Unit 4 Knowledge

Important link:
[Link]

[Link]
Important Question
Logical Agents
Q. What is Knowledge-Based Agent?
Knowledge-Based Agent in Artificial intelligence
The architecture of knowledge-based agent:

The above diagram is representing a generalized architecture for a knowledge-based

agent. The knowledge-based agent (KBA) takes input from the environment by
perceiving the environment. The input is taken by the inference engine of the agent and
which also communicate with KB to decide as per the knowledge store in KB. The
learning element of KBA regularly updates the KB by learning new knowledge.

o The knowledge-based agent includes a knowledge base and an inference system.

o A knowledge base is a set of representations of facts of the world.
o Each individual representation is called a sentence. 
o The sentence is expressed in a knowledge representation language.
o An intelligent agent needs knowledge about the real world for taking decisions
and reasoning to act efficiently.
 o Knowledge base: Knowledge-base is a central component of a
knowledge-based agent, it is also known as KB. It is a collection of sentences
(here 'sentence' is a technical term and it is not identical to sentence in English).
These sentences are expressed in a language which is called a knowledge
representation language. The Knowledge-base of KBA stores fact about the
world.

o Why use a knowledge base?

o Knowledge-base is required for updating knowledge for an agent to learn with
experiences and take action as per the knowledge.
o Knowledge-based agents are those agents who have the capability
of maintaining an internal state of knowledge, reason over that knowledge,
update their knowledge after observations and take actions. These agents
can represent the world with some formal representation and act
intelligently.
o Knowledge-based agents are composed of two main parts:
o Knowledge-base and
o Inference system or Inference Engine

A knowledge-based agent must able to do the following:

o An agent should be able to represent states, actions, etc.

o An agent Should be able to incorporate new percepts
o An agent can update the internal representation of the world
o An agent can deduce the internal representation of the world
o An agent can deduce appropriate actions.

Q. Explain backward and forward chaining and

backward chaining with suitable example?
Inference system
Inference means deriving new sentences from old. Inference system allows us to add
a new sentence to the knowledge base. A sentence is a proposition (fact) about the
world.

Inference system applies logical rules to the KB to deduce new information.

Inference system generates new facts so that an agent can update the KB. An inference
system works mainly in two rules which are given as:

o Forward chaining
o Backward chaining

Forward chaining and backward chaining in AI

 In a rule-based expert system, the domain knowledge is
represented by a set of IF-THEN production rules and data
is represented by a set of facts about the current situation.
 The inference engine compares each rule stored in the
knowledge base with facts contained in the database.
 When the IF (condition) part of the rule matches a fact, the
rule is fired and its THEN (action) part is executed.
 The matching of the rule IF parts to the facts produce
inference chains.
 The inference chain indicates how an expert system
applies the rules to reach a conclusion.

Inference engine cycles via a match -fire

Procedure
 

Forward chaining /Induction

 Forward chaining is one of the two main methods of
reasoning when using inference rules.
 Forward chaining is a popular implementation strategy for
expert systems, business and production rule and systems.
 Forward chaining starts with the available data and uses
inference rules to extract more data until a goal is
reached.
 An inference engine using forward chaining searches the
inference rules until it finds one where the If clause is
known to be true.
 When such a rule is found, the engine can conclude, the
Then clause, resulting in the addition of new information
to its data.
 Inference engines will iterate through this process until a
goal is reached. 
 Example: 
 Rule 1:     IF         Y is true
                 AND    D is true 
                 THEN  Z is true
Rule 2:      IF        X is true
                 AND    B is true
                 AND    E is true
                 THEN  Y is true
Rule 3:      IF         A is true
                 THEN  X is true

Backward Chaining/Induction
  Backward chaining (or backward reasoning) is an inference
method that can be described as working backward from
the goal(s).
 It is used in automated theorem provers, proof assistants
and other artificial Intelligence applications.
 In game theory, its application to (simpler) subgames in
order to find a solution to the game is called backward
induction.
 Backward chaining starts with a list of goals (or a
hypothesis) and works backwards from the consequent to
the antecedent to see if there is data available that will
support any of these consequents.
 An inference engine using backward chaining would search
the inference rules until it finds one which has a
consequent (Then clause) that matches a desired goal.
 For example,

How do we choose between forward and

backward chaining?
 If an expert first needs to gather some information and
then tries to infer from it whatever can be inferred, choose
the forward chaining inference engine.
 However, if your expert begins with a hypothetical
solution and then attempts to find facts to prove it, choose
the backward chaining inference engine.
 Operations Performed by KBA
Following are three operations which are performed by KBA in order to show the
intelligent behavior:

1. TELL: This operation tells the knowledge base what it perceives from the
environment.
2. ASK: This operation asks the knowledge base what action it should perform.
3. Perform: It performs the selected action.

A generic knowledge-based agent:

Following is the structure outline of a generic knowledge-based agents program:

1. function KB-AGENT(percept):  
2. persistent: KB, a knowledge base   
3.           t, a counter, initially 0, indicating time   
4. TELL(KB, MAKE-PERCEPT-SENTENCE(percept, t))   
5. Action = ASK(KB, MAKE-ACTION-QUERY(t))   
6. TELL(KB, MAKE-ACTION-SENTENCE(action, t))  
7.  t = t + 1  
8.  return action   

The knowledge-based agent takes percept as input and returns an action as output.

The agent maintains the knowledge base, KB, and it initially has some background
knowledge of the real world. It also has a counter to indicate the time for the whole
process, and this counter is initialized with zero.

Each time when the function is called, it performs its three operations:

o Firstly it TELLs the KB what it perceives.

 o Secondly, it asks KB what action it should take
o Third agent program TELLS the KB that which action was chosen.

The MAKE-PERCEPT-SENTENCE generates a sentence as setting that the agent

perceived the given percept at the given time.

The MAKE-ACTION-QUERY generates a sentence to ask which action should be taken at

the current time.

