MAGNETISM

(Theories, Types, Geomagnetism)

WHAT IS MAGNETISM?
• is the force exerted by magnets when they attract or repel each other. Magnetism is
caused by the motion of electric charges.

THEORY OF MAGNETISM
• If a magnetic piece of steel rod is cut into smaller pieces, each piece is a magnet with a
N or a S pole.
• Therefore, a magnet can be said to be made of lots of "tiny" magnets all lined up with
their N poles pointing in the same direction.

Molecular theory of magnetism

• Magnets can be split into two magnets
• Split down to molecular level
• When unmagnetized, randomness, fields cancel
• When magnetized, order, fields combine

Electron theory of magnetism

• Electron spin as they orbit (similar to earth)
• Spin produces magnetic field
• Magnetic direction depends on direction of rotation
• Non-magnets equal number of electrons spinning in opposite direction.
• Magnets more spin one way than other.
TYPES OF MAGNETISM
Five basic types of magnetism have been observed and classified on the basis of the
magnetic behavior of materials in response to magnetic fields at different temperatures.

Ferromagnetism
• Ferromagnets are permanently magnetic. They are objects with strong magnetic
attraction, regardless of whether or not they are in the presence of a magnetic field. The
term comes from “ferrum”, the Latin word for iron (a ferromagnetic element).
Ferromagnets include iron, nickel, and cobalt.

Ferrimagnetism
• Ferrimagnets contain electrons that both attract like ferromagnets and repel like
antiferromagnets. However, there are more electrons that attract than repel, leading to
ferrimagnets’ own classification.

Antiferromagnetism
• Antiferromagnets are just that the opposite of ferromagnets. They repel other metals
without the presence of a magnetic field. However, it should be noted that this typically
only occurs at very low temperatures and most antiferromagnets are simply
paramagnets at room temperature. The only known antiferromagnetic element
is chromium.

Paramagnetism
• The opposite of diamagnetism, paramagnetic substances attract magnetic forces when
exposed to them. Paramagnets are only magnetic when in the presence of an
established magnetic field and do not give off their own magnetic fields, making them
different from ferromagnets.

Diamagnetism
• There are a lot of quantum mechanics involved with diamagnetism, but in a basic sense,
diamagnetic objects typically repel when exposed to magnetic fields. Diamagnetic
elements include hydrogen, beryllium, poor metals, most nonmetals and semimetals,
halogens, and noble gases.

What is Geomagnetism?
• is the study of the dynamics of the Earth's magnetic field, which is produced in the inner
core. The Earth's magnetic field is predominantly a geo-axial dipole, with north and south
magnetic poles located near the geographic poles that undergo periodic reversals and
excursions.
 MAGNETIC FIELD
(Magnetic Flux, Right Hand Rule, Electromagnetic Induction, Generator Rule)

WHAT IS MAGNETIC FIELD?

• is a vector field that describes the magnetic influence on moving electric charges,
electric currents, and magnetic materials. A moving charge in a magnetic field
experiences a force perpendicular to its own velocity and to the magnetic field.

WHAT IS MAGNETIC FLUX?

• is defined as the number of magnetic field lines passing through a given closed surface.
It provides the measurement of the total magnetic field that passes through a given
surface area.

WHAT IS ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION?

• is the process of generating electric current with a magnetic field. It occurs whenever a
magnetic field and an electric conductor, such as a coil of wire, move relative to one
another. As long as the conductor is part of a closed circuit, current will flow through it
whenever it crosses lines of force in the magnetic field.

RIGHT HAND RULE

Right hand rule for force due to a magnetic field. It is a tool used to help identify the
direction of different fields and forces due to different objects.
• The right hand rule is a tool used to help identify the direction of different fields and
forces due to different objects.
• Point fingers in the direction of the velocity
• Curl fingers to the direction of the magnetic field
• Thumb points in the direction of the force

Right Hand Rule #1

Moving Point Charge Straight Wire

Thumb Velocity (ⱱ) Current (I)

Finger Curl ⃗)
Magnetic field (𝐵 ⃗)
Magnetic field (𝐵

Note: For a negative charge, the magnetic field will point in the
opposite direction
Right Hand Rule #2
Loop of wire

Thumb ⃗)
Magnetic field (𝐵

Fingers curl Current (I)

Right Hand Rule #3

Force on a Moving Force DUE to a wire Electromagnetic (EM)
Charge Waves

Thumb Force (F) Current (I) Direction of propagation

Pointer finger Velocity (ⱱ) ⃗)

Magnetic field (𝐵 Electric field (𝐸⃗ )

Middle finger ⃗)
Magnetic field (𝐵 Force (F) ⃗)
Magnetic field (𝐵

Note: B field will point in opposite direction for a negative charge

GENERATOR RULE (Fleming’s Right Hand Rule)
The direction of the current can be found from Fleming's Right-hand Rule. The right-
hand rule is used for generators and current generated by a motion. Using the right-hand, the
thumb is in the direction of the motion, the first finger points in the direction of the field and the
second finger points in the direction of the current.

