VETERINARY SUPPORT ASSISTANT

DIPLOMA COURSE

ASSIGNMENT FOUR

BASIC SMALL ANIMAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY – PART TWO

Overview and learning outcomes

Overview

• Digestive system
• Urinary system
• Respiratory systems
• Nervous system

Outcomes

1. Describe the gross anatomy and histology of the digestive system.

2. Evaluate how carbohydrates, proteins, and fats change as they pass from mouth to the anus,
identifying step-by-step changes and the roles played by the digestive tract and individual
accessory organs.

3. Describe the gross anatomy of the urinary system.

4. Be able to demonstrate an understanding of the structure and function of the endocrine and
reproductive systems, such as the menstrual and ovarian cycles.

5. Be able to demonstrate an understanding of the major divisions of the nervous system, their
component structures, and the various homeostatic mechanisms that operate under nervous
control.

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 DIGESTIVE AND EXCRETORY SYSTEMS

Digestion

This the process by which ingested food is broken down in the alimentary canal into a form that can
be absorbed and used by the tissues of the body.

The Tongue

The functions of the tongue are to manipulate food, taste food and for grooming. It is made up of
striated muscle fibres, and is home to the taste buds. Underneath the tongue there is the lingual vein,
which can be useful to use to take a pulse when you have an animal under anaesthetic.

Salivary glands

There are four pairs of saliva glands. Their function is to produce saliva, which moistens, softens and
lubricates food. It protects the gums and teeth by maintaining the pH and acting as a natural
antibacterial agent. They also start the digestive process of carbohydrates, as it contains an enzyme.

Oesophagus

The oesophagus is a narrow muscular tube from the pharynx through the diaphragm to the stomach.

Stomach

The stomach has three parts:

The functions of the stomach are to act as a temporary reservoir, initiate protein digestion and
regulate the food into the first part of the small intestine. Food remains in the stomach for ten to
sixteen hours after eating. The capacity of the stomach is 100 to 250 mls per kilogram.

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Gastric Secretions

• Mucus – this acts to protect the lining of the stomach.

• Hydrochloric acid – this makes the contents of the stomach slightly acidic, which is required
for some enzymes to act.

• Pepsinogen – this is involved in breaking down protein.

• Gastrin – this is a hormone that controls the production of hydrochloric acid.

• Lipase – this is an enzyme that breaks down fat.

• Rennin – this curdles the milk to make it into a solid for digestion.

Small Intestine

This is made up of three parts:

Duodenum

Firstly, the duodenum, which is the first section, starts at the bottom of the stomach. It is short, non-
mobile and U-shaped. It has the pancreatic and bile ducts linking into it and is found on the right side
of the abdomen.

Pancreatic juice consists of:

• Bicarbonate, which neutralises the pH

• Amylase, which helps break down starch
• Trypsin, starts to break down proteins
• Lipase, which breaks down fat

Bile contains:

• bile salts, which break down fat into smaller pieces, so lipase can work on it
• bile pigments, which are waste products of blood breakdown

Jejunum

Next is the jejunum. It is supported by the mesentery, and has numerous coils that are mobile. The
jejunum produces intestinal juice from the cells in the intestinal wall.
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Intestinal juice consists of:

• Bicarbonate, to maintain the pH

• Disaccharidase, which continues the starch breakdown that amylase started
• Peptidase, which continues the breakdown of proteins
• Nucleotidase, which breaks down RNA and DNA
• Enterokinase, which is involved in the breakdown of protein

Ileum

The third part is the ileum. This joins to the colon/large intestines, and its prime function is to absorb
electrolytes and products of digestion.

Large Intestines

The functions of the large intestine are to absorb the water from residues and some electrolytes, and
to produce mucus. There are also large bacteria colonies that partially digest the remaining proteins
and fibre.

The large intestine consists of four parts:

• The Caecum is a small blind-ended branch that has no function in carnivores. In herbivores, it
breaks down coarse vegetable matter. It is better known as the appendix in humans.

• The Colon

• The Rectum

• The Anal Canal

The Gall bladder

The gall bladder is on the underside of the liver and is used to store bile. Bile is made in the liver and
is stored in the gall bladder until it is needed to help the digestion of fat.

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The Pancreas

This organ has two main functions. It functions as an exocrine organ by producing digestive enzymes
and as an endocrine organ by producing hormones, with insulin being the most important hormone
produced by the pancreas. The pancreas secretes its digestive enzymes through a system of ducts into
the digestive tract, while it secretes its variety of hormones directly into the bloodstream.

URINARY SYSTEM

The urinary system is made up from the upper urinary tract, which includes the kidneys, ureters and
bladder, and the lower urinary tract, which includes the urethra.

The Kidneys

The two kidneys lie against the dorsal wall of the abdomen. The right kidney is about half a kidney’s
length in front of the left.