MAKE-ACTION-SENTENCE generates a sentence which asserts that the chosen action

was executed.

Various levels of knowledge-based agent:

Q. Explain in detail knowledge-based agent:
A knowledge-based agent can be viewed at different levels which are given below:

1. Knowledge level
Knowledge level is the first level of knowledge-based agent, and in this level, we need to
specify what the agent knows, and what the agent goals are. With these specifications,
we can fix its behavior. For example, suppose an automated taxi agent needs to go
from a station A to station B, and he knows the way from A to B, so this comes at
the knowledge level.

2. Logical level:
At this level, we understand that how the knowledge representation of knowledge is
stored. At this level, sentences are encoded into different logics. At the logical level, an
encoding of knowledge into logical sentences occurs. For example, at the logical level
we can expect to the automated taxi agent to reach to the destination B.

The level at which the knowledge is included into logical sentences.

 - Example: Links (GoldenGateBridge , San Fransisco , MarinCountry.)

3. Implementation level:
This is the physical representation of logic and knowledge. At the implementation level
agent perform actions as per logical and knowledge level. At this level, an automated
taxi agent actually implement his knowledge and logic so that he can reach to the
destination.

Approaches to designing a knowledge-based agent:

There are mainly two approaches to build a knowledge-based agent:

1. Declarative approach: We can create a knowledge-based agent by initializing

with an empty knowledge base and telling the agent all the sentences with which
we want to start with. This approach is called Declarative approach.

2. Procedural approach: In the procedural approach, we directly encode desired

behavior as a program code. Which means we just need to write a program that
already encodes the desired behavior or agent?

However, in the real world, a successful agent can be built by combining both
declarative and procedural approaches, and declarative knowledge can often be
compiled into more efficient procedural code.

What is knowledge representation?

Humans are best at understanding, reasoning, and interpreting knowledge. Human
knows things, which is knowledge and as per their knowledge they perform various
actions in the real world. But how machines do all these things comes under
knowledge representation and reasoning. Hence we can describe Knowledge
representation as following:

o Knowledge representation and reasoning (KR, KRR) is the part of Artificial

intelligence which concerned with AI agents thinking and how thinking
contributes to intelligent behavior of agents.
o It is responsible for representing information about the real world so that a
computer can understand and can utilize this knowledge to solve the complex
real world problems such as diagnosis a medical condition or communicating
with humans in natural language.
 o It is also a way which describes how we can represent knowledge in artificial
intelligence. Knowledge representation is not just storing data into some
database, but it also enables an intelligent machine to learn from that knowledge
and experiences so that it can behave intelligently like a human.

Types of knowledge
Following are the various types of knowledge:

1. Declarative Knowledge:

o Declarative knowledge is to know about something.

o It includes concepts, facts, and objects.
o It is also called descriptive knowledge and expressed in declarative sentences.
o It is simpler than procedural language.

2. Procedural Knowledge

o It is also known as imperative knowledge.

 o Procedural knowledge is a type of knowledge which is responsible for knowing
how to do something.
o It can be directly applied to any task.
o It includes rules, strategies, procedures, agendas, etc.
o Procedural knowledge depends on the task on which it can be applied.

3. Meta-knowledge:

o Knowledge about the other types of knowledge is called Meta-knowledge.

4. Heuristic knowledge:

o Heuristic knowledge is representing knowledge of some experts in a filed or

subject.
o Heuristic knowledge is rules of thumb based on previous experiences, awareness
of approaches, and which are good to work but not guaranteed.
o Example subject choices

5. Structural knowledge:

o Structural knowledge is basic knowledge to problem-solving.

o It describes relationships between various concepts such as kind of, part of, and
grouping of something.
o It describes the relationship that exists between concepts or objects.

The relation between knowledge and intelligence:

Knowledge of real-worlds plays a vital role in intelligence and same for creating artificial
intelligence. Knowledge plays an important role in demonstrating intelligent behavior in
AI agents. An agent is only able to accurately act on some input when he has some
knowledge or experience about that input.

Let's suppose if you met some person who is speaking in a language which you don't
know, then how you will able to act on that. The same thing applies to the intelligent
behavior of the agents.
As we can see in below diagram, there is one decision maker which act by sensing the
environment and using knowledge. But if the knowledge part will not present then, it
cannot display intelligent behavior.

AI knowledge cycle:
An Artificial intelligence system has the following components for displaying intelligent
behavior:

o Perception
o Learning
o Knowledge Representation and Reasoning
o Planning
o Execution
The above diagram is showing how an AI system can interact with the real world and
what components help it to show intelligence. AI system has Perception component by
which it retrieves information from its environment.

It can be visual, audio or another form of sensory input.

The learning component is responsible for learning from data captured by Perception
comportment.

In the complete cycle, the main components are knowledge representation and
Reasoning.

These two components are involved in showing the intelligence in machine-like

humans. These two components are independent with each other but also coupled
together. The planning and execution depend on analysis of Knowledge representation
and reasoning.

Approaches or types to knowledge representation:

There are mainly four approaches to knowledge representation, which are given below:

1. Simple relational knowledge:

o It is the simplest way of storing facts which uses the relational method, and each
fact about a set of the object is set out systematically in columns.
 o This approach of knowledge representation is famous in database systems where
the relationship between different entities is represented.
o This approach has little opportunity for inference.

Example: The following is the simple relational knowledge representation.

