Life-Span

Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

Chapter 1

Understanding Life-Span
Human Development
 Life-Span Human Development, 7th Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

How should we think about DEVELOPMENT?

How can we conceptualize LIFE SPAN?

How can we approach the nature vs

nurture issue in the study of
development?

How is DEVELOPMENT studied?

 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

What is Development?
Three broad domains

Physical Systematic

Development
Cognitive

Continuities

Psychosocial
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

Defining Development

Growth
Physical changes that occur from conception to
maturity
Biological aging
Deterioration of organisms that leads to death
Gain-stability-loss
Aging
Physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes,
positive and
negative, in the mature organism
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

An
Overview
of Periods
of the Life
Span
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

An important thing to remember about these

age ranges is that individual differences exist!

People mature at different rates and reach

developmental milestones at different points

Environmental factors, including culture, play a role in

determining when events occur

Age ranges are only averages, and some

people will be above or below
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

Age Grade: Socially defined age groups

Statuses, roles, privileges, responsibilities
- defines what people should and
should not do at different points in the
life span
Importance:
1. The influence people’s decisions about how to
lead their lives; basis for social clock
2. Affect how easily people adjust to life transitions
(having children on time)
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

Rite of passage
Ritual that marks a person’s “passage” from one status to
another
Body painting
Circumcision
Age norms, are society’s way of telling people how to act
their age. In our culture ,for example, most people agree
that 6-year-olds are too young to date or drink beer but
are old enough to attend school.

Social clock—a person’s sense of when things should be

done and when he or she is ahead of or behind the
schedule dictated by age norms.
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

Japan’s rite of passage for 20 years old

 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

Subcultural Differences

Ethnicity
People’s classification or affiliation with a
group based on common heritage or
traditions

Socioeconomic status (SES)

Standing in society based on occupational
prestige, education, and income
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

Subcultural Differences
Poverty can be damaging to human
development
Lower academic achievement, poorer
mental
health and wellbeing
Increased stress
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

Nature vs. Nurture

Maturation: (nature) The biological unfolding of
the individual genetic plan
Learning: (nurture) Relatively permanent
changes due to environmental experiences
Developmental changes are the products of a
complex interplay between nature and nurture
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

Grasping the Ecology of

Development
Biological model (Bronfenbrenner) the developing person,
with his or her genetic makeup and biological and
psychological characteristics, is embedded in a series of
environmental systems
Four environmental system
1. Microsystem
2. Mesosystem
3. Exosystem
4. Macrosystem
5. Chronosystem
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

Microsystem is an immediate physical and social environment in

which the person interacts face-to-face with other people and infl
uences and is affected by them. The primary microsystem for a fi
rstborn infant is likely to be the family
Mesosystem consists of the interrelationships or linkages between two
or more microsystems. For example, teenagers who experience
stressful events such as arguments in the family (one microsystem)
report increased problems of poor attendance and diffi culty
learning at school (a second microsystem) for a couple of days
afterward
Exosystem consists of linkages involving social settings that individuals
do not experience directly but that can still infl uence their
development. For example, children can be affected by how their
parents’ day at work went or by a
Macrosystem is the larger cultural context in which the microsystem,
mesosystem, and exosystem are embedded
Chronosystem to capture the idea that changes in people and their
environments occur in a time frame (“chrono” means time)
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

Science of Life-span
Development

The science of development

consists of the study of
those changes and
continuities and their
causes.
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

Goals of Studying Life-Span Development

Description
- Normal development, individual differences
Explanation
- Typical and individually different development
Optimization
- Positive development, enhancing human
capacities
- Prevention and overcoming difficulties
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

MODERN LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE

Paul Baltes (1939-2006)
Development is
Plasticity
1. A lifelong process
2. Multi-directional
3. Involves both gain and loss
4. Characterized by lifelong plasticity
5. Shaped by its historical-cultural context
6. Multiply influenced (share Bronfenbrenner’s
belief)
7. Must be studied by multiple disciplines
 Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1
The Scientific Method
objective, systematic, and testable
Report, revise,
replicate 5
Draw conclusions
4
Test
3
Hypothesize (based on
theory)
2
Perceive
1
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

THEORY- is a set of
concepts intended to
describe and explain
certain phenomena.

HYPOTHESES-
specific conditions or
guess.

Figure 1.2
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

Sampling

Unrepresentative
sample
Population

Sampling procedure

Representative
sample
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

Population – all the cases in a group

Random Sampling
if each member has an equal
chance of inclusion into a
sample, we call that a
random sample (unbiased).

The fastest way to know about

the marble color ratio is to
blindly transfer a few into a
smaller jar and count them.
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

Random Sampling from Population

INFERENCE

POPULATION

SAMPLE
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

3 major types of Data Collection

Involve asking people

questions about themselves or others
Interviews
Written questionnaires or surveys
Ability and achievement tests
Personality scales
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

Survey
A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes,
opinions or behaviors of people

[Link]
 Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

2. Behavioral observations
A) Naturalistic Observation:
Observing subjects in natural environments
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

Behavioral observations
B) Structured observations
Achieve greater control over the conditions
Create special stimuli, tasks, or situations
designed to elicit the behavior of interest
Will research participants behave naturally?
Will behavior generalize to behavior in the
real world?
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

3. Physiological Measurements
Hard to fake
Useful in the study of infants
Limitation:
Not always clear exactly about what is being
assessed
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
Measures increase in blood
flow to an area of the brain that
occurs when that
brain area is active
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

Case Study
Is an in-depth examination of an individual (or small number of
individuals), typically carried out by compiling and analyzing
information from a variety of sources such as observation,
testing, and interviewing the person or people who know her.
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

Experimental method
Three critical features
1. Random assignment of individuals to treatment conditions.
2. Manipulation of the independent variable.
3. Experimental control.

