Module 4

Lateral Loads

OVERVIEW
Wind loads and earthquake loads are lateral loads that needs to be
consider during the analysis of structure. This module discusses
about the design procedure for wind and earthquake load analysis.

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE LEARNERS

Read carefully the contents of this module. For you to have a better
understanding of the lesson, review/additional knowledge of some
related topics were given on "Additional Readings". Do the exercises
to assess your learnings.

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES (ILOs)

At the end of this module, you will be able to:
Identify wind load and seismic load parameters.
Solve for the design wind pressure.
Solve for the design base shear.

OUTLINE OF TOPICS
The topics that will be discussed in this module are as follows:
Code provisions – NSCP C101
Wind Load
Earthquake Load

DURATION
3.0 hrs

Photo taken from: [Link]

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Lateral Loads

Loads that acts parallel to the ground are called lateral loads. It is a live load with
the horizontal force acting as the main component. Wind load, earthquake load,
water and earth pressure are the common lateral loads on structures.

Lateral force transfer is accomplished first through the girders and braces, which
transfer the imposed loads to the columns in the Lateral-Force Resisting System
(LFRS). Secondary beams or beams and columns in gravity-only frames do not
contribute to carry lateral forces.

Floor Girders Braces Columns Foundation

Source: www. [Link]

Fig. 4.1

1. Code provisions – NSCP C101

Section 207 of NSCP provides code specification for the design of structure to
resist wind loads. There are four (4) permitted procedures for the determination
of the wind loads for the Main Wind Force Resisting System (MWFRS) such as
follows:

a. Directional Procedure for Buildings of All Heights (Section 207B)

b. Envelope Procedure for Low-Rise Buildings (Section 207C)
c. Directional Procedure for Building Appurtenances and Other Structures
(Section 207D)

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d. Wind Tunnel Procedure for All Buildings and Other Structures (Section
207F)

But this module will focus on the discussion of the overall process of determining
wind load using the Directional Procedure.

On the other hand, earthquake provisions to design seismic-resistant structures

is presented on Section 208. It will be discussed on the last part of this module.

2. Wind Load

When the wind blows in an enclosed building the wind flows around the sides and
over the roof and either a pressure or a suction is produced on the external
surfaces of the building as shown in the figure below.

Source: www. [Link]

Fig. 4.2. Wind Pressure

D.2.1. Basic Parameters for Determining Wind Loads

There are seven (7) parameters needed for the determination of wind loads which
are as follows:

a. Basic wind speed, V

- shall be determined on Figure 207A.5-1 of NSCP. It is based on the
category type and the location of the building.
b. Wind directionality factor, 𝐾𝑑
- shall be determined from Table 207A.6-1 of NSCP. It is based on the
structure type to be designed. For buildings, 𝐾𝑑 = 0.85.

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c. Exposure category
- the upwind exposure is based on ground surface roughness that is
determined from natural topography, vegetation, and constructed
facilities. It shall be determined from Figure C207A.7-2 of NSCP.
d. Topographic factor, 𝐾𝑧𝑡
- the wind speed-up effect shall only be considered in the calculation of
design wind loads only if the structure is located at either isolated hills,
ridges, and escarpments. When applicable, 𝐾𝑧𝑡 can be calculated based
on Sec. 207A.8.2 of NSCP.
e. Gust effect factor, G
- the gust effect factor accounts for the loading effects in the along-wind
direction due to wind turbulence-structure interaction. The gust-effect
factor for a rigid building or other structure is permitted to be taken as
0.85.
f. Enclosure classification
- the enclosure type of building is to be determined based on the
amount of opening on the building envelope. Enclosure types are as
follows:
• Partially Enclosed Building - is a building that complies with both
of the following conditions:
(1) The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive
external pressure exceeds the sum of the areas of
openings in the balance of the building envelope (walls and
roof) by more than 10%.
(2) The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive
external pressure exceeds 0.37 sq.m.
(3) 1% of the area of that wall, whichever is smaller, and the
percentage of openings in the balance of the building
envelope does not exceed 20%.
• Open Building – a building having each wall at least 80% open.
•Enclosed Building – building that does not satisfy the conditions
for partially enclosed or open building.
g. Internal pressure coefficient, 𝐺𝐶𝑝𝑖
- shall be determined from Table 207A.11-1 of NSCP based on building
enclosure classifications.