Player Weight Age

Player1 65 23

Player2 58 18

Player3 75 24

2. Inheritable knowledge:

o In the inheritable knowledge approach, all data must be stored into a hierarchy
of classes.
o All classes should be arranged in a generalized form or a hierarchal manner.
o In this approach, we apply inheritance property.
o Elements inherit values from other members of a class.
o This approach contains inheritable knowledge which shows a relation between
instance and class, and it is called instance relation.
o Every individual frame can represent the collection of attributes and its value.
o In this approach, objects and values are represented in Boxed nodes.
o We use Arrows which point from objects to their values.
o Example:
3. Inferential knowledge:

o Inferential knowledge approach represents knowledge in the form of formal

logics.
o This approach can be used to derive more facts.
o It guaranteed correctness.
o Example: Let's suppose there are two statements:

a. Marcus is a man
b. All men are mortal
Then it can represent as;

man(Marcus)
∀x = man (x) ----------> mortal (x)s

4. Procedural knowledge:

o Procedural knowledge approach uses small programs and codes which describes
how to do specific things, and how to proceed.
 o In this approach, one important rule is used which is If-Then rule.
o In this knowledge, we can use various coding languages such as LISP
language and Prolog language.
o We can easily represent heuristic or domain-specific knowledge using this
approach.
o But it is not necessary that we can represent all cases in this approach.

Requirements for knowledge Representation system:

A good knowledge representation system must possess the following properties.

1. 1. Representational Accuracy:
KR system should have the ability to represent all kind of required knowledge.
2. 2. Inferential Adequacy:
KR system should have ability to manipulate the representational structures to
produce new knowledge corresponding to existing structure.
3. 3. Inferential Efficiency:
The ability to direct the inferential knowledge mechanism into the most
productive directions by storing appropriate guides.
4. 4. Acquisitional efficiency- The ability to acquire the new knowledge easily
using automatic methods.

Techniques of knowledge representation

Q. Explain various method of knowledge
representation techniques.
There are mainly four ways of knowledge representation which are given as follows:

1. Logical Representation
2. Semantic Network Representation
3. Frame Representation
 4. Production Rules

1. Logical Representation
Logical representation is a language with some concrete rules which deals with
propositions and has no ambiguity in representation.

Logical representation means drawing a conclusion based on various conditions. This

representation lays down some important communication rules. It consists of precisely
defined syntax and semantics which supports the sound inference. Each sentence can be
translated into logics using syntax and semantics.

Syntax:

o Syntaxes are the rules which decide how we can construct legal sentences in the logic.
o It determines which symbol we can use in knowledge representation.
o How to write those symbols.

Semantics:
 o Semantics are the rules by which we can interpret the sentence in the logic.
o Semantic also involves assigning a meaning to each sentence.

Logical representation can be categorised into mainly two logics:

a. Propositional Logics
b. Predicate logics

Advantages of logical representation:

1. Logical representation enables us to do logical reasoning.

2. Logical representation is the basis for the programming languages.

Disadvantages of logical Representation:

1. Logical representations have some restrictions and are challenging to work with.
2. Logical representation technique may not be very natural, and inference may not be so
efficient.

Note: Do not be confused with logical representation and logical reasoning as logical
representation is a representation language and reasoning is a process of thinking logically.
2. Semantic Network Representation
Semantic networks are alternative of predicate logic for knowledge representation. In
Semantic networks, we can represent our knowledge in the form of graphical
networks. This network consists of nodes representing objects and arcs which
describe the relationship between those objects. Semantic networks can categorize
the object in different forms and can also link those objects. Semantic networks are easy
to understand and can be easily extended.

This representation consist of mainly two types of relations:

a. IS-A relation (Inheritance)

b. Kind-of-relation

Example: Following are some statements which we need to represent in the form of

nodes and arcs.

Statements:

a. Jerry is a cat.
b. Jerry is a mammal
c. Jerry is owned by Priya.
d. Jerry is brown colored.
e. All Mammals are animal.
In the above diagram, we have represented the different type of knowledge in the form
of nodes and arcs. Each object is connected with another object by some relation.

Drawbacks in Semantic representation:

1. Semantic networks take more computational time at runtime as we need to traverse the
complete network tree to answer some questions. It might be possible in the worst case
scenario that after traversing the entire tree, we find that the solution does not exist in
this network.
2. Semantic networks try to model human-like memory (Which has 1015 neurons and links)
to store the information, but in practice, it is not possible to build such a vast semantic
network.
3. These types of representations are inadequate as they do not have any equivalent
quantifier, e.g., for all, for some, none, etc.
4. Semantic networks do not have any standard definition for the link names.
5. These networks are not intelligent and depend on the creator of the system.

Advantages of Semantic network:

1. Semantic networks are a natural representation of knowledge.

2. Semantic networks convey meaning in a transparent manner.
3. These networks are simple and easily understandable.
3. Frame Representation
A frame is a record like structure which consists of a collection of attributes and its
values to describe an entity in the world.

Frames are the AI data structure which divides knowledge into substructures by
representing stereotypes situations.

It consists of a collection of slots and slot values. These slots may be of any type and
sizes.

Slots have names and values which are called facets.

Facets: The various aspects of a slot is known as Facets.

Facets are features of frames which enable us to put constraints on the frames.

Example: IF-NEEDED facts are called when data of any particular slot is needed. A frame
may consist of any number of slots, and a slot may include any number of facets and
facets may have any number of values. A frame is also known as slot-filter knowledge
representation in artificial intelligence.

Frames are derived from semantic networks and later evolved into our modern-day
classes and objects. A single frame is not much useful. Frames system consist of a
collection of frames which are connected. In the frame, knowledge about an object or
event can be stored together in the knowledge base. The frame is a type of technology
which is widely used in various applications including Natural language processing and
machine visions.

Example: 1
Let's take an example of a frame for a book

Slots Filters

Title Artificial Intelligence

Genre Computer Science

 Author Peter Norvig

Edition Third Edition

Year 1996

Page 1152

Example 2:
Let's suppose we are taking an entity, Peter. Peter is an engineer as a profession, and his
age is 25, he lives in city London, and the country is England. So following is the frame
representation for this:

Slots Filter

Name Peter

Profession Doctor

Age 25

Marital status Single

Weight 78

Advantages of frame representation:

1. The frame knowledge representation makes the programming easier by grouping the
related data.
2. The frame representation is comparably flexible and used by many applications in AI.
3. It is very easy to add slots for new attribute and relations.
 4. It is easy to include default data and to search for missing values.
5. Frame representation is easy to understand and visualize.