The goal of an experiment is to see whether the different

treatments (independent variable, variable manipulated)
have differing effects on the behavior expected to be
affected, (dependent variable).
Limitations: the findings of laboratory experiments do not
always hold true in the real world
A second limitation of the experimental method is that it
cannot be used to address many significant questions about
human development for ethical reasons.
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

Quasi experiment

Used to study how a program or

intervention affects development
An experiment like study that evaluates the
effects of different treatments but does not
randomly assign individuals to treatment
groups (see Pitts, Prost, & Winters, 2005).
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

The Experiment
Operational definition - definition of a
variable of interest that allows it to be
directly measured. Definition:
Hitting while
playing
Independent variable (IV) - variable in an
experiment that is manipulated by the IV:
experimenter. Violent
TV

Dependent variable (DV) - variable in an

experiment that represents the
measurable response or behavior of the
subjects in the experiment. DV:
Aggressive
play
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

Experiments
Placebo effect
Single-blind
Experimenter bias
& “double blinding”
Quasi-experimental designs
 Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

Psychological Research
Example: An experiment to test the effect of
Ginkgo biloba on memory and cognitive
abilities
Getty Images
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

The Correlational method

When one trait or behavior accompanies another,
we say the two correlate.
Indicates strength
of relationship
(0.00 to 1.00)

Correlation
coefficient r = + 0.37

Indicates direction
of relationship
(positive or negative)
Correlation Coefficient is a
statistical measure of relationship
between two variables.
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

The closer a negative correlation is to -1, the

stronger the relationship between the two variables.
The closer a positive correlation is to 1, the stronger
the relationship.

Correlation and Causation

Correlational
or studies can
suggest that a
causal
relationship
exists
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

Below is a comparison of different research

methods.
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

Developmental Research Designs

Cross-Sectional Designs
1 cohort (same generation) or age-groups studied
1 time of testing,
Studying age differences at any one time, age effects

Longitudinal Designs
1 cohort (same generation)
Assessed repeatedly over time
Study changes across time in one cohort, age
changes
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

Figure 1.4
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

Sequential Designs
A combination of cross-sectional and
longitudinal designs
Advantages of both designs
Gives information about
Which age-related trends are age effects?
Which age-related trends are truly cohort
effects?
Which age-related trends are a result of
historical events?
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

Cross-Sectional, Longitudinal, and Sequential

Developmental Designs

© 2015. Cengage Learning. All

rights reserved.
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

Challenges in the study of Human

Development
Sensitivity to cultural and subcultural differences
Need to study development in a variety of contexts using
culturally sensitive research methods and measurements to
understand both what is universal and what is culturally
specific about human development (Lonner, 2005). Easier said
than done.

Protecting the rights of research participants

Must be sensitive to issues involving research ethics – the
standards of conduct that investigators are ethically bound to
honor to protect their research participants from physical or
psychological harm.
 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

Ethics in Psychological Research

Allow participants to make informed and

uncoerced decisions about taking part in research

Debriefing participants afterwards (especially if

they are not told everything in advance or are
deceived.)
Protecting participants from harm

Treating any information they provide as confidential

 Life-Span
Life-Span Human
Human Development,
Development, 7thEdition,
Fifth Edition, Carol
CarolK.
K. Sigelman
Sigelman and
andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

Ethics in Psychological Research

Informed Consent
Debriefing
Protection from harm
Confidentiality
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1
Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter

Chapter 2
Theories of
Human Development
Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter

Theory
• Ideas proposed to describe/explain
certain phenomena
– Organizes facts/observations
– Guides collection of new data
• Should be internally consistent
• Falsifiable: hypothesis can be tested
• Supported by data
Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter

Four Major Theoretical Viewpoints

1. PSYCHOANALYTIC viewpoint developed by Sigmund

Freud and revised by Erik Erikson and other neo-Freudians

2. LEARNING viewpoint developed by such pioneers as Ivan

Pavlov, John Watson, B.F Skinner, and Albert Bandura

3. COGNITIVE developmental viewpoint associated with Jean

Piaget

4. SYSTEMS theory approach, exemplified by Urie

Bronfenbrenner, Gilbert Gottlieb, and Esther Thelen
Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter
Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter

Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory

• Instincts and unconscious motivation
• Id, Ego, and Superego formed from psychic
energy (Libido)
– Id: Instinctual nature of humans
– Ego: rational and objective
– Superego: internalized moral standards
• A dynamic personality system
– Regular conflicts between the three parts
Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter

Freud’s Psychosexual Development

• Child moves through 5 stages
• Libido- the psychic energy of the sex instinct
• Stages result from conflict between Id & Superego
• Conflict creates anxiety
• Ego defends against anxiety with defense
mechanisms
• Early experiences have long-term effects on
personality
Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter
Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter

Defense Mechanisms

Repression - removing unacceptable thoughts

or traumatic memories from consciousness

Regression - retreating to an earlier, less

traumatic stage of development

Projection - seeing in others the motives we

fear we possess

Reaction formation - expressing motives that

are just the opposite of one’s real motives
Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter

Erik Erikson: Non- Freudian Psychoanalytic

Theory
• Most influential neo-Freudian
• Some differences with Freud
– Less emphasis on sexual urges; more
emphasis on social influences
– More emphasis on rational ego
– More positive and adaptive view of human
nature
– Believed development continues through
adulthood
Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter
Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter

• Table 2.2 Erickson’s and Freud’s Stages of Development

Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter

Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud’s Theory

• Strengths
– Awareness of unconscious motivation
– Emphasized important early experience
– Neo-Freudians have been influential
• Weaknesses
– Ambiguous, inconsistent, not testable
– Not supported by research
Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 21
Chapter

Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson

• Strengths
– Emphasis on rational and adaptive nature
– Interaction of biological & social influences
– Focus on identity crisis of adolescence still
most relevant
• Weaknesses
– Sometimes vague and difficult to test
– Does not explain how development comes
about
Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter

LEARNING THEORIES

• Watson: Classical Conditioning

• Skinner: Operant Conditioning
• Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
 Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter

Learning Theories
John Watson: Classical Conditioning
• Behaviorism: Conclusions about HD should
be based on observable behavior
• Tabula Rasa: Environmental view
• Association learning
– UCS: built-in, unlearned stimulus
– UCR: automatic, unlearned response
– CS: causes learned response
– CR: learned response
 Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter

Figure 2.2
 Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter

Learning Theories
B.F Skinner: Operant Conditioning
• Probability of behavior based on environmental
consequences
– Reinforcement
• Pleasant consequence
• Increases probability
– Punishment
• Decreases probability
• Unpleasant, aversive
 Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter

