murder, and child
beating . In fact, a study by Coccaro and Kavoussi (1997) found that fluoxetine (Prozac), a
serotonin agonist, decreased irritability and aggressiveness.

Role of the Prefrontal Cortex

- The orbitofrontal cortex is located at the base of the frontal lobes. It covers the part of
the brain just above the bones that form the eye sockets
- Its inputs provide it with information about what is happening in the environment and
what plans are being made by the rest of the frontal lobes, and its outputs permit it to
affect a variety of behaviours and physiological responses, including emotional
responses organised by the amygdala
- The amygdala plays an important role in provoking anger and violent emotional
reactions, and the prefrontal cortex plays an important role in suppressing such
behaviour by making us see its negative consequences.

Effects of Androgens on Human Aggressive Behaviour

● After puberty androgens also begin to have activational effects. Boys' testosterone
levels begin to increase during the early teens, at which time aggressive behavior and
intermale fighting also increase (Mazur, 1983).
● Archer (1994) found that most studies found a positive relationship between men's
testosterone levels and their level of aggressiveness.
 ● The men with the highest testosterone levels had records of more antisocial activities,
including assaults of other adults and histories of more trouble with parents, teachers,
and classmates during adolescence.
● Those receiving the highest doses reported more euphoria and sexual arousal but also
more irritability and feelings of hostility.

Neural Basis of the Communication of Emotions: Recognition

● We recognize other people's feelings by means of vision and audition—seeing their

facial expressions and hearing their tone of voice and choice of words. Many studies
have found that the right hemisphere plays a more important role than the left
hemisphere in comprehension of emotion.
● For example, many investigators have found a left-ear and a left-visual field
advantage in recognition of emotionally related stimuli
● In studies of hemispherical differences in visual recognition, stimuli are usually
presented to the left or right visual field so rapidly that the subject does not have time
to move his or her eyes.
● Left hemisphere is better than the right at recognizing words or letter strings but the
right hemisphere is better at detecting differences in facial expressions of emotion.
● Blonder, Bowers, and Heilman (1991) found that patients with right hemisphere
lesions had no difficulty making emotional judgments about particular situations but
were severely impaired in judging the emotions conveyed by facial expressions or
hand gestures

Neural Basis of the Communication of Emotions: Expression

● Ekman and Davidson have confirmed an early observation by a nineteenth-century

neurologist, Guillaume-Benjamin Duchenne de Boulogne, that genuinely happy
smiles, as opposed to false smiles or social smiles people make when they greet
someone else, involve contraction of a muscle near the eyes, the lateral part of the
orbicularis oculi.
● volitional facial paresis, is caused by damage to the face region of the primary motor
cortex or to the fibres connecting this region with the motor nucleus of the facial
nerve, which controls the muscles responsible for movement of the facial muscles
● In contrast, emotional facial paresis is caused by damage to the insular region of the
prefrontal cortex, to the white matter of the frontal lobe or to parts of thalamus. Also,
related to facial muscles controlled through pons and medulla.