Disadvantages of frame representation:

1. In frame system inference mechanism is not be easily processed.

2. Inference mechanism cannot be smoothly preceded by frame representation.
3. Frame representation has a much generalized approach.

4. Production Rules
Production rules system consist of (condition, action) pairs which mean, "If condition
then action". It has mainly three parts:

o The set of production rules

o Working Memory
o The recognize-act-cycle

In production rules agent checks for the condition and if the condition exists then
production rule fires and corresponding action is carried out. The condition part of the
rule determines which rule may be applied to a problem. And the action part carries out
the associated problem-solving steps. This complete process is called a recognize-act
cycle.

The working memory contains the description of the current state of problems-solving
and rule can write knowledge to the working memory. This knowledge match and may
fire other rules.

If there is a new situation (state) generates, then multiple production rules will be fired
together, this is called conflict set. In this situation, the agent needs to select a rule from
these sets, and it is called a conflict resolution.

Example:

o IF (at bus stop AND bus arrives) THEN action (get into the bus)
o IF (on the bus AND paid AND empty seat) THEN action (sit down).
 o IF (on bus AND unpaid) THEN action (pay charges).
o IF (bus arrives at destination) THEN action (get down from the bus).

Advantages of Production rule:

1. The production rules are expressed in natural language.

2. The production rules are highly modular, so we can easily remove, add or modify an
individual rule.

Disadvantages of Production rule:

1. Production rule system does not exhibit any learning capabilities, as it does not store the
result of the problem for the future uses.
2. During the execution of the program, many rules may be active hence rule-based
production systems are inefficient.
Logic, Syntax, Semantics and Entailment
(Inference)

Every language has two aspects: syntax and semantics. While

syntax deals with the form or structure of the language, it is
semantics that adds meaning to the form.

Logic's are formal languages for representing information such

that conclusion can be drawn.

Syntax defines the sentences in the language.

Semantics define the "meaning" of sentence

 - i.e., define truth of a sentence in a world

Entailment

Entailment means that one thing follows from another:

- E.g., x+y = 4 entails 4 = x+y
- a relationship between two sentence such that if the First is
true, the second must also be true, as in 
Her son drives her to work every day and Her son knows how to
drive.

The Wumpus World in Artificial intelligence

Wumpus world:
The Wumpus world is a simple world example to illustrate the worth of a knowledge-
based agent and to represent knowledge representation. It was inspired by a video
game Hunt the Wumpus by Gregory Yob in 1973.

The Wumpus world is a cave which has 4/4 rooms connected with passageways. So
there are total 16 rooms which are connected with each other. We have a knowledge-
based agent who will go forward in this world. The cave has a room with a beast which
is called Wumpus, who eats anyone who enters the room. The Wumpus can be shot by
the agent, but the agent has a single arrow. In the Wumpus world, there are some Pits
rooms which are bottomless, and if agent falls in Pits, then he will be stuck there forever.
The exciting thing with this cave is that in one room there is a possibility of finding a
heap of gold. So the agent goal is to find the gold and climb out the cave without fallen
into Pits or eaten by Wumpus. The agent will get a reward if he comes out with gold,
and he will get a penalty if eaten by Wumpus or falls in the pit.

Note: Here Wumpus is static and cannot move.

Following is a sample diagram for representing the Wumpus world. It is showing some
rooms with Pits, one room with Wumpus and one agent at (1, 1) square location of the
world.
There are also some components which can help the agent to navigate the cave.
These components are given as follows:

a. The rooms adjacent to the Wumpus room are smelly, so that it would have some stench.
b. The room adjacent to PITs has a breeze, so if the agent reaches near to PIT, then he will
perceive the breeze.
c. There will be glitter in the room if and only if the room has gold.
d. The Wumpus can be killed by the agent if the agent is facing to it, and Wumpus will emit
a horrible scream which can be heard anywhere in the cave.

PEAS description of Wumpus world:

To explain the Wumpus world we have given PEAS description as below:

Performance measure (Wumpusgoal)

The agent's goal is to find the gold and bring it back to the start as
quickly as possible, without getting killed.
 o +1000 reward points if the agent comes out of the cave with the gold.
o -1000 points penalty for being eaten by the Wumpus or falling into the pit.
o -1 for each action, and -10 for using an arrow.
o The game ends if either agent dies or came out of the cave.

Environment:

o A 4*4 grid of rooms.

o The agent initially in room square [1, 1], facing toward the right.
o Location of Wumpus and gold are chosen randomly except the first square [1,1].
o Each square of the cave can be a pit with probability 0.2 except the first square.

Actuators (Wumpus actions):

o Left turn,
o Right turn
o Move forward
o Grab
o Release
o Shoot.

Sensors:

o The agent will perceive the stench if he is in the room adjacent to the Wumpus. (Not
diagonally).
o The agent will perceive breeze if he is in the room directly adjacent to the Pit.
o The agent will perceive the glitter in the room where the gold is present.
o The agent will perceive the bump if he walks into a wall.
o When the Wumpus is shot, it emits a horrible scream which can be perceived anywhere
in the cave.
o These percepts can be represented as five element list, in which we will have different
indicators for each sensor.
 o Example if agent perceives stench, breeze, but no glitter, no bump, and no scream then it
can be represented as:
[Stench, Breeze, None, None, None].

The Wumpus world Properties:

o Partially observable: The Wumpus world is partially observable because the agent can
only perceive the close environment such as an adjacent room.
o Deterministic: It is deterministic, as the result and outcome of the world are already
known.
o Sequential: The order is important, so it is sequential.
o Static: It is static as Wumpus and Pits are not moving.
o Discrete: The environment is discrete.
o One agent: The environment is a single agent as we have one agent only and Wumpus
is not considered as an agent.