Figure 2.3
Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter

Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory

• Formerly called social learning theory
– Humans think, anticipate, believe, etc.
• Cognitive emphasis: observational learning
– Latent learning
– Human agency
– Vicarious reinforcement
– Reciprocal determinism
Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
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7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter

Learning Theory: Strengths & Weaknesses

• Strengths
– Precise and testable theory
– Carefully controlled experiments
– Practical applications across lifespan
• Weaknesses
– Inadequate account of lifespan changes
– Ignored genetic and maturational
processes
 Life-Span HumanHuman
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7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter

Jean Piaget: Cognitive Developmental Theory

• Intelligence: Ability to adapt to environment
• Constructivism: Understanding based on
experience
• Interactionist
– Both biological maturation and experience
required for progress
• At each new stage, children think in a
qualitatively different way
Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter
Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter

Cognitive Developmental Theory

• Strengths
– Well-accepted by developmentalists
– Well-researched, mostly supported
– Influenced education and parenting
• Weaknesses
– Ignores motivation and emotion
– Stages not universal – esp. last one
Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter

Other perspective: Cognitive Development

• Lev Vygotsky: Sociocultural

perspective
–Cognitive development is a social
process
–Problem solving aided by
dialogues
Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter

Contextual/Systems Theories

• Gottlieb: Evolutionary/Epigenetic
Systems
– Development arises from complex
interactions over time among genes,
neural activity, behavior, and
environmental influences operating as
a system
Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter

Normal
genes and
normal early
experiences
most helpful
Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter

SYSTEMS THEORY
• STRENGTHS • WEAKNESSES
• Challenges • Does not provide a
developmentalist to clear picture of the
look at the ongoing course of human
transactions development
between individual • No generalizations –
and his or her “it depends”
environment
Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter
Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter
Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter

Match Column A and B

1. Freud a. Considered observational

learning
2. Erick Erikson b. HD is based on sexual
3. Watson instincts
c. Constructivism
4. Skinner d. Psychosocial theory
5. Piaget e. Development is context
specific
6. Bandura
f. Behaviorism
7. Gottlieb g. Reinforcement and
punishment
Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 22
Chapter

Match Column A and B

1. Freud a. Considered observational

learning
2. Erick Erikson b. HD is based on sexual
3. Watson instincts
c. Constructivism
4. Skinner d. Psychosocial theory
5. Piaget e. Development is context
6. Bandura specific
g. Behaviorism
7. Gottlieb h. Reinforcement and
punishment
Life-Span HumanHuman
Life-Span Development, Fifth Edition,
Development, Carol
7th Edition, K. K.
Carol Sigelman and
Sigelman andElizabeth
ElizabethA.
[Link]
Rider
Chapter 11
Chapter

Human Development
and Relationships
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

John Bowlby
Based on ethological theory
Asked how attachment might
have evolved

ATTACHMENT
- Strong affectional tie that binds a person to an
intimate companion
- Behavioral system through which humans
regulate their emotional distress and achieve
security by seeking proximity to another person
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

First attachment- 6-7 months with parents

Product of nature and nurture

BONDING
- More biologically based process in which
parent and infant form a connection in the
first hours after birth
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

Internal working Models

Cognitive representations of themselves
and other people that guide their
processing of social information and
behavior in relationships
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

Infants construct expectations about relationships

based on their interactions with caregivers
Securely attached infants who received responsive
care will form internal working models suggesting that
they are lovable and other people can be trusted to
care for them
Insecurely attached subjected to insensitive, neglectful
and abusive care may conclude they are difficult to
love and that other people are unreliable.
 Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

The capacity to form attachments is part of our

evolutionary heritage
Attachments unfold through interaction of
biological and environmental forces in early life
The first attachment, between infant and care-
giver, shapes later development and the quality of
their relationship
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

Peers- social equal, functions at a similar level of

behavioral complexity- someone of similar age.
Two social worlds
Adult-child relationship- central until age 6
Peer relationship- chumships (close childhood
friend)
- Teaches children to take others perspectives
- Validate and support children
- Protect them from poor parent child relationship or
rejection by larger peer group
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

Emotions- complex phenomena that involve a

subjective feeling (I’m furious), physiological
change (pounding of heart) and behavior (enraged
face)
Primary emotions
By birth- contentment, interest, distress
6th month – joy, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger and fear
Secondary emotions / self-conscious emotions
18 mos- 2 years
Embarrassment, envy, empathy, pride, shame, guilt
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

Undiscriminating social responsiveness (birth to

2 or 3 months) They do not yet show a clear
preference for one person over another.
Discriminating social responsiveness (2 or 3
months to 6 or 7 months). Infants begin to express
preferences for familiar companions.
Active proximity seeking or true attachment (6 or 7
months to about 3 years). An infant will follow her
mother to stay close, protest when her mother leaves,
and greet her mother warmly when she returns.
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

Goal-corrected partnership (3 years and ol

der).
taking a parent’s goals and plans into consideration
and adjusting their behavior
lasts a lifetime.

Example: A 4-year-old probably understands where

Dad is going and can control the need for his attention
until Dad returns.
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

Separation anxiety- once attached to a

parent, a baby often becomes wary or fretful
when separated from that parent. Separation
anxiety normally appears when infants are for
ming their first genuine attachments, peaks
between 14 and 18 months
Stranger anxiety- a wary or fretful reaction
to the approach of an unfamiliar person
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

Secure base for exploration—a point of safety

from which an infant can feel free to venture—as
well as a safe haven to which she can return if
frightened for some ―emotional refueling‖
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

[Link]
5uAKHZG7DLsQjhx6BAgBEAI&url=https%3A%2F%[Link]%2Fattachment-styles-
2795344&psig=AOvVaw3uMPlYFLZMWnz4PzM-kEMQ&ust=1574014031159323
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

Infants who enjoy secure attachments to their

parents have parents who are sensitive and
responsive to their needs and emotional signals
Babies who show a resistant pattern of
attachment often have parents who are
inconsistent in their caregiving; they react
enthusiastically or indifferently, depending on their
moods, and are frequently unresponsive
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

Infants with an avoidant attachment tend to

provide either too little or too much stimulation.
Some are rejecting; they are impatient,
unresponsive, and resentful when the infant
interferes with their plans.
Disorganized–disoriented style of attachment is
evident in as many as 80% of infants who have
been physically abused or maltreated
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

An infant’s temperament also matters.