*Stretch out the fore finger, middle finger and thumb of your right hand, so that they are at right
angles to one another. If the forefinger points in the direction of magnetic field, Thumb in the
direction of motion of the Conductor and middle finger in the direction of Induced emf.
GENERATOR RULE (Fleming’s Left Hand Rule)
According to Fleming's left hand rule, if the thumb, fore-finger and middle finger of the
left hand are stretched to be perpendicular to each other as shown in the illustration at left, and
if the fore finger represents the direction of magnetic field, the middle finger represents the
direction of current, then the thumb represents the direction of force. Fleming's left hand rule is
applicable for motors.
 Light
Parts of the Eyes
The human eye is the gateway to one of our five senses. The human eye is an organ that
reacts with light. It allows light perception, color vision and depth perception. The eye is made up
of a number of parts, including the iris, pupil, cornea, and retina.

Layers:
1. Outermost Layer – composed of the cornea and the sclera.
2. Middle Layer – composed of the choroid, ciliary body and iris.
3. Innermost Layer – the retina, which can be seen with an instrument called the
ophthalmoscope.

Main Parts of the Human Eye

• Schlera - white part of the eye, protects the eyeball
• Pupil – black dot at the centre of the eye, is an opening through which light can enter
the eye.
• Iris – coloured part of the eye, surrounds the pupil. It controls how much light enters the
eye by changing the size of the pupil.
• Cornea – clear window at the front of the eye, covers the iris and the pupil.
• Lens – located behind the pupil, acts like a camera lens by focusing light onto the retina
at the back of the eye.
• Retina – a light-sensitive inner lining at the back of the eye. Ten different layers of cells
work together in the retina to detect light and turn it into electrical impulses.

HOW THE EYES SEES?

When light hits the retina (a light-sensitive layer of tissue at the back of the eye), special
cells called photoreceptors turn the light into electrical signals. These electrical signals travel from
the retina through the optic nerve to the brain. Then the brain turns the signals into the images
you see.
HOW THE EYES PERCEIVE COLOR AND LIGHT?
With human eyesight, cone cells are responsible for color vision. From there, it is important
to understand how color is perceived. Using the cone cells in the retina, we perceive images in
color.
Each type of cone specifically sees in regions of red, green, or blue, (RGB), in the color
spectrum of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet.
Special cells called cones and rods are located in the retina. These cells are known as
photoreceptors and help absorb light.

Cones
• The majority of the cones are located in the macula, or central area, of the retina. Cone
cells help us see color and detail. Similarly, the macula allows us to read and clearly
recognize people's facial details, such as eye color and whether they have freckles.

Rods
• The majority of the rods are located in the peripheral, or outer area, of the retina. Rod cells
allow us to see in poor lighting and give us our night vision.

HOW NORMAL VISION WORKS

For people with normally functioning eyes, the following sequence takes place:
• Light reflects off the object we are looking at.
• Light rays enter the eye through the cornea at the front of the eye.
• The light passes through a watery fluid (aqueous humor), and enters the pupil to reach
the lens.
• The lens can change in thickness to bend the light, which will focus it onto the retina at
the back of the eye.
• On the way to the retina, the light passes through a thick, clear fluid called a vitreous
humor. The vitreous humor fills the eyeball and helps maintain its round shape.
• The light then reaches the back of the eye and hits the retina. The retina translates the
light into electrical impulses which are then carried to the brain by the optic nerve.
• Finally, the visual cortex (or centre) of the brain interprets these impulses as what we see.

Light and Its Properties

In a vacuum (a container with no air), light travels at the speed of approximately 299 792
458 meters per second (m/s). This is known as the speed of light. It is the fastest that anything
in the universe is able to move! For comparison, the speed of sound is only approximately 300
m/s. This is why during a storm you always see lightning before hearing thunder.
An important thing to know about light is that it travels in a straight line through a material.

Properties of Light
• Effects of Materials on Light • Interference
• Reflection • Diffraction
• Refraction • Scattering of Light
• Dispersion • Polarization
• Total Internal Reflection

Dispersion – The process in which light is separated into its colors due to the differences in
degrees of refraction.

Total Internal Reflection – When light is reflected completely at the boundary between two
mediums

Interference - Light can superimpose and have either constructive interference or destructive
interference.

Diffraction - Light spreads out after passing through/by an opening /edge. The opening must be
very narrow for diffraction of light to occur.

Scattering of light is the phenomenon in which light rays get deviated from its straight path on
striking an obstacle like dust or gas molecules, water vapors etc.

Polarized light waves are light waves in which the vibrations occur in a single plane. The
process of transforming unpolarized light into polarized light is known as polarization.