Exploring the Wumpus world:

Now we will explore the Wumpus world and will determine how the agent will find its
goal by applying logical reasoning.

Agent's First step:

Initially, the agent is in the first room or on the square [1,1], and we already know that
this room is safe for the agent, so to represent on the below diagram (a) that room is
safe we will add symbol OK. Symbol A is used to represent agent, symbol B for the
breeze, G for Glitter or gold, V for the visited room, P for pits, W for Wumpus.

At Room [1,1] agent does not feel any breeze or any Stench which means the adjacent
squares are also OK.
Agent's second step:

Now agent needs to move forward, so it will either move to [1, 2], or [2,1]. Let's suppose
agent moves to the room [2, 1], at this room agent perceives some breeze which means
Pit is around this room. The pit can be in [3, 1], or [2,2], so we will add symbol P? to say
that, is this Pit room?

Now agent will stop and think and will not make any harmful move. The agent will go
back to the [1, 1] room. The room [1,1], and [2,1] are visited by the agent, so we will use
symbol V to represent the visited squares.
Agent's third step:

At the third step, now agent will move to the room [1,2] which is OK. In the room [1,2]
agent perceives a stench which means there must be a Wumpus nearby. But Wumpus
cannot be in the room [1,1] as by rules of the game, and also not in [2,2] (Agent had not
detected any stench when he was at [2,1]). Therefore agent infers that Wumpus is in the
room [1,3], and in current state, there is no breeze which means in [2,2] there is no Pit
and no Wumpus. So it is safe, and we will mark it OK, and the agent moves further in
[2,2].
Agent's fourth step:

At room [2,2], here no stench and no breezes present so let's suppose agent decides to
move to [2,3]. At room [2,3] agent perceives glitter, so it should grab the gold and climb
out of the cave.

Knowledge-base for Wumpus world

As in the previous topic we have learned about the wumpus world and how a
knowledge-based agent evolves the world. Now in this topic, we will create a knowledge
base for the wumpus world, and will derive some proves for the Wumpus-world using
propositional logic.

The agent starts visiting from first square [1, 1], and we already know that this room is
safe for the agent. To build a knowledge base for wumpus world, we will use some rules
and atomic propositions. We need symbol [i, j] for each location in the wumpus world,
where i is for the location of rows, and j for column location.
Note:

Atomic proposition variable for Wumpus world:

o Let Pi,j be true if there is a Pit in the room [i, j].

o Let Bi,j be true if agent perceives breeze in [i, j], (dead or alive).
o Let Wi,j be true if there is wumpus in the square[i, j].
o Let Si,j be true if agent perceives stench in the square [i, j].
o Let Vi,j be true if that square[i, j] is visited.
o Let Gi,j be true if there is gold (and glitter) in the square [i, j].
o Let OKi,j be true if the room is safe.

Some Propositional Rules for the wumpus world: S indicate

stench

Representation of Knowledgebase for Wumpus world:

Following is the Simple KB for wumpus world when an agent moves from room [1, 1], to
room [2,1]:

Here in the first row, we have mentioned propositional variables for room[1,1], which is
showing that room does not have wumpus(¬ W 11), no stench (¬S11), no Pit(¬P11), no
breeze(¬B11), no gold (¬G11), visited (V11), and the room is Safe(OK11).
In the second row, we have mentioned propositional variables for room [1,2], which is
showing that there is no wumpus, stench and breeze are unknown as an agent has not
visited room [1,2], no Pit, not visited yet, and the room is safe.

In the third row we have mentioned propositional variable for room[2,1], which is
showing that there is no wumpus(¬ W21), no stench (¬S21), no Pit (¬P21), Perceives
breeze(B21), no glitter(¬G21), visited (V21), and room is safe (OK21).

Prove that Wumpus is in the room (1, 3)

Modus Ponens: X, X->Y = Y
We can prove that wumpus is in the room (1, 3) using propositional rules which we have
derived for the wumpus world and using inference rule.

1. Apply Modus Ponens with ¬S11 and R1:

We will firstly apply MP rule with R1 which is ¬S 11 → ¬ W11 ^ ¬ W12 ^ ¬ W21,
and ¬S11 which will give the output ¬ W11 ^ W12 ^ W12.

o Apply And-Elimination Rule:

After applying And-elimination rule to ¬ W 11 ∧ ¬ W12 ∧ ¬ W21, we will get three
statements:
¬ W11, ¬ W12, and ¬W21.

2. Apply Modus Ponens to ¬S21, and R2:

Now we will apply Modus Ponens to ¬S 21 and R2 which is ¬S21 → ¬ W21 ∧¬ W22 ∧ ¬ W31,
which will give the Output as ¬ W21 ∧ ¬ W22 ∧¬ W31

o Apply And -Elimination rule:

Now again apply And-elimination rule to ¬ W21 ∧ ¬ W22 ∧¬ W31, We will get three
statements:
¬ W21, ¬ W22, and ¬ W31.

3. Apply MP to S12 and R4:

Apply Modus Ponens to S12 and R4 which is S12 → W13 ∨. W12 ∨. W22 ∨.W11, we will get
the output as W13∨ W12 ∨ W22 ∨.W11.

o Apply Unit resolution on W13 ∨ W12 ∨ W22 ∨W11 and ¬ W11 :

After applying Unit resolution formula on W13 ∨ W12 ∨ W22 ∨W11 and ¬ W11 we will get
W13 ∨ W12 ∨ W22.
 o Apply Unit resolution on W13 ∨ W12 ∨ W22 and ¬ W22 :

After applying Unit resolution on W13 ∨ W12 ∨ W22, and ¬W22, we will get W13 ∨ W12 as
output.

o Apply Unit Resolution on W13 ∨ W12 and ¬ W12 :

After Applying Unit resolution on W13 ∨ W12 and ¬ W12, we will get W13 as an output,
hence it is proved that the Wumpus is in the room [1, 3].