Attachments tend to be insecure when infants
are temperament, fearful, irritable, or
unresponsive
The caregiver affects the quality of the
attachment that forms more than the infant
does.
The broader social context surrounding
caregiver and infant can affect how they react to
each other.
Example, the stresses associated with living in poverty or experie
ncing marital difficulties may make it difficult for parents to provid
e sensitive care and may contribute to insecure attachments
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1
 Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

Parent–Child Attachments
becomes a goal corrected
partnership in which parent and
child accommodate to each other’s
needs and the child becomes a
more sensitive partner and grows
more independent of the parent
From age 2 to age 12, children
spend more time with peers and
less time with adults;.
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

[Link]
AbgQjhx6BAgBEAI&url=https%3A%2F%[Link]%2Finfo%2Fbrowse-by-age%2Finfants-and-
toddlers%2Fsocial-life-and-recreation-iandt%2Flearning-to-play-with-other-
children%2F1235&psig=AOvVaw1CL9UxgJNNmtuspeJiqjwx&ust=1574014923790650
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

Play Becomes More Social

Play Becomes More Imaginative
Play Becomes More Rule-Governed

Pretend play—play in which one actor, object

, or action symbolizes or stands for another
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

Unoccupied play. Children stand idly, look around,

or engage in apparently aimless activities such as
pacing.
Solitary play. Children play alone, typically with
objects, and appear to be highly involved in what
they are doing.
Onlooker play. Children watch others play, taking
an active interest in and perhaps even talking to
the players but not directly participating.
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

Parallel play. Children play next to one another,

doing much the same thing, but they interact little
Associative play. Children interact by swapping
materials, or following each other’s lead, but they
are not united by the same goal
Cooperative play. Children join forces to achieve a
common goal; they act as a pair or group, dividing
their labor and coordinating their activities in a
meaningful way
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

Play is an evolved behavior that helps the young

adapt during childhood and prepare for adulthood
Play allows children to experiment with new
behaviors, it may also help humans learn to
respond creatively to new challenges in their
environments
Play fosters cognitive, motor, and social skills and
helps children cope with emotional problems
Play contributes to healthy emotional development
by providing opportunities to express bothersome
feelings, regulate emotions, resolve emotional
conflicts, and master challenges
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

Need the security, as well as the encouragement

to explore, provided by supportive parents to
become independent and autonomous individuals
Teenagers form friendships with peers who are
similar to themselves in observable ways.

[Link]
%[Link]%2Fteens%2Fbehaviour%2Fpeers-friends-trends%2Fpeer-influence&psig=AOvVaw2Pdz7LsOoVFHwY3LAVoKBo&ust=15740152
71227477
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

Young adults are busily

forming romantic
relationships and friend
ships.
Older adults end up at
least as satisfied as you
ng adults with their
relationships

[Link]
hUKEwj3zJvyru_lAhVE3aQKHTeKBe8Qjhx6BAgBEAI&url=https%3A%2F%2Fww
[Link]%2Fresources%2Fentry%2Fyoung-adults-relating-and-relat
ionships&psig=AOvVaw1QXMw1qioT_YYka_-GiOjc&ust=1574015505991802
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

Adults with a secure working model feel good about

both themselves and others; they are not afraid of
entering intimate relationships or of being abandoned
once they do.
People with a preoccupied internal working model
have a positive view of other people but feel unlovable
Dismissing style of attachment have a positive view of
self but do not trust other people and dismiss the
importance of close relationships.
Fearful; they take a dim view of both themselves and
other people and display a confusing, unpredictable
mix of neediness and fear of closeness.
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

Young adults typically have more friends than

older adults do but even very old adults usually
have one or more close friends and are in
frequent contact with their friends.

[Link]
Qjhx6BAgBEAI&url=https%3A%2F%[Link]%2Ffriendships-forever%2F&psig=AOvVaw2GpV328I9wNCtLz
WPkYkY6&ust=1574016014867385
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 1

[Link]
Qjhx6BAgBEAI&url=https%3A%2F%[Link]%2Fblog%2F2019%2F08%2F29%
2Fppi-the-beginning-of-the-
end%2F&psig=AOvVaw2mBLC59xSe1oFzMY9wWKD_&ust=1574015930256083
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

Chapter 5
The Physical Self
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

Chapter 5: The Physical Self

• Genetic and environmental forces work

together
– Can be affected by malnutrition
– Catch-up growth possible
• After illness or periods of
malnutrition
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

The Endocrine System

• Glands that secrete hormones
• Pituitary gland: the master gland
– Controls all other glands
– Is controlled by the hypothalamus
– Produces growth hormone
• Testes secrete androgens like testosterone
• Ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5
 Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

Figure 5-2
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

Brain Development
Plasticity- Responsiveness to experiences
Negative
• Vulnerable to damage
• Environmental deprivation
– Can be positive
• Aids in recovery from from injury
• Can compensate for each other
• Can benefit from stimulation
• Allows for adaptability
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

Brain Development 2
• Critical period: late prenatal & early infancy
• Lateralization (at birth)
– Left hemisphere
• Analytic reasoning, language
– Right hemisphere
• Understanding spatial information
• Visual-motor information
– Corpus callosum connects the two
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

Brain Development 3
• Never truly complete
– Changes occur across lifespan
• Growth spurts in infancy, childhood and
adolescence
• Full adult weight by about age 16
• Processing speed increases in adolescence
• Myelination continues into adulthood
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

Brain Development 4
The Aging Brain
– Gradual and mild degeneration
Elderly adults
– 5-30% fewer neurons than younger adult
– Greater loss in sensory-motor areas
– Plasticity still possible
Main result of age is slower processing
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

Principles of Growth
• Procession of growth is orderly
– Cephalocaudal: from head, downward
– Proximodistal: from the center, outwards
– Orthogenic: from global, undifferentiated to
specialized
 Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

The Infant
• Typically 7 to 71/2 lbs., 20 inches long
• Period of rapid growth
• NB reflexes
– Survival reflexes: clearly adaptive
• Breathing, eye-blink, sucking/rooting
– Primitive reflexes: less adaptive; not useful
• Typically disappear by early months of infancy
–Babinski: toes fan
–Grasping
• Used diagnostically
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

