Open loop-op-amp Configuration:

The term open-loop indicates that no feedback in any form is fed to the input from
the output. When connected in open – loop, the op-amp functions as a very high
gain amplifier. There are three open – loop configurations of op-amp namely
1. differential amplifier

2. Inverting amplifier

3. Non-inverting amplifier

The above classification is made based on the number of inputs used and the
terminal to which the input is applied. The op-amp amplifies both ac and dc input
signals. Thus, the input signals can be either ac or dc voltage.

1. Open–loop Differential Amplifier:

In this configuration, the inputs are applied to both the inverting and the non-
inverting input terminals of the op-amp and it amplifies the difference between
the two input voltages. Figure shows the open-loop differential amplifier
configuration.

The input voltages are represented by Vi1 and Vi2. The source resistance Ri1 and
Ri2 are negligibly small in comparison with the very high input resistance offered
by the op-amp, and thus the voltage drop across these source resistances is
assumed to be zero. The output voltage V0 is given by

V0 = A(Vi1 – Vi2 )

where A is the large signal voltage gain. Thus the output voltage is equal to the
voltage gain A times the difference between the two input voltages. This is the
reason why this configuration is called a differential amplifier. In open – loop
configurations, the large signal voltage gain A is also called open-loop gain A.

2. Inverting amplifier:
In this configuration the input signal is applied to the inverting input terminal of
the op-amp and the non-inverting input terminal is connected to the ground.
Figure shows the circuit of an open – loop inverting amplifier.
The output voltage is 1800 out of phase with respect to the input and hence, the
output voltage V0 is given by,

V0 = -AVi

Thus, in an inverting amplifier, the input signal is amplified by the open-loop gain
A and in phase

– shifted by 1800.

3. Non-inverting Amplifier

Figure shows the open – loop non- inverting amplifier. The input signal is applied
to the non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp and the inverting input terminal
is connected to the ground.

The input signal is amplified by the open – loop gain A and the output is in-phase
with input signal.
In all the above open-loop configurations, only very small values of input
voltages can be applied. Even for voltages levels slightly greater than zero, the
output is driven into saturation, which is observed from the ideal transfer
characteristics of op-amp shown in figure. Thus, when operated in the open-loop
configuration, the output of the op-amp is either in negative or positive saturation,
or switches between positive and negative saturation levels. This prevents the use
of open – loop configuration of op-amps in linear applications.

Limitations of Open – loop Op – amp configuration:

Firstly, in the open – loop configurations, clipping of the output waveform can
occur when the output voltage exceeds the saturation level of op-amp. This is due
to the very high open – loop gain of the op-amp. This feature actually makes it
possible to amplify very low frequency signal of the order of microvolt or even
less, and the amplification can be achieved accurately without any distortion.
However, signals of such magnitudes are susceptible to noise and the
amplification for those application is almost impossible to obtain in the
laboratory.
Secondly, the open – loop gain of the op – amp is not a constant and it varies
with changing temperature and variations in power supply. Also, the bandwidth
of most of the open- loop op amps is negligibly small. This makes the open – loop
configuration of op-amp unsuitable for ac applications. The open – loop
bandwidth of the widely used 741 IC is approximately 5Hz. But in almost all ac
applications, the bandwidth requirement is much larger than this.
For the reason stated, the open – loop op-amp is generally not used in linear
applications. However, the open – loop op amp configurations find use in certain
non – linear applications such as comparators, square wave generators and astable
multivibrators.

Closed-Loop Operation of an Opamp

Operational amplifiers can have either a closed-loop operation or an open-
loop operation. The operation (closed-loop or open-loop) is determined by
whether or not feedback is used. Without feedback the operational amplifier
has an open-loop operation. This open-loop operation is practical only when
the operational amplifier is used as a comparator (a circuit which compares
two input signals or compares an input signal to some fixed level of voltage).
As an amplifier, the open-loop operation is not practical because the very
high gain of the operational amplifier creates poor stability. (Noise and other
unwanted signals are amplified so much in open-loop operation that the
operational amplifier is usually not used in this way.) Therefore, most
operational amplifiers are used with feedback (closed-loop operation).
Operational amplifiers are used with degenerative (or negative) feedback
which reduces the gain of the operational amplifier but greatly increases the
stability of the circuit. In the closed-loop configuration, the output signal is
applied back to one of the input terminals. This feedback is always
degenerative (negative). In other words, the feedback signal always opposes
the effects of the original input signal. One result of degenerative feedback
is that the inverting and noninverting inputs to the operational amplifier will
be kept at the same potential.
Closed-loop circuits can be of the inverting configuration or noninverting
configuration. Since the inverting configuration is used more often than the
noninverting configuration, the inverting configuration will be shown first.

Inverting Amplifier Configuration

Inverting configuration.