Q. What is Propositional logic? Explain with

example.
Propositional logic in Artificial intelligence
 Propositional logic (PL) is the simplest form of logic where all the statements are made
by propositions.

A proposition is a declarative statement which is either true or false. It is a technique of

knowledge representation in logical and mathematical form.

Example:

1. a) It is Sunday.  
2. b) The Sun rises from West (False proposition)  
3. c) 3+3= 7(False proposition)  
4. d) 5 is a prime number.   

Following are some basic facts about propositional logic:

o Propositional logic is also called Boolean logic as it works on 0 and 1.

o In propositional logic, we use symbolic variables to represent the logic, and we can use
any symbol for a representing a proposition, such A, B, C, P, Q, R, etc.
o Propositions can be either true or false, but it cannot be both.
o Propositional logic consists of an object, relations or function, and logical connectives.
o These connectives are also called logical operators.
o The propositions and connectives are the basic elements of the propositional logic.
o Connectives can be said as a logical operator which connects two sentences.
o A proposition formula which is always true is called tautology, and it is also called a
valid sentence.
o A proposition formula which is always false is called Contradiction.
o A proposition formula which has both true and false values is called Contingency.
o Statements which are questions, commands, or opinions are not propositions such as
"Where is Rohini", "How are you", "What is your name", are not propositions.
Q. write syntax and semantics with example of
propositional logic
Syntax of propositional logic:
The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable sentences for the knowledge
representation. There are two types of Propositions:

a. Atomic Propositions
b. Compound propositions

o Atomic Proposition: Atomic propositions are the simple propositions. It consists of a

single proposition symbol. These are the sentences which must be either true or false.

Example:
1. a) 2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.  
2. b) "The Sun is cold" is also a proposition as it is a false fact.   
o Compound proposition: Compound propositions are constructed by combining simpler
or atomic propositions, using parenthesis and logical connectives.

Example:

1. a) "It is raining today, and street is wet."  
2. b) "Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai."   

Limitations of Propositional logic:

o We cannot represent relations like ALL, some, or none with propositional logic. Example:

a. All the girls are intelligent.

b. Some apples are sweet.
o Propositional logic has limited expressive power.
o In propositional logic, we cannot describe statements in terms of their properties or
logical relationships.

Pros and cons propositional logic

1. Propositional logic is declarative

2. Propositional logic is compositional:

 - meaning of B1,1 ^ P1,2 is derived from meaning of B1,1 and
of P1,2

3. Meaning in propositional logic is context-independent

 - (unlike natural language, where meaning depends on context)

4. Propositional logic has very limited expressive power

 - (unlike natural language)
 - E.g., cannot say "pits cause breezes in adjacent squares"
        * except by writing one sentence for each square

Inference:
In artificial intelligence, we need intelligent computers which can create new logic from old
logic or by evidence, so generating the conclusions from evidence and facts is termed as
Inference.

Types of Inference rules:

1. Modus Ponens:

The Modus Ponens rule is one of the most important rules of inference, and it states that if P and
P → Q is true, then we can infer that Q will be true. It can be represented as:

Example:

Statement-1: "If I am sleepy then I go to bed" ==> P→ Q

Statement-2: "I am sleepy" ==> P
Conclusion: "I go to bed." ==> Q.
Hence, we can say that, if P→ Q is true and P is true then Q will be true.

Proof by Truth table:

2. Modus Tollens:

The Modus Tollens rule state that if P→ Q is true and ¬ Q is true, then ¬ P will also true. It can
be represented as:

Statement-1: "If I am sleepy then I go to bed" ==> P→ Q

Statement-2: "I do not go to the bed."==> ~Q
Statement-3: Which infers that "I am not sleepy" => ~P

Proof by Truth table:

3. Hypothetical Syllogism:

The Hypothetical Syllogism rule state that if P→R is true whenever P→Q is true, and Q→R is
true. It can be represented as the following notation:

Example:

Statement-1: If you have my home key then you can unlock my home. P→Q
Statement-2: If you can unlock my home then you can take my money. Q→R
Conclusion: If you have my home key then you can take my money. P→R

Proof by truth table:

4. Disjunctive Syllogism:

The Disjunctive syllogism rule state that if P∨Q is true, and ¬P is true, then Q will be true. It can
be represented as:

Example:

Statement-1: Today is Sunday or Monday. ==>P∨Q

Statement-2: Today is not Sunday. ==> ¬P
Conclusion: Today is Monday. ==> Q

Proof by truth-table:

5. Addition:

The Addition rule is one the common inference rule, and it states that If P is true, then P∨Q will
be true.
Example:

Statement: I have a vanilla ice-cream. ==> P

Statement-2: I have Chocolate ice-cream.
Conclusion: I have vanilla or chocolate ice-cream. ==> (P∨Q)

Proof by Truth-Table:

6. Simplification:

The simplification rule state that if P∧ Q is true, then Q or P will also be true. It can be
represented as:

Proof by Truth-Table:

7. Resolution:

The Resolution rule state that if P∨Q and ¬ P∧R is true, then Q∨R will also be true. It can be
represented as
Proof by Truth-Table:
Horn Clauses:

A Horn clause is a clause containing at most one

positive literal.

A definite clause contains exactly one positive

literal.

Examples of a Horn Clause

[¬Child, ¬Mail, Boy]

Not a Horn Clause

[Rain, Sleet, Snow]
Q. what is first order logic/ first order predicate
logic/ predicate logic?
Q. writes short notes on predicate logic?
First-Order Predicate Logic /First-Order
Logic/Predicate logic in Artificial intelligence
First-order logic

In the topic of Propositional logic, we have seen that how to represent statements using
propositional logic.

But unfortunately, in propositional logic, we can only represent the facts, which are
either true or false.

PL is not sufficient to represent the complex sentences or natural language statements.