Effects of Materials on Light

• Opaque materials – absorb light; do not let light to pass through.
• Transparent materials – allow light to easily pass through them
• Translucent materials – allow light to pass through but distorts the light during the
passage.

Refraction of Light
Refraction is the bending of a wave when it passes from one medium to another. The
bending is caused due to the differences in density between the two substances.
“Refraction is the change in the direction of a wave passing from one medium to another.”

Causes of Refraction
What is Refractive Index?
Change of Speed Results in Change in Direction
A light ray refracts whenever it travels at an angle into a medium of different refractive index.
This change in speed results in a change in direction.
Refractive index, also called the index of refraction describes how fast light travels through the
material.

Refraction of Light in Real Life

• A swimming pool always looks shallower than it really is because the light coming from
the bottom of the pool bends at the surface due to refraction of light.
• Formation of a rainbow is an example of refraction as the sun rays bend through the
raindrops resulting in the rainbow.

Applications of Refraction of Light

Refraction has many applications in optics and technology. A few of the prominent
applications are listed below:
• A lens uses refraction to form an image of an object for various purposes, such as
magnification.
• Spectacles worn by people with defective vision use the principle of refraction.
• Refraction is used in peepholes of house doors, cameras, movie projectors and
telescopes.

Lenses
Refraction of light occurs when using lenses.
• There are 2 types of lens: concave and convex

Convex
If the object is between the focal length and 2 focal lengths point the image will be real,
diminished and inverted. If it is at 2F it will be the same size.

If the object is closer than the focal point it will be virtual, magnified and upright.
Concave
• The image will always be virtual, upright and diminished.

Equation
• Magnification = image size / object size

Reflection
When light collides with a surface some of the light may be transmitted through, some
may be absorbed but some may be reflected back.

• The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
• The normal line is an imaginary line drawn perpendicular to the surface at the point
where the ray of light collides with the surface.
• Angles of incidence and reflection are measure from the normal line to the ray, not from
the mirror to the ray.
Electromagnetic Spectrum and Visible Light (Wavelength)

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic waves can be classified and arranged according to their various
wavelengths/frequencies; this classification is known as the electromagnetic spectrum. The
following table shows us this spectrum, which consists of all the types of electromagnetic
radiation that exist in our universe.

The electromagnetic spectrum is comprised of all the varieties of radiation in the

universe. Gamma rays have the highest frequency, whereas radio waves have the lowest.
Visible light is approximately in the middle of the spectrum, and comprises a very small fraction
of the overall spectrum.

Visible Light
Visible light is a form of electromagnetic (EM) radiation, as are radio waves, infrared
radiation, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and microwaves. Generally, visible light is defined as the
wavelengths that are visible to most human eyes.

Wavelength of light varies with colors, i.e., it is different for every color. Red color has
the longest wavelength while violet has the least. The wavelength of UV radiation is sho rter than
violet light. Similarly, the wavelength of infrared radiation is longer than the wavelength of red
light.

Wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency. This means the longer the

wavelength, lower the frequency. In the same manner, shorter the wavelength, higher will be the
frequency.

Light Absorption
Light absorption is the process in which light is absorbed by matter and converted into
energy. In an atom, electrons vibrate at a specific frequency – this is called the natural
frequency. If a wave of light hits a material in which the electrons are vibrating at the same
frequency as the wave of light, the electrons will absorb the energy and convert it into vibrational
motion. This is why objects have different colors – different materials’ electrons will vibrate at
different rates, and therefore absorb different frequencies of light.

In physics, absorption of electromagnetic radiation is how matter (typically electrons

bound in atoms) takes up a photon's energy and so transforms electromagnetic energy into
internal energy of the absorber (for example, thermal energy). A notable effect is attenuation, or
the gradual reduction of the intensity of light waves as they propagate through a medium.
Although the absorption of waves does not usually depend on their intensity (linear absorption),
in certain conditions (optics) the medium's transparency changes by a factor that varies as a
function of wave intensity, and saturable absorption (or nonlinear absorption) occurs.
What Happened to Absorb Light?

Absorbed – light energy hitting the surface is converted to heat energy.

a. Dark or black objects absorb more light and feel hotter than lighter or white objects
b. Objects that do not transmit or reflect much visible light, absorb it, so the object appears
opaque (you can't see through it)
Mirrors and Lens Images Form
 PARTS of
Magnifying Glass, Microscope, Telescope, Projector
MAGNIFYING GLASS

PURPOSE :
• is to observe small objects so that it will look bigger.

INVENTOR:
• Franciscan friar and scholar Roger Bacon in Oxford, UK.

PARTS of MAGNIFYING GLASS

1. Frame – Protects the convex lens.
2. Handle – To hold and use tool properly.
3. Convex lens - Used to produce a magnified image of an object.