The figure above shows an operational amplifier in a closed-loop, inverting

amplifier configuration. Resistor R2 is used to feed part of the output signal
back to the input of the operational amplifier.
At this point it is important to keep in mind the difference between the entire
circuit (or operational circuit) and the operational amplifier. The operational
amplifier is represented by the triangle-like symbol while the operational
circuit includes the resistors and any other components as well as the
operational amplifier. In other words, the input to the circuit is shown in the
figure above, but the signal at the inverting input of the operational amplifier
is determined by the feedback signal as well as by the circuit input signal.
As you can see in the figure above, the output signal is 180 degrees out of
phase with the input signal. The feedback signal is a portion of the output
signal and, therefore, also 180 degrees out of phase with the input signal.
Whenever the input signal goes positive, the output signal and the feedback
signal go negative. The result of this is that the inverting input to the
operational amplifier is always very close to 0 volts with this configuration. In
fact, with the noninverting input grounded, the voltage at the inverting input
to the operational amplifier is so small compared to other voltages in the
circuit that it is considered to be virtual ground. (Remember, in a closed-
loop operation the inverting and noninverting inputs are at the same
potential.) Virtual ground is a point in a circuit which is at ground potential (0
volts) but is not connected to ground.
Because the inverting input is at 0 volts, there will be no current (for all
practical purposes) flowing into the operational amplifier from the connection
point of R1 and R2. Given these conditions, the characteristics of this circuit
are determined almost entirely by the values of R1 and R2. The figure below
should help show how the values of R1 and R2 determine the circuit
characteristics.

Current flow in the operational circuit.

Note: It should be stressed at this point that for purpose of explanation the
operational amplifier is a theoretically perfect amplifier. In actual practice
we are dealing with less than perfect. In the practical operational amplifier
there will be a slight input current with a resultant power loss. This small
signal can be measured at the theoretical point of virtual ground. This does
not indicate faulty operation.
The input signal causes current to flow through R1. (Only the positive half
cycle of the input signal is shown and will be discussed.) Since the voltage
at the inverting input of the operational amplifier is at 0 volts, the input current
(Iin) is computed by:

The output signal (which is opposite in phase to the input signal) causes a
feedback current (Ifdbk) to flow through R2. The left-hand side of R2 is at 0
volts (point A) and the right-hand side is at Vout. Therefore, the feedback
current is computed by:

(The minus sign indicates that Vout is 180 degrees out of phase with Vin and
should not be confused with output polarity.)
Since no current flows into or out of the inverting input of the operational
amplifier, any current reaching point A from R1 must flow out of point A
through R2. Therefore, the input current (Iin) and the feedback current (Ifdbk)
must be equal. Now we can develop a mathematical relationship between
the input and output signals and R1 and R2. Mathematically:

By substitution:

If you multiply both sides of the equation by R1:

If you divide both sides of the equation by Vout:

By inverting both sides of the equation:

You should recall that the voltage gain of a stage is defined as the output
voltage divided by the input voltage:

Therefore, the voltage gain of the inverting configuration of the operational

amplifier is expressed by the equation:

(As stated earlier, the minus sign indicates that the output signal is 180
degrees out of phase with the input signal.)

Noninverting Amplifier Configuration

 Noninverting configuration.

The figure above shows a noninverting configuration using an operational

amplifier. The input signal (Vin) is applied directly to the noninverting (+) input
of the operational amplifier. Feedback is provided by coupling part of the
output signal (Vout) back to the inverting (-) input of the operational
amplifier. R1 and R2 act as voltage divider that allows only a part of the
output signal to be applied as feedback (Vfdbk).
Notice that the input signal, output signal, and feedback signal are all in
phase. (Only the positive alternation of the signal is shown.) It may appear
as if the feedback is regenerative (positive) because the feedback and input
signals are in phase. The feedback is, in reality, degenerative (negative)
because the input signal is applied to the noninverting input and the feedback
signal is applied to the inverting input. (Remember, that the operational
amplifier will react to the difference between the two inputs.)
Just as in the inverting configuration, the feedback signal is equal to the input
signal (for all practical purposes). This time, however, the feedback signal is
in phase with the input signal. Therefore:

Given this condition, you can calculate the gain of the stage in terms of the
resistors (R1 and R2).
The gain of the stage is defined as:
Since:

Then:

The feedback signal (Vfdbk) can be shown in terms of the output signal (Vout)
and the voltage divider (R1 and R2). The voltage divider has the output signal
on one end and ground (0 volts) on the other end. The feedback signal is
that part of the output signal developed by R1 (at point A). Another way to
look at it is that the feedback signal is the amount of output signal left (at
point A) after part of the output signal has been dropped by R2. In either case,
the feedback signal (Vfdbk) is the ratio of R1 to the entire voltage divider
(R1 + R2) multiplied by the output signal (Vout).
Mathematically, the relationship of the output signal, feedback signal, and
voltage divider is:

If you divide both sides of the equation by Vout:

By inverting both sides of the equation:

Separating the right-hand side:

Remember:

Therefore, by substitution:

You can now see that the gain of the noninverting configuration is determined
by the resistors. The formula is different from the one used for the inverting
configuration, but the gain is still determined by the values of R1 and R2.