Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Relevant Literature

Crustaceans are enormously successful group of animals.

They are dominant arthropods in aquatic habitats. And occurs

terrestrially as well, the ubiquitous “pill bugs” are

crustaceans. The diversity of crustaceans, manifest as a

morphological and ecological heterogeneity, mix it the

difficult to tease out the evolutionary relationship various

crustacean’s group and the taxonomy of crustaceans is by no

mean cut and dry (Gong,2003).

Crustaceans a remarkably diverse group of organisms,

have colorized and occupied the broad variety of niches.

Many crustacean’s species are found in extreme environment,

in hospitable to the majority of the animal taxa, including

Antarctic subterranean water, hydrothermal vents. Dry

desserts, hypersaline lakes highly aquatic habitats.

Particular adaptation has evolved in response to the

environmental condition in the extreme. Nowadays

anthropogenic activities risk irreversibly altering the

delicate equilibrium these crustaceans have achieved in

extreme environments (Benveneto, et al., 2015).

 12

The effect of salinity on the survival and growth of

Callinectes amnicola from the Lagos lagoon, Nigeria was

monitored in the laboratory for 22 weeks. The crabs were

euryhaline and tolerated salinity range 20 per thousands.

The highest specific growth rate (1-98) was obtained at 15

per thousands in the 12 weeks of the experiment. The crab

with carapace 6-8 cm increased to 8.1 cm (19.1%) after

molting (Lawal-Are & Kusemiji, 2010).

Crustaceans like all others Arthropoda, are so diverse

that no single species truly represent of entire group. Most

crustacean have two body regions: a cephalothorax is fused

head or thorax or chest region, to which legs and other

appendages arm attaching the cephalothorax is covered by

hand and chitin called carapace, which protect the body

organ. The abdomen of lobster and crayfish is the long

narrow tail region that made with like appendages and

mandibles are two pairs of mouth parts called maxillae that

hold food and pass it to the mouth, have ventral nerve cord.

In each body segments the nerve cord swells into a pair of

ganglia. Like most other crustaceans, the crayfish has pair

of compound eyes. The eyes located above sensory antennae

the end of movable eyestalk. The crayfish by crushing and

chewing food with its mandible (Straw and Lisowski, 2003).

 13

The roughly 30, 000 species of crustacean, including

crabs, crayfish, lobster, shrimp, and barnacles, compare the

only class of arthropods that is primarily aquatic.

Crustaceans range in size from microscopic to the largest

arthropods that primarily marine thoughts there are many

fish water species also. There are terrestrial species, but

these are not general, well adapted life on land. The phylum

Arthropods, notable insect’s crustaceans have not been very

successful land. However, crustacean exploited very habitat

of marine environment and in so doing have diverse group

(Crustacean, 1995).

The group of animals known as crustaceans includes more

than 38,000 species of the subphylum Crustacea. It includes

some of the most familiar such as crabs, shrimps, lobster,

crayfish and woodlice. In addition, tiny crustaceans living

in the seas, ponds, and lakes occupy an important position

in the aquatic food chains. The crustacean is the only

subphylum arthropods whose members are primarily aquatic.

Most crustaceans are marine but there are many freshwater

species. There are some semi-terrestrial and terrestrial

groups, but in general, terrestrial crustaceans had never

gone adaptive evolution for life on land (Rupert and Barnes,

1994).
 14

Crustaceans are generally aquatic and differ from other

arthropods in having two pairs of appendages (antennules and

antennae) in front of the mouth and paired appendages near

the mouth that function as jaws (Gordon, 2017).

Crustaceans are invertebrates belonging to Phylum

Arthropoda and include such familiar groups as barnacles,

crabs, lobsters, water fleas, and pill bugs. In lobsters

and crayfish, appendages called swimmerets occur in lines

along the ventral surface of the abdomen and are used in

reproduction and swimming. In addition, flattened known as

Uropods form a kind of compound "paddle" at the end of the

abdomen. These animals have telson or tail spine. By

snapping its abdomen, the animal propels itself through the

water rapidly and forcefully; their carapace is much larger

and broader and abdomen is tucked under it (Dillon, 1965).

Crustaceans, like all other arthropods, are so diverse

that no single species is truly representative of entire

group. Most crustacean characteristics have two body

regions; a cephalothorax is fused head or thorax or chest

region, to which legs and other appendages are attached.

The cephalothorax is covered by hard chitin called the

carapace, which protect the body organs. The abdomen has

one pair of jaw like appendages are two pairs of mouthparts

called maxillae that hold food and pass it to the mouth,

 15

have ventral nerve cord, in each body segment, the nerve

cord swells into a pair of ganglia. Lobster and crayfish

are the long narrow tail regions that ends with the central

tension and uropods. Impulses are transmitted from their

body parts through the ganglia. Like most crustaceans, the

crayfish has a pair of compound eyes located above sensory

antennae at the end of movable eyestalk (Dillon, 1965).