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D.2.2. Directional Procedure

The Directional Procedure is the traditional wind design procedure that can be
used for structures of any height. This method is a function of the wind direction
with different pressure coefficients for the windward face, leeward face, side
faces, and roof.

Part I of this approach applies to buildings of all heights where it is necessary to

separate applied wind loads onto the windward, leeward, and side walls of the
building to properly assess the internal forces in the MWFRS members.

Steps to determine MWFRS wind loads for buildings of all heights:

• Determine risk category of building or other strucuture (refer to Table 103-1

Step 1 of NSCP)

• Determine the seven (7) wind load parameters.

Step 2

• Determine velocity pressure exposure coefficient, 𝐾𝑧 or 𝐾ℎ (refer to Table

Step 3 207B.3-1)

• Determine velocity pressure 𝑞𝑧 or 𝑞ℎ using Eq. 207B.3-1 of NSCP

Step 4

• Determine external pressure coefficient, 𝐶𝑝 or 𝐶𝑛 based Fig. 207B.4-1 to 7.

Step 5

• Calculate wind pressure, p, on each building surface using Eq. 207B.4-1 to 3.

Step 6

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Sample Problem 4.1:

A 3-story residential building has the following parameters:

Roof Mean Height= 9m

Total height of the building from the ground= 12m
Exposure Category: B
Location: F. Pimentel Ave., Brgy. II, Daet, Camarines Norte
Plan Dimension: 8m × 9m
Gable Roof with 15 degrees slope
The total area of opening in every wall that receives positive external
pressure is 0.20m².
Wind Direction parallel with the least dimension of the building.

Determine the design wind load on the structure.

Solution:

Step 1: Risk category of building.

Educational buildings fall under Category III.

Step 2: Wind Load Parameters.

2a. Basic wind speed, V

Based on Fig. 207A.5-1A, V = 290 kph

2b. Wind directionality factor

𝐾𝑑 = 0.85

2c. Exposure category: B

2d. Topographic factor

𝐾𝑧𝑡 = 1.0 (since it is not located along hills or escarpment)

2e. Gust effect factor

G = 0.85

2f. Enclosure classification

Enclosed building since the opening does not exceed 0.37 sq.m.

2g. Internal pressure coefficient

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𝐺𝐶𝑝𝑖 = ±0.18

Step 3: Velocity pressure exposure coefficient

➢ To calculate 𝐾𝑧 (for the computation on windward wall)

Using the values z = 12m and Exposure B
𝐾𝑧 = 0.76
➢ To calculate 𝐾ℎ (for the computation on leeward wall and sidewall)
Using the values h = 9m and Exposure B
𝐾ℎ = 0.70

Step 4: Velocity pressure

➢ To calculate 𝑞𝑧 (for the computation on windward wall)

𝒒𝒛 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟑𝑲𝒛𝑲𝒛𝒕 𝑲𝒅 𝑽𝟐
Note that V must be in meter per second. V = 290 km/h = 80.56 m/s
𝑞𝑧 = 0.613(0.76)(1)(0.85)(80.562 )
𝑁
𝑞𝑧 = 2,569.71 2 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟕 𝒌𝑷𝒂
𝑚
➢ To calculate 𝑞ℎ (for the computation on leeward wall and side wall)
𝒒𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟑𝑲𝒉 𝑲𝒛𝒕 𝑲𝒅 𝑽𝟐
Note that V must be in meter per second. V = 290 km/h = 80.56 m/s
𝑞ℎ = 0.613(0.70)(1)(0.85)(80.562 )
𝑁
𝑞ℎ = 2,367.01 2 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟕 𝒌𝑷𝒂
𝑚

Step 5: External pressure coefficient

The values needed to determine wall pressure coefficients are L and B.