The Infant
Behavioral States
– Short sleep-wake cycles at first
– Establish more regularity at 3-6 months
– REM sleep
• 50% of the time for newborns
• 25-30% by 6 months
– May be useful for reducing stimulation
– Individuality in infant patterns
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

The Infant
• Strengths and weaknesses
– Sensory system intact
– Ability to learn from experience and from
consequences
– Limited in capacity to move voluntarily
– Intentionality also limited
– Cannot interpret complex stimuli
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

Infant Physical Behavior

• Developmental norms (see Table 5.3 )
– Average age of mastery
• Gross before fine motor skills
• Crawling at 7–10 months
• Walking at about 1 year
• Study of “walkers” (Siegel & Burton, 1999)
– Infants not using walkers sat up, crawled,
and walked earlier
– Need sensory feedback I.e.,to see feet
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

Physical Behavior 2
Manipulating Objects
– Grasping reflex disappears: 2-4 mo
– Pincer grasp appears by 5 months and is
reliable by 1 yr.
Motor Skills
– Rhythmic Stereotypies
• Rocking, bouncing, mouthing objects,
banging arms and legs
• Precede a skill then disappear
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

Dynamic Systems Approach

A self-organizing process
– Trying new movements
– Use sensory feedback
– Motor milestones are learned
– Also require maturation (CNS)
– A nature/nurture position
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

The Child
Age 2 until puberty
– Slow and steady
– Gains 2-3 inches in height, 5-6 lbs weight/
year
– Bones grow and harden
– Run faster, jump higher, and throw a ball
farther
– Skills very responsive to practice
– Hand-eye coordination, fine motor, and
reaction time all improve
 Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

Adolescence
Dramatic physical changes
Experience puberty
Growth spurt triggered by increase of growth hormones
– Peak in height: age 12/girls, 13.4/boys
– Peak in weight: 12.5/girls; 13.9/boys
– Adrenarche: secondary sex characteristics
– Menarche: average age 12
• Earlier in countries with good nutrition, longer life, and
higher literacy rates
– Maturation different by ethnicity
– Semenarche: average age 13; emission of seminal fluid
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

Rates of Development
Genes set the process in motion
Executed by hormones
Environment has role
Secular trend
– Poorly nourished/mature later
– Heavy & tall/mature earlier (mature)
– Regular strenuous exercise; anorexia /later
menstruation
 Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

Figure 5.6
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

Psychological Implications
Girls become concerned w/appearance
– Individual reactions vary widely
– Negative views about menstruation
– May contribute to poor body images
Boys likely to welcome the changes
Family relations remain important
– Distance/ closer
– conflict with parents
• Usually about only minor issues
 Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

Early vs. Late Development

Early/males: advantage
– More positive reactions from others
– Negative- substance abuse, behavior problems
(bullying, aggression)
Late/males: disadvantage
– More behavior & adjustment problems, less sure of
themselves, poor academics
Early/females: disadvantage
– Subject of ridicule, lower self esteem
– Popular with boys, socialize with older peer group =
dating, smoking, drinking, having sex
Late/ females: academic advantages
Differences tend to fade with time
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

Physical Behavior
Dramatic physical growth overall
Boys continue to improve
Girls tend to level off or decline
– Gender role socialization important
– Gender performance gap has narrowed
E.g., track, swimming, cycling records
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

The Adult
Peak health- mature adolescent/ young adult
Minor changes in the 20s & 30s
Noticeable by the 40s
– Wrinkles, gray hair, weight gain
In the 60s: Weight, muscle, bone loss
– Osteoporosis in older women
• Fair, light frame, smokers
• Calcium, exercise, HRT
– Osteoarthritis: joint deterioration
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

Functioning and Health

• Most systems show decline with age
– Heart & lung capacity
– Temperature control
– Immune system and strength
– Reserve capacity
• *On average, older people are less fit than
younger BUT not all
• Physically active remain fit
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

The Reproductive System

Beginning in adolescence
– Sex hormones influence behavior
• Males/testosterone
–Levels fluctuate annually and daily
• Females/ estrogen & progesterone
– monthly cycle
–PMS? Expectations vs. hormones
»Calcium & Vitamin D helpful
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

Menopause and Andropause

Menopause: estrogen production declines
– age range 45-54
– Symptoms: hot flashes, vaginal dryness
– Little anxiety, irritability, depression, or
other stereotypes
– Exercise & adequate sleep helpful
Andropause: decreasing testosterone
– Symptoms: Libido, fatigue, erection, and
memory problems
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

Slowing Down
Balance difficulty affects the ability to walk,
stand, sit, and turn
Older people with strong muscles and good
cardiovascular capacity can walk briskly
Central change is slowing of the CNS
– Increased RT
– Novel/complex tasks more difficult
*physically fit older people have quicker RT
Life-Span Human Development, Fifth Edition, Carol K. Sigelman and Elizabeth A. Rider
Chapter 5

Disease, Disuse, and Abuse

Birren (1963) study of men aged 65-91
– Healthy older same as younger
– Conclusion: Aging itself has little effect on
physical and psychological functioning
Disuse: “Use it or loose it!”
– Includes mental exercise
Abuse contributes to decline
– Alcohol, high-fat diet, smoking
 Life Span Development: A Topical Approach
Third Edition

Chapter 15
The Family

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 Objectives:
Examines the family and its central roles in
human development throughout the life
span
• How has the family changed in recent
years?
• How do infants, children, and adolescents
experience family life, and how are they
affected by their relationships with
parents and siblings?
Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 Objectives:
• How is adult development affected by
such family transitions as marrying,
becoming a parent, watching children
leave the nest, and becoming a
grandparent?
• What are the implications of the immense
diversity that characterizes today’s
families—and of such decisions as
remaining childless or divorcing?
Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 Understanding the Family
• The Family as a System within
Systems- family systems theory
• a whole consisting of interrelated parts
• The family is a dynamic system-
system—a self organizing system that
adapts itself to changes in its
members and to changes in its
environment
Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 Understanding the Family
• Nuclear family- typically consists of father,
mother, and at least one child
• Coparenting- or the ways in which two parents
coordinate their parenting and function well (or
poorly) as a team in relation to their children
• Extended family household- in which parents
and their children live with other kin some
combination of grandparents, siblings, aunts,
uncles, nieces, and nephews.