The functions of the kidneys

The formation of urine involves the secretion of waste and excess materials from the body,
including:

• excess water
• the production of rennin
• the conversion of Vitamin D into an active form
• the production of erythropoietin
• the maintenance of the correct pH within the body

The Ureters

These are thick-walled, narrow pipes which carry the urine from the kidney to the bladder. They
have a small valve that prevents urine returning to the kidney.

The Bladder

The bladder is an incredible organ that is capable of considerable distension. It has a double layer of
smooth muscle fibres in its wall and a lining of transitional epithelium. The lining of an empty
bladder is thrown into folds, which allows for tremendous expansion when it is full.

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The Urethra

This is the tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

This system is concerned with the delivery of oxygen and the removal of carbon dioxide, which is
always the end product. Without the removal of carbon dioxide from the blood and constant
replenishment of the circulating oxygen, cellular respiration would cease. Oxygen is necessary for
chemical reactions, and essential to animal life.

The respiratory system consists of:

The Nose and Nasal Cavity

The nasal cavity extends from the nose to the pharynx. It is divided into chambers that are filled with
turbinate bones. These bones are covered with ciliated mucus membranes. The function of these
bones is to increase the surface area, so that there is more room for the ciliated mucus membrane to
moisten, warm and filter the air that passes over them in the depths of this nasal cavity. There are a
large number of nerve endings that register the sensation of smell, and can feed information to the
brain.

Pharynx

The pharynx is situated at the back of the throat at the top of the trachea. It is the area at the back of
the mouth used by both the respiratory and digestive tracts. The openings into the pharynx are:

• the nasal chamber

• the mouth
• two Eustachian tubes from the middle ear
• the oesophagus
• the larynx

Larynx

The larynx is a rigid, hollow structure made up of a number of cartilages. It forms the opening into
the lungs and is also where the voice box is situated. The larynx is responsible for making sure that
air goes down the trachea and food goes down the oesophagus, and that these two do not get
confused.

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Trachea

The trachea is a tube that runs from the larynx into the chest, where it divides into the left and right
bronchi.

It is made up of a series of C-shaped rings of cartilage, with the open part of the ‘C’ being the side
where the oesophagus runs next to the trachea. This allows space for the oesophagus to expand.

Bronchi and Bronchioles

The bronchi are similar in structure to the trachea. Each bronchus divides to enter one of the lobes of
the lungs. They continue to divide off throughout the lung, getting smaller with each division.

Lungs

These are two large, spongy organs that lie in the chest on either side. Each lung is divided into
lobes; the left lung into three lobes and the right lung into four lobes. This is where the alveoli ducts
are located. The alveoli ducts have a number of alveoli sacs on the end of them, and it is here that
gaseous exchange takes place by diffusion.

The volume of air exchange in each breath is called the tidal volume. This can be calculated for each
animal at 10-12ml per kilo.

The Diaphragm

This is a dome-shaped muscle that separates the chest from the abdomen. There are a number of
openings in the diaphragm that allow passage to various structures, like blood vessels and nerves.

NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is a system of communications between the various parts of the body. The
functions of it are:

• to receive information about the external environment

• to retrieve information about tissues and organs in the animal’s own body
• to interpret the information that it receives
• to send impulses (commands) throughout the body to receptors in muscles etc.

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If you look at nervous tissue under the microscope, then you would see that it was composed of two
things: neurones, which are the nerve cells, and neuroglia, a special type of connective tissue that
runs between the nerve cells.

The nervous system works by sending impulses along its cells to communicate with various parts of
the body. These impulses are like small electrical charges transmitted along the length of the nerve.
They act as a kind of high-speed electrical signalling system.

The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord. These both have bone that
surrounds them for protection. They also have protective membranes called the meninges. In the
meninges you will find a fluid called Cerebro-Spinal Fluid, or CSF for short.

The spinal cord is attached to the brain, and leaves the brain at the base of the skull, where it enters
into the spine. At the end of the spinal cord, there is a bundle of nerves that branches out from it.
This is known as the cauda equine, which is Latin for ‘horses tail’.

The Brain

The brain is the central control station. It retrieves the sensory information, processes it and, if
appropriate, sends out a response.

The brain consists of billions of neurons, and can be divided into three main areas:

The Hind Brain

This is at the back of the brain. It has two main structures, one of which controls breathing, blood
pressure, heart rate and other vital functions. Damage to this part of the brain is fatal. The other
structure controls balance and coordination of locomotion, for example walking and running.
Damage to this part of the brain results in difficulty balancing, and animals will often tilt their head.

The Mid Brain

This is situated in the middle. It receives impulses from the eye and ear, and is the centre for visual
and auditory reflexes. It is also responsible for the maintenance of conscious state. Damage here may
lead to a state of coma.

The Fore Brain

This is the front part, and it contains the nerve fibres associated with the eyes and ears. It also
regulates the pituitary gland.