L – building plan dimension parallel to wind direction (in meters)

B – building plan dimension perpendicular to wind direction (in meters)

L = 8m; B = 9m

L/B = 8/9 = 0.89 h/L = 9/8 = 1.13

Pressure coefficient, 𝑪𝒑
Windward wall 0.8
Leeward wall -0.5

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Sidewall -0.7
Roof
(a) windward side -1.3
(b) leeward side -0.6

Source: www. [Link]

Fig.3.3. External wind pressure application on structure

Step 6: Wind pressure

𝒑 = 𝒒𝑮𝑪𝒑 − 𝒒𝒊 (𝑮𝑪𝒑𝒊 )

where 𝐺𝐶𝑝𝑖 – internal pressure coefficient (refer to Table 207A.11-1)

The positive and negative value of 𝐺𝐶𝑝𝑖 shall be considered to determine

the critical load requirements.

➢ Windward pressure

𝑝 = 𝑞𝐺𝐶𝑝 − 𝑞𝑖 (𝐺𝐶𝑝𝑖 )

where 𝑞 = 𝑞𝑧 , 𝑞𝑖 = 𝑞ℎ

𝑝 = (2.57)(0.85)(0.8) − (2.37)(0.18)

𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒 𝒌𝑷𝒂

𝑝 = (2.57)(0.85)(0.8) − (2.37)(−0.18)

𝒑 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟕 𝒌𝑷𝒂

➢ Leeward pressure

𝑝 = 𝑞𝐺𝐶𝑝 − 𝑞𝑖 𝐺𝐶𝑝𝑖

where 𝑞 = 𝑞ℎ , 𝑞𝑖 = 𝑞ℎ

𝑝 = (2.37)(0.85)(−0.5) − (2.37)(0.18)

𝒑 = −𝟏. 𝟒𝟑 𝒌𝑷𝒂

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𝑝 = (2.37)(0.85)(−0.5) − (2.37)(−0.18)

𝒑 = −𝟎. 𝟓𝟖 𝒌𝑷𝒂

➢ Sidewall pressure

𝑝 = 𝑞𝐺𝐶𝑝 − 𝑞𝑖 𝐺𝐶𝑝𝑖

where 𝑞 = 𝑞ℎ , 𝑞𝑖 = 𝑞ℎ

𝑝 = (2.37)(0.85)(−0.7) − (2.37)(0.18)

𝒑 = −𝟏. 𝟖𝟒 𝒌𝑷𝒂

𝑝 = (2.37)(0.85)(0.8) − (2.37)(−0.18)

𝒑 = −𝟎. 𝟗𝟖 𝒌𝑷𝒂

➢ Roof pressure

𝑝 = 𝑞𝐺𝐶𝑝 − 𝑞𝑖 𝐺𝐶𝑝𝑖

For windward side, 𝑞 = 𝑞𝑧 , 𝑞𝑖 = 𝑞ℎ

𝑝 = (2.57)(0.85)(−1.3) − (2.37)(0.18)

𝒑 = −𝟑. 𝟐𝟕 𝒌𝑷𝒂

𝑝 = (2.57)(0.85)(−1.3) − (2.37)(−0.18)

𝒑 = −𝟐. 𝟒𝟏 𝒌𝑷𝒂

For leeward side, 𝑞 = 𝑞ℎ , 𝑞𝑖 = 𝑞ℎ

𝑝 = (2.37)(0.85)(−0.6) − (2.37)(0.18)

𝒑 = −𝟏. 𝟔𝟒 𝒌𝑷𝒂

𝑝 = (2.37)(0.85)(−0.6) − (2.37)(−0.18)

𝒑 = −𝟎. 𝟕𝟖 𝒌𝑷𝒂

D.3. Earthquake Loads

Earthquakes are the result of an abrupt rupture along a fault zone below the
earth’s surface. This rupture causes ground vibrations which produce inertial
forces in a structure that may cause severe damage unless the structure is
appropriately designed and constructed.

The code provides earthquake provisions which aims to design seismic-resistant

structures to safeguard against major structural damage that may lead to loss of

Design of Steel Structures Engr. Ailene C. de Vela