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 • [Link] • [Link]
P6K6vHlAhWCzqQKHQFAAJYQjhx6BAgBEAI&url=https%3A%2F%[Link]%2Fadvantages-disadvantages- Qjhx6BAgBEAI&url=https%3A%2F%[Link]%2Fabout-family-values%2Fdefinition-extended-
nuclear-family&psig=AOvVaw2yBuYQh2zcrBYBKuIA4yVT&ust=1574100121639081 families&psig=AOvVaw03nwWQZ3n3JsZB8S9ljRZ9&ust=1574100274538020

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 Family life cycle

• a sequence of
changes in family
composition,
roles, and
relationships from
the time people
marry until they
die
[Link]
tps%3A%2F%[Link]%2Fpin%2F253468285263013170%2F&psig=AOvVaw0Xhejl33_MPskvCEZyAdQ1&ust=1574100356718685

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 Family life cycle

[Link]
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 A Changing System in a
Changing World
• More single adults.
• More postponed marriages.
• More unmarried parents.
• Fewer children.
• More working mothers.
• More divorce.
• More single-parent families
• More children living in poverty.

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 A Changing System in a
Changing World
• More remarriages
• Reconstituted families, also called
blended families
• More years without children.
• More multigenerational families
• Fewer caregivers for aging adults.

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 The Infant
Mother–Infant and Father–Infant
Relationships
• Fathers and mothers are more similar than
different in the ways they interact with
infants and young children.
• Fathers and mothers differ in both the
quantity and the style of the parenting
they provide

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 The Infant
• Mothers, Fathers, and Infants: The System at
Work
• Parents have indirect effects on their children
through their ability to influence the behavior of
their spouses.
• Example, mothers who have close, supportive
relationships with their husbands tend to interact
more patiently and sensitively with their babies
than do mothers who are experiencing marital
tension and who feel that they are raising their
children largely without help
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Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 The Child
Parenting Styles
• Parental acceptance–responsiveness- refers to
the extent to which parents are supportive,
sensitive to their children’s needs, and willing to
provide affection and praise when their children
meet their expectations.
• Demandingness–control (sometimes called
permissiveness– restrictiveness) refers to how
much control over decisions lies with the parent
as opposed to with the child.
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 Four basic patterns of child rearing
• Authoritarian parenting- Parents impose many
rules, expect strict obedience, rarely explain why
the child should comply with rules, and often rely
on power tactics such as physical punishment to
gain compliance.
• Authoritative parenting- They set clear rules and
consistently enforce them, but they also explain
the rationales for their rules and restrictions, are
responsive to their children’s needs and points of
view, and involve their children in family decision
making. They are reasonable and democratic in
their approach; although it is clear that they are in
charge, they communicate respect for their
children.
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 Four basic patterns of child rearing
• Permissive parents are indulgent; they have relatively
few rules and make relatively few demands, encourage
children to express their feelings and impulses, and
rarely exert control over their behavior.
• Neglectful parenting.. Relatively uninvolved in their
children’s upbringing. They seem not to care much
about their children and may even reject them—or else
they are so overwhelmed by their own problems that
they cannot devote sufficient energy to expressing love
and setting and enforcing rules

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 • [Link]
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 Four basic patterns of child
rearing

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 Social Class, Economic Hardship,
and Parenting
• Lower-class and working-class parents tend to
stress obedience and respect for authority more.
They are often more restrictive and
authoritarian, reason with their children less
frequently, and show less warmth and affection.
Parents may also feel the need to be more
authoritarian and controlling to protect their
children from danger

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 Social Class, Economic
Hardship, and Parenting
Reasons :
• Financial Stresses
• Low-SES parents have fewer resources to invest
in their children’s development than high-SES
parents do
• High- and low-SES parents have different
socialization goals in preparing their children for
the world of work because they have had
different work experiences

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Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 Social Class, Economic Hardship,
and Parenting CONT’D
• Low family socioeconomic status may be
associated with poor developmental outcomes
because of:
1. Economic stresses that result in authoritarian,
non-nurturant, and inconsistent parenting;
2. limited investment of resources, financial and
otherwise, in children’s development; and
3. an orientation toward preparing children to
obey a boss rather than be the boss.

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 Models of Influence in the Family

• Parent Effects Model

• Child Effects Model
• Transactional Model

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 Models of Influence in the Family

• Parent Effects Model

• [Link]
[Link]&psig=AOvVaw1BIkANMiMPBE1HPWDf37O_&ust=1574103090058724

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 Models of Influence in the Family
• Child Effects Model
• One good example of a child effect is the
influence of a child’s age and competence
on the style of parenting used with that
child.
• example, infants in their first year of life
require and elicit sensitive care, whereas
older infants who are asserting their wills
and toddling here and there force
parents to provide more instruction
and set more limits.
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 Models of Influence in the Family

• Transactional Model
• parent and child are seen as
influencing one another reciprocally.
parents are not solely responsible
for whether their children turn out
“good” or “bad,”

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 Sibling
Relationships

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 A New Baby Arrives
• Secure attachments can become insecure,
especially if firstborns are 2 years old or older
and can fully appreciate how much they have
lost.
• Sibling relationships are friendlier and less
conflicted if mothers and fathers get along well
as a couple and if they respond warmly and
sensitively to all their children rather than
unfairly favoring one over another

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 Sibling Influences on
Development
• Provide emotional
support.
• Older siblings often
provide caregiving
services for younger
siblings; they babysit
and tend young
children.
• Older siblings also serve
as teachers.
• Siblings provide social • [Link]

experience. Qjhx6BAgBEAI&url=https%3A%2F%[Link]%2Fadvice%2Frelationships%2Fwhy-siblings-
matter%2F&psig=AOvVaw0i1L9JdC1A1YEY8p8uZ_Ae&ust=1574103591798275