The propositional logic has very limited expressive power. Consider the following
sentence, which we cannot represent using PL logic.

o "Some humans are intelligent", or

o "Sachin likes cricket."

To represent the above statements, PL logic is not sufficient, so we required some more
powerful logic, such as first-order logic.

First-Order logic:
o First-order logic is another way of knowledge representation in artificial intelligence. It is
an extension to propositional logic.
o FOL is sufficiently expressive to represent the natural language statements in a concise
way.
 o First-order logic is also known as Predicate logic or First-order predicate logic.
o First-order logic is a powerful language that develops information about the objects in a
more easy way and can also express the relationship between those objects.
o First-order logic (like natural language) does not only assume that the world contains
facts like propositional logic but also assumes the following things in the world:
o Objects: A, B, people, numbers, colors, wars, theories, squares, pits, wumpus, ......
o Relations: It can be unary relation such as: red, round, is adjacent, or n-any
relation such as: the sister of, brother of, has color, comes between
o Function: Father of, best friend, third inning of, end of,

Q. Write syntax and semantics of FOL with

example?
o As a natural language, first-order logic also has two main parts:

a. Syntax
b. Semantics

Syntax of First-Order logic:

The syntax of FOL determines which collection of symbols is a logical expression in first-
order logic. The basic syntactic elements of first-order logic are symbols. We write
statements in short-hand notation in FOL.

Basic Elements of First-order logic:

Following are the basic elements of FOL syntax:

Constant 1, 2, A, John, Mumbai, cat,....

Variables x, y, z, a, b,....

Predicates Brother, Father, >,....

 Function Father of, best friend, third inning of, end of,

Connectives ∧, ∨, ¬, ⇒, ⇔

Equality ==

Quantifier ∀, ∃

Atomic sentences:

o Atomic sentences are the most basic sentences of first-order logic. These sentences are
formed from a predicate symbol followed by a parenthesis with a sequence of terms.
o We can represent atomic sentences as Predicate (term1, term2, ......, term n).

Example: Ravi and Ajay are brothers: => Brothers(Ravi, Ajay).

                Chinky is a cat: => cat (Chinky).

Complex Sentences:

o Complex sentences are made by combining atomic sentences using connectives.

First-order logic statements can be divided into two parts:

o Subject: Subject is the main part of the statement.

o Predicate: A predicate can be defined as a relation, which binds two atoms together in a
statement.

Consider the statement: "x is an integer.", it consists of two parts, the first part x is
the subject of the statement and second part "is an integer," is known as a predicate.
Quantifiers in First-order logic:
Apart from these FOPL makes use of quantifiers. As the name suggests they quantify
the number of variables taking part in the relation or obeying the rule.

o A quantifier is a language element which generates quantification, and quantification

specifies the quantity of specimen in the universe of discourse.
o These are the symbols that permit to determine or identify the range and scope of the
variable in the logical expression. There are two types of quantifier:

a. Universal Quantifier, (for all, everyone, everything)

b. Existential quantifier, (for some, at least one).

Universal Quantifier:
Universal quantifier is a symbol of logical representation, which specifies that the
statement within its range is true for everything or every instance of a particular thing.

The Universal quantifier is represented by a symbol ∀, which resembles an inverted A.

Note: In universal quantifier we use implication "→".

If x is a variable, then ∀x is read as:

o For all x
o For each x
o For every x.

Example:
All man drink coffee.

Let a variable x which refers to a cat so all x can be represented in UOD as below:
∀x man(x) → drink (x, coffee).

It will be read as: There are all x where x is a man who drink coffee.

Existential Quantifier:
Existential quantifiers are the type of quantifiers, which express that the statement within
its scope is true for at least one instance of something.

It is denoted by the logical operator ∃, which resembles as inverted E. When it is used

with a predicate variable then it is called as an existential quantifier.

Note: In Existential quantifier we always use AND or Conjunction symbol ( ∧).

If x is a variable, then existential quantifier will be ∃x or ∃(x). And it will be read as:

o There exists a 'x.'

o For some 'x.'
o For at least one 'x.'

Example:
Some boys are intelligent.

∃x: boys(x) ∧ intelligent(x)

It will be read as: There are some x where x is a boy who is intelligent.

Points to remember:
o The main connective for universal quantifier ∀ is implication →.
o The main connective for existential quantifier ∃ is and ∧.

Properties of Quantifiers:
o In universal quantifier, ∀x∀y is similar to ∀y∀x.
o In Existential quantifier, ∃x∃y is similar to ∃y∃x.
o ∃x∀y is not similar to ∀y∃x.

Some Examples of FOL using quantifier:

1. All birds fly.

In this question the predicate is "fly(bird)."
And since there are all birds who fly so it will be represented as follows.
              ∀x bird(x) →fly(x).

2. Every man respects his parent.

In this question, the predicate is "respect(x, y)," where x=man, and y= parent.
Since there is every man so will use ∀, and it will be represented as follows:
              ∀x man(x) → respects (x, parent).

3. Some boys play cricket.

In this question, the predicate is "play(x, y)," where x= boys, and y= game. Since there
are some boys so we will use ∃, and it will be represented as:
              ∃x boys(x) → play(x, cricket).

4. Not all students like both Mathematics and Science.

In this question, the predicate is "like(x, y)," where x= student, and y= subject.
Since there are not all students, so we will use ∀ with negation, so following
representation for this:
              ¬∀ (x) [ student(x) → like(x, Mathematics) ∧ like(x, Science)].

5. Only one student failed in Mathematics.

In this question, the predicate is "failed(x, y)," where x= student, and y= subject.
Since there is only one student who failed in Mathematics, so we will use following
representation for this:
              ∃(x) [ student(x) → failed (x, Mathematics) ∧∀ (y) [¬(x==y) ∧ student(y) →
¬failed (x, Mathematics)].
Knowledge Engineering in First-order logic
What is knowledge-engineering?
The process of constructing a knowledge-base in first-order logic is called as
knowledge- engineering.