All crustaceans have two pairs of antennae at some

stage of their life cycle, and these separates them from all

other arthropod groups such as insects which have only one

pair. The first pair of antennae is referred to as

antennules and the second pair is antennae. However, in

barnacles the antennae are not apparent in adults (James and

Morgan, 1994).

Typically, the body of crustaceans is divided into

three parts: head, thorax and abdomen. The head carries

appendages which are used by the animals for sensing

surroundings and for feeding. The division between the

thorax and abdomen (the edible part of prawns and lobster)

is usually distinct in larger crustaceans but less so in

some small and primitive groups in which the body is called

as rank. Many crustaceans have carapace (shell) which fold

outwards from the upper surface of the body and covers all

or parts of the thorax (Barnes, 1974).

 16

There are about 25,000 different species of crustaceans

and they can be found in all oceans of the world, sometimes

along the shorelines, and freshwater, river, lakes or ponds,

but few live on land. Crustaceans’ flea to the giant spider

crab, their exosketon or outer shell is made up of material

called chitin, and growing crustaceans shed its exosketon in

a process called moulting: underneath is their new covering

that hardens into an exoskeleton (Grolier, 2009).

The crustaceans are conveniently divided into two

groups of higher taxa: the Entomostracan, those that are

generally small in size; and the subclass Malacostraca,

which comprises all the well-known larger crustaceans. Hence

it is convenient to use a member of that subclass to detail

the anatomy and physiology of the crustaceans (Lockwood,

1967).

Most crustaceans are dioecious. The actual mechanism by

which fertilization is achieved varies greatly. Some

crustaceans hatch young that are like miniature adults

(Pears et al., 1987).

The most widespread group of invertebrates, the larger

Malacostracan crustaceans like crabs, lobsters and prawns

are economically valuable. Although originally aquatic, many

crustaceans such as slaters and beach hoppers are adopted to

 17

life on land and also, frequently the sea at all depths

(Invertebrates, 1996).

In common with other arthropods, crustaceans have stiff

skeletons which must be shed to allow the animal to grow.

Various parts of the skeleton may be fused together, which

is noticeable in the carapace. Crustacean’s appendages are

typically bigamous, meaning they are divided into two parts

(Barnes, 1974).

Higher crustaceans have separate sexes and occasionally

display sexual/dimorphis for example, female fiddle crabs

have a larger pincer, and male shrimps remains smaller than

female. Crustacean function as scavengers on the fish used

as bait for fish, crabs, lobsters, prawns, shrimps and

crayfish can be cooked and eaten (Camberlidge, 1993).

There are as many as 150,000 species of crustaceans,

mostly undiscovered. Most are marine whereas insects are by

far dominant from the familiar to the not so familiar

(Conniff, 1999).

Crustaceans differ from the other living arthropods in

two ways. They have two parts of antennae, whereas all

other arthropods have one pair or none. Crustaceans possess

bigamous appendages, each of which ramous is the endpoint,

and the lateral structures, which is evidence that the

 18

trilobites were closely related to ancestral crustaceans

(Harley and Miller, 2005).

All crustaceans have a hard exoskeleton, which protects

the animal from predators and prevents water loss. However,

exoskeleton cannot grow as the animal inside them grows, so

crustacean is freed to molt as they grow larger. During

molting, a soft exoskeleton is shed. Since the new

exoskeleton hardens the external shell, in addition to being

protective gives rigid support for the attachment of the

muscles. The exoskeleton made up of separated plates

connected by thin members ([Link],2015).

The mud crab was very high market potential and many

farmers have ventured into culturing or fattening them.

Samonte and Agbayani (1991) demonstrated that culture of mud

crab has short payback period of 1-2 years. Juvenilize crab

stocked at 5,000/ha and 20,000/ha were not economically

feasible (Samonte and Agbayani, 1991).

Crustaceans are specialized for life in water and they

process gills to obtain oxygen. Their chitinous exoskeleton

is usually hardened by calcium carbonite. Their appendages

are also specialized for swimming, crawling, attaching to

other animals mating for feeding. The process to pairs of

antennae and which are usually involved in sensing the

surrounding. The subclass Decapoda is the largest group of

 19

crustaceans and many are prized as food and have greet

commercial importance (Huber, 1997).

Crustaceans are classical model animals for

endocrinological research from the beginning of the

discovery of neurosecretion in invertebrates and

invertebrates in 1920s. Crustaceans peptides particularly

from commercially valuable species have gained interest

because many of them are involved in the control of growth

by molting, of many metabolic processes and reproduction.