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 THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The Male Reproductive System

The reproductive system of the male is responsible for the production, storage and nourishment of
sperm and the transport into the genital tract of the female, so that the ova of the female can be
fertilised. The male reproductive system consists of:

The Testes

These lie in a sack of skin called the scrotum between the hind legs in the dog, and just below the
anus in the cat. These two glands are responsible for the production of the male hormone
testosterone, and the production of sperm.

Epididymitis

These are a series of small ducts on the side of the testes, where sperm is stored.

Vas Deferens

This carries the sperm from the epididymitis into the urethra.

The Prostate Gland

This produces a large amount of seminal fluid that makes up the volume of the ejaculate in the
animal.

The Urethra

This is the tube between the bladder and the outside world.

The Penis and Prepuce

The penis carries the urethra and is used to deliver sperm into a female’s vagina. The prepuce is a
sheath that covers the distal part of the penis to protect it. This is pushed back during mating to
expose the erect penis.

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The Female Reproductive System

This produces eggs or ova that are to be fertilised in the fallopian tubes, and carries them to the
uterine horns where they are implanted. This is where the foetus grows throughout the animal’s
pregnancy or gestation period.

The Ovaries

These are situated in the abdomen, behind the kidneys. They produce the ova, and also female
hormones.

The Oviduct

This is a narrow tube that runs from the horn of the uterus to the ovary, and it captures the released
ova.

Uterus

This consists of two long horns bleeding from a single cervix. This allows the cat or dog to give birth
to multiple offspring, as many foetuses can grow along them.

The Vagina

This extends from the cervix to the external part of the urethra. It lies within the pelvis. The muscles
are very strong, and in the bitch they contribute to the tie between the bitch and the dog during
mating.

The Vulva and Clitoris

The vulvar lips form the boundaries of the vertical slit that is the external opening of the female
urogenital tract. These lips are normally soft, but become enlarged and turgid when the bitch is in
season. The clitoris is a small bundle of erectile tissue that is the female’s version of the penis.

Reproductive Patterns

Most animal species have a particular breeding season during the year. The time of year when the
animal chooses to have its young is usually based on having a plentiful food source. The onset of the
breeding season may be triggered by an external factor, such as the increase or decrease of day
length, or a rise and fall in temperature.

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The domestic dog has two breeding seasons during the year. These may fall any time, but generally
bitches come into season during the spring and autumn. The cat’s breeding season, the female being
known as the Queen, is dictated by day length, and runs from early spring until autumn.

Oestrus Cycle

Oestrus is the period during the oestrus cycle when the female is prepared to accept the male. This
varies hugely in length from species to species. Oestrus coincides with the release of ova by the
ovary, and females’ willingness to mate at this time makes it likely that they will be fertilised soon
after ovulation.

MATING

Dogs

When the bitch comes into oestrus she will exhibit a number of signs that show the male her
readiness to mate. When she is ready she will permit the dog to mount and mate with her. His erect
penis enters her vagina, and with a series of thrusting movements he ejaculates. As he ejaculates,
strong muscles in the bitch tighten, holding the two animals firmly together in a tie. After
declaration, the dog will dismount by swinging one leg over the bitch’s back so they are standing
tail-to-tail. They remain in this position for the duration of the tie, which may be anything from a few
minutes to more than an hour. The dog and bitch should not be forced apart during the tie, as it can
damage the genitals of both parties.

Cats

A female cat in oestrus will exhibit signs letting the male know she is ready to mate. They are
generally very vocal at this time. When the cats mate, the procedure is much quicker than with dogs.
As the tom cat withdraws, the backward-pointing barbs on his penis irritate the female, to the extent
that she will usually turn round and take a swipe at the male.

Pregnancy/Gestation

Gestation period of the cat and dog is around nine weeks.

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The embryo develops generally as follows:

• Three weeks – the embryo is about half a centimetre long

• Four weeks – legs are just visible and the embryo is two centimetres long
• Five weeks – the eyelids and ear flaps are visible and the embryo is about 3.5 cm long
• Six weeks – the toes and external genitalia are well-developed and the embryo is 6 cm long
• Seven weeks – colour markings and hair are starting to develop and the embryo is 10 cm long
• Eight weeks – the embryo is 15 cm long and has hair and pads
• Nine weeks – the puppy or kitten is born with the eyes and ears closed

The actual process of birth is called parturition.

Species Period (days)

Cats 51-65 (7-9 weeks)

Dogs 56-70 (9-10 weeks)

Rabbits 28-32 (4-4.5 weeks)

Hamsters 30-32

Gerbils 16

Rats 21-24

Mice 21-24

Guinea Pig 56-74

Ferrets 42

TUTOR TALK: You have now come to the end of this assignment. Answer the questions
relating to the work that you have just covered and return them to the College for marking.

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“Duty makes us do things well, but love makes us do them beautifully.”

Zig Ziglar

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