In knowledge-engineering, someone who investigates a particular domain, learns

important concept of that domain, and generates a formal representation of the objects,
is known as knowledge engineer.

In this topic, we will understand the Knowledge engineering process in an electronic

circuit domain, which is already familiar. This approach is mainly suitable for
creating special-purpose knowledge base.
Step of Knowledge Engineering in General
Knowledge Engineering in First-order logic:
Following are some main steps of the knowledge-engineering process. Using these
steps, we will develop a knowledge base which will allow us to reason about digital
circuit (One-bit full adder) which is given below

1. Identify the task:

The first step of the process is to identify the task, and for the digital circuit, there are
various reasoning tasks.

At the first level or highest level, we will examine the functionality of the circuit:

o Does the circuit add properly?

o What will be the output of gate A2, if all the inputs are high?

At the second level, we will examine the circuit structure details such as:

o Which gate is connected to the first input terminal?

o Does the circuit have feedback loops?
2. Assemble (gather together at one place for a common purpose)
the relevant knowledge:
In the second step, we will assemble the relevant knowledge which is required for digital
circuits. So for digital circuits, we have the following required knowledge:

o Logic circuits are made up of wires and gates.

o Signal flows through wires to the input terminal of the gate, and each gate produces the
corresponding output which flows further.
o In this logic circuit, there are four types of gates used: AND, OR, XOR, and NOT.
o All these gates have one output terminal and two input terminals (except NOT gate, it
has one input terminal).

3. Decide on vocabulary:
The next step of the process is to select functions, predicate, and constants to represent
the circuits, terminals, signals, and gates.

Firstly we will distinguish the gates from each other and from other objects.

Each gate is represented as an object which is named by a constant, such as, Gate(X1).

The functionality of each gate is determined by its type, which is taken as constants such
as AND, OR, XOR, or NOT.

Circuits will be identified by a predicate: Circuit (C1).

For the terminal, we will use predicate: Terminal(x).

For gate input, we will use the function In(1, X1) for denoting the first input terminal of
the gate, and for output terminal we will use Out (1, X1).

The function Arity(c, i, j) is used to denote that circuit c has i input, j output.

The connectivity between gates can be represented by predicate Connect(Out(1, X1),

In(1, X1)).

We use a unary predicate On (t), which is true if the signal at a terminal is on.

4. Encode general knowledge about the domain:

 To encode the general knowledge about the logic circuit, we need some following rules:

o If two terminals are connected then they have the same input signal, it can be
represented as:

1. ∀  t1, t2 Terminal (t1) ∧ Terminal (t2) ∧ Connect (t1, t2) → Signal (t1) = Signal (2).   

o Signal at every terminal will have either value 0 or 1, it will be represented as:

1. ∀  t Terminal (t) →Signal (t) = 1 ∨Signal (t) = 0.  

o Connect predicates are commutative:

1. ∀  t1, t2 Connect(t1, t2)  →  Connect (t2, t1).       

o Representation of types of gates:

1. ∀  g Gate(g) ∧ r = Type(g) → r = OR ∨r = AND ∨r = XOR ∨r = NOT.   

o Output of AND gate will be zero if and only if any of its input is zero.

1. ∀  g Gate(g) ∧ Type(g) = AND →Signal (Out(1, g))= 0 ⇔  ∃n Signal (In(n, g))= 0.   

o Output of OR gate is 1 if and only if any of its input is 1:

1. ∀  g Gate(g) ∧ Type(g) = OR → Signal (Out(1, g))= 1 ⇔  ∃n Signal (In(n, g))= 1   

o Output of XOR gate is 1 if and only if its inputs are different:

1. ∀  g Gate(g) ∧ Type(g) = XOR → Signal (Out(1, g)) = 1 ⇔  Signal (In(1, g)) ≠ Signal (In(2, g)).  

o Output of NOT gate is invert of its input:

1. ∀  g Gate(g) ∧ Type(g) = NOT →   Signal (In(1, g)) ≠ Signal (Out(1, g)).  
 o All the gates in the above circuit have two inputs and one output (except NOT
gate).

1. ∀  g Gate(g) ∧ Type(g) = NOT →   Arity(g, 1, 1)   
2. ∀  g Gate(g) ∧ r =Type(g)  ∧ (r= AND ∨r= OR ∨r= XOR) →  Arity (g, 2, 1).   

o All gates are logic circuits:

1. ∀  g Gate(g) → Circuit (g).   

5. Encode a description of the problem instance:

Now we encode problem of circuit C1, firstly we categorize the circuit and its gate
components. This step is easy if ontology about the problem is already thought. This
step involves the writing simple atomics sentences of instances of concepts, which is
known as ontology.

For the given circuit C1, we can encode the problem instance in atomic sentences as
below:

Since in the circuit there are two XOR, two AND, and one OR gate so atomic sentences
for these gates will be:

1. For XOR gate: Type(x1)= XOR, Type(X2) = XOR  
2. For AND gate: Type(A1) = AND, Type(A2)= AND  
3. For OR gate: Type (O1) = OR.    

And then represent the connections between all the gates.

Note: Ontology defines a particular theory of the nature of existence.

6. Pose queries to the inference procedure and get answers:

In this step, we will find all the possible set of values of all the terminal for the adder
circuit. The first query will be:

What should be the combination of input which would generate the first output of
circuit C1, as 0 and a second output to be 1?
1. ∃ i1, i2, i3 Signal (In(1, C1))=i1  ∧  Signal (In(2, C1))=i2  ∧ Signal (In(3, C1))= i3  
2.  ∧ Signal (Out(1, C1)) =0 ∧ Signal (Out(2, C1))=1  

7. Debug the knowledge base:

Now we will debug the knowledge base, and this is the last step of the complete
process. In this step, we will try to debug the issues of knowledge base.

In the knowledge base, we may have omitted assertions like 1 ≠ 0.