Genomic, transcriptomic (e.g., via expressed sequences tags,

etc.) and proteomic approaches especially with aid of

sensitive mass spectrometric technique have led to a rapid

increase in the number of precursors and derived identified

peptides crustacean’s species preferably from Decapoda,

Isopoda and more recently Branchiopoda, because Daphnia

Pulex become the first crustaceans model organisms with a

fully annotated genome. This gave another boost of people

discovery with especially notable similarity to insect

peptides and protein hormones (H. Direckson, 2013).

Crustaceans are very large group of mainly aquatic

invertebrates with a long evolutionary history. The

circulating hemocytes of crustaceans consist of the three

main types each with their own role in immunity and

 20

hemostasis. fix phagocytes. The main cellular defense

reactions are phagocytosis, nodule formation (nodulation),

and encapsulation. Both nodule formation and encapsulation

are responsible for the localization and welling off

invading microbes and microparasites. Humoral factors

involved in the killing of these agents include

antimicrobial peptides and protein such as lysosomes,

lectins, and the products of the prophenoloxidase-

activating system of crustaceans, like that of other suggest

that they have a in mammals is responsible for neural

development. (Rowley, 2016).

Related Studies

Acibar (2010) stated in his study about crustaceans in

selected barangays of San Antonio Northern Samar that there

were 20 crustaceans' species collected in the four barangays

of San Antonio, Northern Samar. These 20 species belonged to

ten (10) Families, namely: Alphedae, (with 1 species);

Calappidae, (with 1 species); Dioginidae, (with 1 species)

Gonodacthylidae, (with 2 species), Grapsidae, (with 1

species) leucosidae, (with 1 species) Ocypodidae, (with 2

species); Portunidae, (with 3 species), Pilurninidae, (with

1 species); Xanthidae, (with 7 species). The result of the

 21

study showed a total of twenty (20) crustacean species

representing eighteen (18) genera and ten (10) families. The

most abundant species was Grapus adholineatus, followed by

Thalamita ceoroleipis, and the least dense was Calappa

hepatica and Leucosia pubescens with an equal abundance.

As stated by Baliao (1971), crustaceans like crabs and

lobsters are very abundant at early time. They can be seen

in unlimited size and composition in seashores, rivers and

shoreline. As of now, in experimental surveys and

observations made, there are reports of species loss in 77%

of their population through migration and over-catching of

man.

Bartocillo et al., (2017), conducted a study in the

Olango Island Wildlife Sanctuary in the Philippines that is

teeming with fiddler crabs. However, to date no published

studies have verified the identity of these populations. The

fiddler crabs in the sanctuary were observed to be situated

in a distinct location. Studies suggest that ecological

factors such as substrate can play role in the distribution

of the fiddler crabs. A total of 385 fiddler crabs were

collected and accounted from four distinct sites. Discrete

morphological characters and four morphometric measurements

for Uca species were used for species identification. Type

 22

of substrate were observed and noticed. Results revealed the

presence of five fiddler crab species in the sanctuary

namely; Uca annulipes, Uca crassipes, Uca perflexa, Uca

tetragonon, and Uca vocans. Distribution of the five species

appeared to be influenced by substrate type. Uca crassipes

were abundant in the limestone areas with a little or no

presence of sand while Uca perplexa, Uca tetragonon and Uca

vocans were mostly seen in the areas with high volume of

sand and mud. Lastly, Uca annulipes were plentiful in the

limestone areas with a low-moderate volume of sand. The

investigation revealed that the distribution of the species

appeared to be influenced by the substrate type.

Cantong, J.A. (2019) in his study of Crustacean species

in Hirapsan Island, Mondragon Northern Samar. He concluded

that there were fourteen (14) Crustaceans found on the said

Island. The most abundant crustacean was Thalamita danea

having a total of (21)individuals, Thalarnita pryrna

individuals, Eriphia sebana (8) individuals, Ocypode

ceratopthalmus (7) individuals, Pilumnus riticulatos and

Atergatis floridus having (6) indiviiduals, Thalamita

crenata, Pilmunus reticulatus and Xantho hydrophilus having

(5) individuals, Actaeodes tomentosus, Zosimus aeneus, and

Acteodes hirsutissimus having (4) individuals, Aterga tis

integerrimus having (3) individuals and the least abundant

 23

crustacean was Macrobrachium rosenbergii with only (1)

individual.

The young of marine crustaceans generally pass through

one or more larval stages that are quite unlike the adult

form. Often the larvae swim in open water to find a place to

live. Freshwater and terrestrial crustaceans skip the larval

stage, except for those that return to the sea to spawn.

After fertilization, the developing eggs are generally cared

for by the mother until they have reached the larval or post

larval condition. Otherwise, little parental care exists

among crustaceans. Some live in male or female or are

gregarious, but they do not form well organized societies.