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 The Adolescent

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 Achieving Autonomy
• How much autonomy adolescents want and parents
grant differs from culture to culture.
• An authoritative parenting style gives adolescents
opportunities to strengthen their independent decision
making skills while retaining the benefit of their
parents’ guidance and advice.
• When parents are extremely strict and stifle autonomy,
or when they are extremely lax and fail to guide and
monitor their adolescents, teenagers are likely to
become psychologically distressed, socialize with the
wrong crowds, and get into trouble
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 The Adult
• Establishing a Marriage
• Does the quality of a couple’s relationship early in
their marriage have any implications for their later
marital adjustment?
• Couples who divorced did not usually experience
escalating conflict over time; rather, they lost
their positive feelings for each other.
• New Parenthood
• Parenthood is best described as a stressful life
transition that involves both positive and negative
changes
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 The Adult
New Parenthood
• Characteristics of the baby, the parent (characteristics
and attachment style), and the social support the
parent has available all count.
• A baby who is difficult (for example, cries endlessly)
creates more stresses and anxieties for parents than an
infant who is quiet, sociable, responsive, and otherwise
easy to love
• Parents who have good problem-solving and
communication skills and find adaptive ways Parents’
attachment styles are also important.
• Most important is partner support: as suggested already,
things go considerably better for a new mother when she
has a good relationship with the father,
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 The Adult cont’d
• The Child-Rearing Family
• A heavier workload!
• Costs and benefits of parenthood, they generally emphasize the
positives and feel that parenthood has contributed a great deal to
their personal development, making them more responsible and
caring people

• The Empty Nest

• Family becomes a “launching pad” that fires adolescents and young
adults into the world to work and start their own families.
• The family after the departure of the last child

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 The Adult cont’d
• Entry of children into the family causes modest
decreases in marital satisfaction, the departure
of the last child seems to be associated with
increases in marital satisfaction.
• Grandparenthood “the family national guard”
Three major styles of grandparenting
• Remote
• Companionate.
• Involved.

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 Three major styles of
grandparenting
• Remote grandparents (29% of the sample) were
symbolic figures seen only occasionally by their
grandchildren; geographically distant, they were
emotionally distant as well.
• Companionate grandparents saw their grandchildren
frequently and enjoyed sharing activities with them.
• Involved. They saw their grandchildren frequently and
were playful with them, but unlike companionate
grandparents, they often helped with child care, gave
advice, and played other practical roles in their
grandchildren’s lives.
Grandparents - “the family national guard”
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 Changing Family Relationships
Marital Relationships
• The marital relationship is centrally
important in the lives and development
of most adults.
Sibling Relationships
• The longest-lasting relationship we have,
linking us to individuals who share many
of our genes and experiences
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 Changing Family Relationships
Parent–Child Relationships
• Forging More Mutual Relationships.

Middle generation squeeze (others call it

the sandwich generation phenomenon)

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 Diverse Family Experiences
• Singles
• Not only young adults who have not yet married but
also middle-aged and elderly people who
experienced divorce or the death of a spouse or who
never married
• Childless Married Couples
• Dual-Career Families
• Gay and Lesbian Families
• Gay and lesbian adults who raise children are as likely
as heterosexual parents to produce competent and
well adjusted children
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Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 Diverse Family Experiences
cont’d
Divorcing Families
• Divorce -it is a series of stressful
experiences for the entire family that
begins with marital difficulties before the
divorce and includes a complex series of
life changes as the marriage unravels and
its members reorganize their lives

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 Diverse Family Experiences
cont’d
Reconstituted Families (blended or step
family)
• When a parent remarries and the children
acquire a stepparent—and sometimes new
siblings
• Girls may have more trouble than boys

• Children and adolescents can thrive in any type of family

if they receive good parenting.

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Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 Divorcing Families
Before the Divorce
• young adults, in their 20s and 30s
• who have been married for an average of 7 years
• often have young children
• married as teenagers,
• had a short courtship,
• conceived a child before marrying, or
• are low in socioeconomic status
Couples typically divorce because they feel their
marriages lack communication, emotional fulfillment,
or compatibility.
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 Divorcing Families cont’d
• After the Divorce
Crisis—a period of considerable disruption that often
lasts at least 1–2 years
Several factors can help facilitate a positive adjustment
to divorce and prevent lasting damage:
• Adequate financial support.
• Good parenting by the custodial parent.
• Good parenting by the noncustodial parent.
• Minimal conflict between parents.
• Additional social support.
• Minimal other changes.
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 Divorcing Families cont’d
• Some adults feel better about themselves
and their lives after extracting themselves
from a bad marriage. And a conflict-ridden
two-parent family is usually more
detrimental to a child’s development than
a cohesive single-parent family (Amato,
2006), so it is not always wise to “stay
together for the good of the children.”

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 The
Problem of
Family
Violence

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 • Child abuse
• Mistreating or harming a child physically,
emotionally, or sexually, is perhaps the most
visible form of family violence.

• Child maltreatment
• Term that includes both abuse and neglect of the
child’s basic needs

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 Why Does Family Violence
Occur?
The Abuser
• The abusive parent is most often a young mother
who tends to have many children, to live in
poverty, to be unemployed, and to have no
partner to share her load
• Child abusers tend to have been abused as
children.
• Abusive mothers are often battered by their
partners

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 Why Does Family Violence
Occur?
• Abusers are often insecure individuals with low self-
esteem.
• Abusive parents often have unrealistic expectations
about what children can do at different ages and have
twisted perceptions of the normal behavior of infants
and young children

Intergenerational transmission of parenting- the passing

down from generation to generation of parenting styles,
abusive or otherwise

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 Why Does Family Violence
Occur?
The Abused
• An abusive parent sometimes singles out
only one child in the family as a target
• Children who have medical problems or
who have difficult temperaments are more
likely to be abused

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 Why Does Family Violence
Occur?
The Context
• Abuse is most likely to occur when a parent is
under great stress and has little social support
• Life changes such as the loss of a job or a move
can disrupt family functioning and contribute to
abuse or neglect
• Abuse rates are highest in deteriorating
neighborhoods where families are poor,
transient, socially isolated, and lacking in
community services and informal social support
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 What Are the Effects of Family
Violence?
• Intellectual deficits and academic difficulties
• Social, emotional, and behavioral problems
• One of the most disturbing consequences of physical
abuse is a lack of normal empathy in response to the
distress of others
• Many maltreated children are resilient and turn out fine.
• There is evidence that they have genes that protect them
from the negative psychological effects of abuse and
possibly other negative life events
• Environmental factors such as a close relationship with at
least one non-abusive adult contribute to resilience too