MICROSCOPE
PURPOSE :
• used in science laboratories, to visualize cells, microorganisms, giving a contrasting
image, that is magnified.
• It have been constructed with special components that enable them to achieve high
magnification levels.

INVENTOR:
• Hans and Zacharias Janssen invented the first so-called compound microscope

PARTS of MICROSCOPE
There are three structural parts of the microscope i.e. head, base, and arm.

1. Head - This is also known as the body it carries the optical parts in the upper part of the
microscope.
2. Base - It acts as microscopes support. It also carriers the microscopic illuminators.
3. Arms - This is the part connecting the base and to the head and the eyepiece tube to the
base of the microscope. It gives support to the head of the microscope and it also used
when carrying the microscope.
4. Eyepiece - Also known as the ocular. Used to look through the microscope. Found at
the top of the microscope.
5. Eyepiece tube - Its the eyepiece holder. It carries the eyepiece just above the objective
lens.
6. Objective lenses - These are the major lenses used for specimen visualization. They
have a magnification power of 40x-100X. There are about 1- 4 objective lenses placed on
one microscope, in that some are rare facing and others face forward.
7. Nose piece - Also known as the revolving turret. It holds the objective lenses.
8. Adjustment knobs These are knobs that are used to focus the microscope.
a. Two types:
• Fine adjustment knobs
• Coarse adjustment knobs.
9. Stage - This is the section on which the specimen is placed for viewing. It have stage
clips hold the specimen slides in place.
10. Aperture - This is a hole on the microscope stage, through which the transmitted light
from the source reaches the stage.
11. Microscopic illuminator - This is the microscopes light source, located at the base.
12. Condenser - Lenses that are used to collect and focus light from the illuminator into the
specimen. Found under the stage next to the diaphragm.
13. Diaphragm - Also known as the iris. Found under the stage of the microscope. Primary
role is to control the amount of light that reaches the specimen.
14. Condenser focus knob - Knob that moves the condenser up or down thus controlling
the focus of light on the specimen.
15. Abbe Condenser - Condenser specially designed on high-quality microscopes, which
makes the condenser to be movable and allows very high magnification of above 400X.
 16. Rack stop - It controls how far the stages should go preventing the objective lens from
getting too close to the specimen slide which may damage the specimen.

TELESCOPE

PURPOSE :
• It is visual aid (optical) to observe distant objects.
• Its main function of the telescope is to gather light and focus it more in terms of its
diameter, so that more light can be collected.
INVENTOR:
• Hans Lippershey which is a maker of sunglasses Galileo Galilei created the first
telescope used in astronomy.

PARTS of TELESCOPE
1. Convex lens - Lens that collects light or convergent nature
2. Concave lens - Lens that is spread light or diverging
3. Convex mirror - Mirror that scatter light
4. Concave mirror - Mirror that collects light
5. Telescope tube - Where main mirror is located, this tube has a diameter of 8 inches, the
tube has a tube cover. The focal length can be set by turning the knob located under
visual back.
6. Finderscope - small telescope mounted on the main tube
7. Eyepiece - Function of the ocular lens. It has a lock for security so it does not fall and
disappear.
 8. Mounting - Known as the cradle telescope. Main drive system on the telescope. There
is also a connection port that consists of buttons including a button to turn the telescope
9. Tripod - Accomplice to place telescope on a surface
10. Half Pillar - to raise the mounting position

The things needed to know in order to understand the parts of the lens are as follows:
• Focusing distance is the distance required by lenses or mirrors to direct light at the focal
point
• Field of view is the area of the sky or the area that can be seen and observed through a
telescope
• Magnification of the focal length of the telescope divided by the focal length of the lens in
the eye.
• Resolution is the closest distance between two objects can still be seen as two separate
objects.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Types of Telescope
Generally, the telescope is divided into three types, namely:

a. Reflector telescope
- Uses mirrors as a substitute for the lens to capture light and reflect it.

b. Refractor telescope
- Composed of multiple glass lens as a tool used to capture light and perform the function of
the telescope.

c. Telescope catadioptric
- A telescope that has a working system that is not much different from the above two
types of telescopes.
- Because this telescope is the combination of reflector and refractor telescopes, which
use two media for gathering light, the mirrors and lenses.

PROJECTOR
PURPOSE :
• Also known as image projector
• An optical device that projects an image onto a surface

INVENTOR:
• British photographer Eadweard Muybridge
• The first movie projector was the Zoopraxiscope

PARTS of PROJECTOR
1. Concave mirror - Reflects light from the bulb to a pair of condenser lenses.
2. Condensing Lenses - Direct the light through the slide to a projection lens.
3. Projection lens - Adjusted until a sharp magnified image is focused on the screen.
4. Slide - Image formed on the screen is inverted, both laterally and vertically
5. Light Bulb - Bulb with high brightness is used.