The smallest crustaceans live just for days, but the largest

one may live for decades (Crustacean, 2003).

According to De Asis, (2009) there are species of

crustaceans found in three selected coastal barangays of

Mondragon. Northern Samar. Family Portonos granulates,

Thalamita, Portunos inimonatus and Padopthalmus vigil, and

the least being the Family Xanthidae. Crustaceans do not

produce venom, that can cause severe allergic reactions and

traumatic lesions, especially laceration caused by the claw,

Allergic manifestation is to uncommon; contact dermatitis

may be observed, as well as urticaria and anaptyctic

 24

reactions when the animals are ingested. The latter seem to

be cross reactions with tropomyosin’s present in all

crustaceans and astaxanthin, a pigment that impacts the

reddish color to shrimp, crabs, lobster (Crustaceans),

salmons and flamingos. An irritant dermatitis can be seen in

the hands of those who clean shrimps and prawns, and may be

irritative and or traumatic. The mantis shrimp is a large

and aggressive crustacean, whose sharp claws can be caused

by crustaceans are treated by through washing of the wound,

and administering of tetanus vaccination and tropical

systematic antibiotics if infections occur (Corbellini &

Traying, 2017).

There are four main crustaceans are subphylum arthropod

evolution and each created as a subphylum. These lives are

believed to be represented by the extinct. Trobobita, the

crustaceans, containing copepod, barnacles, shrimp, lobster,

and insects (Barnes, Ruperters, 1994).

According to Tolentinas, (2018) studied in crustaceans

in Caohagan Island, Pambujan Northern Samar. There were five

(5) families, four (4) genera Thalimata danae, Latherille,

Gonodactylus hepatica, Stenopida Doropidea, Purtunos

inimonatus, Garapside of Crustaceans. The most abundant

crustacean’s species were Xanthidea and Thalimata.

 25

According to Saulo, (2018) There are a total 20

identify species in coastal barangay in Lavezarez Northern

Samar. Family Xanthidae, penous monodon, Xanthhidea

Thalimata, Thalimata danae Latriella, Thalimata creneta

paguius hirsutiusculu,Pambacus antaracrinus, Uca (Tubulla)

Flamula, Gonoductylus hepatica, Gonoductylus chiraga,

peneus monodon, Panulirus ornatus.

As stated by Infante (2009), there is a total of 39

species of crustaceans identified in Barangay Langob,

Laoang, Northern Samar during the period of study from

April-June 2008. These 39 species belong 16 families,

namely; Majidae (7), Potunidae (7), Xanthidae (8), Grapsidae

(13), Paguridae (2), Scyllaridae (2), Sergestidae (1),

Palamonidae (1), Stenopidae (1), Hippolytidae (1),

Calappidae (1), Cancridae (1), and Dorripidae (1).

As stated by Kariathil et al., (2010) 51 species

belonging to 33 genera of brachyuran crabs, 18 species of

hermit crabs belonging to 8 genera, 48 shrimps and 63

stomatopods were recorded. The major brachyuran family

include Portunidae, Zanthidae, Ocypodidae, Grapsidae and

others were Leucossidae, Grapsidae, and Mictyridae. The

major genera of brachyuran crabs were Thalamita, Charybdis,

 26

Atergatis, Ocypode, Uca, Grapsus, Carpilius, Pilumnus,

Doclea, Matuta and Calapa.

Lebrino (2008) in the study on Inventory Assessment of

Crustaceans in Barangay Nipa, Palapag, Northern Samar. The

result of his study revealed 16 crustacean species in

earangay Nipa. These belong to 11 families: Xanthidae with 4

species, namely: Carpilus maculatus, Gyno melanodactyl,

Zosimtus aeneus, Zosimus sp., Portunidae with 2 species,

namely: Padothalmus vigil and Thalamita crenata; Ocypodidae

with 2 species, namely: Ocypode cordimana, and Uca

pugilator; Grapsidae with only 1 species; Grapsu

tenuicrustatus; Majedae, 1 species; Schizophrys aspera;

Clappidae, 1 species; Calappa hepatica; Gecarcinidae, 1

species; Trachyperanaeus pulvus; and Palinuridae, 1

species; Panulirus versicolor, respectively.

Quinitio and Parado-Estepa (2000) conducted studies on

simulated transport of mud crab zoeae and megalopae. They

found that the optimal loading densities were: 10 x 103

individuals per liter for zoeae and 50 individual per liter

for megalopae. These densities should be used during

transport for subsequent stocking in nursery ponds.

Villacortes (2004) conducted a taxonomic study of

freshwater crustaceans in Galutan River, Catarman, Northern

 27

Samar which identified six species of crustaceans belonging

to three families of Order Decapoda and three genera of

Macrobrachium.