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Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Life Span Development: A Topical
Third Edition
Approach

Chapter 8
Intelligence

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Learning Objectives (1 of 2)
8.1 Describe traditional methods for measuring
intelligence.
8.2 Examine current methods of intelligence testing.
8.3 Explore key issues surrounding intelligence testing.
8.4 Analyze alternative definitions of intelligence.
8.5 Describe recent approaches to measuring
intelligence in infants.
8.6 Define achievement and aptitude tests and
compare their uses.
Learning Objectives (2 of 2)
8.7 Analyze the sources of score differences
achieved by different groups on IQ and other
tests.
8.8 Describe the effects of aging on intelligence.
8.9 Explain the meaning of the term least
restrictive environment.
8.10 Analyze the characteristics and effects of
intellectual disability.
8.11 Describe the characteristics and effects of
giftedness.
Module
• Module 8.1 Intelligence: Determining Individual
Strengths
• Module 8.2 Controversies Involving Intelligence
• Module 8.3 Intellectual Deficits and the
Intellectually Gifted
Module 8.1 Intelligence: Determining
Individual Strengths
8.1 Describe traditional methods for measuring
intelligence.
8.2 Examine current methods of intelligence testing.
8.3 Explore key issues surrounding intelligence testing.
8.4 Analyze alternative definitions of intelligence.
Intelligence: Determining Individual
Strengths
Intelligence
- the capacity to understand the world, think
with rationality, and use resources effectively
when faced with challenges.
 Binet’s Pioneering Efforts
• Alfred Binet developed diagnostic tests for the French
school system

• Binet’s pioneering efforts in intelligence testing left

three (3) important legacies:
1. His pragmatic approach to construction of
intelligence tests;
2. His focus on linking intelligence and school
success;
3. He invented the concept of IQ or INTELLIGENT
QUOTIENT, a measure of intelligence that takes
into account a student’s mental and chronological
age ((MA / CA) x 100 = IQ)
Binet’s Pioneering Efforts
• Mental age (MA)
• Age of children taking the test who, on average, received a
certain score
• Chronological age (CA)
• Actual age of the child taking the test
• Intelligence quotient (IQ)- a score that takes account a
student’s mental and chronological age.
• (MA / CA) x 100
• Example: A 15 year old who scores at a 17 year old mental
age
Measuring IQ: Present-Day
Approaches to Intelligence
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
- The test consist of a series of items that vary according
to the age of the person being tested.

- The test is administered orally, and test takers are given

progressively more difficult questions until they are
unable to proceed.
Ex: young children are asked to answer questions
about everyday activities or to copy complex figures.

Older people are asked to explain proverbs,

analogies, describe similarities.
Measuring IQ: Present-Day
Approaches to Intelligence
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV (WISC-IV)
and its adult version the Wechsler Adult Intelligence
Scale-IV (WAIS-IV)

- A test that provides separate measures of

verbal and performance (nonverbal) skills, as
well as a total score.
 Figure 8-2 Measuring Intelligence

The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children- IV (WISC-IV) includes items such as these. What do
such items cover? What do they miss?
Measuring IQ: Present-Day
Approaches to Intelligence
Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children
(KABC-II)
- tests children’s ability to integrate different kinds
of stimuli simultaneously and to use step-by-step
thinking.
- A children’s intelligence test permitting unusual
flexibility in its administration
- It allows the person giving the test to use
alternative wording or gestures, or even pose
questions in a different language, in order to
maximize a test’s takers performance.
ACTIVITY:
IQ TEST
[Link]
The meaning of IQ scores
- IQ scores predict school achievement
reasonably well.
- IQ scores do not predict income or success in
later life.
- Other factors such as motivation or social
skills account for a large part of success.
- Sometimes IQ scores fail to detect abnormal
learning
Learning Disorders
• Difficulties in acquisition and use of listening,
speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or
mathematical abilities

• Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) a

learning disability marked by inattention,
impulsiveness, a low tolerance for frustration, have IQ
scores in the normal or above-normal range
• Others suffer from dyslexia, a reading disability that
can result in the reversal of letters during reading and
writing, confusion between left and right, and
difficulties in spelling.
Symptoms of ADHD
• Persistent difficulty in finishing tasks, following
instructions, and organizing work
• Inability to watch an entire television program
• Frequent interruption of others or excessive
talking
• A tendency to jump into a task before hearing all
the instructions
• Difficulty in waiting or remaining seated
• Fidgeting, squirming
Alternative Conceptions of
Intelligence

• Catell: fluid and crystallized intelligence

• Howard Gardner: 8 intelligences
• Lev Vygotsky: dynamic assessment
• Robert Sternberg: triarchic theory of
intelligence
Kinds of Intelligence
FLUID INTELLIGENCE
- is the ability to deal with new problems and
situations.
- is inductive reasoning, spatial orientation,
perceptual speed, and verbal memory
- decline with age
Kinds of Intelligence
CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE
- is the store of information, skills, and strategies
that people have acquired through education
and prior experiences, and through their
previous use of fluid intelligence.
- includes numerical and verbal abilities, such as
solving a crossword puzzle or a mathematical
problem.
- holds steady or increases with age.
Howard Gardner: 8
Intelligences
• Musical Intelligence: skills in task involving music
• Bodily Kinesthetic Intelligence: skills in using the
whole body or various portions of it in the
solution of problems or in the construction of
products or displays, exemplified by dancers,
athletes, actors and surgeons
• Logical Mathematical Intelligence- skills in
problem solving and scientific thinking
Howard Gardner: 8
Intelligences
• Linguistic Intelligence- skills involved in the
production and use of language
• Spatial Intelligence- skills involving spatial
configurations such as those used by artists and
architects
• Interpersonal Intelligence- skills in interacting
with others such as sensitivity in the mood,
temperaments, motivations and intention of
others
Howard Gardner: 8
Intelligences
• Intrapersonal Intelligence- knowledge of
the internal aspects of oneself; access to
one’s own feelings and emotions
• Naturalistic Intelligence- ability to identify
and classify patterns in nature
Intellectual Decline?
• When researchers looked at the two kinds of
intelligence separately, a new answer appears to
the question of whether intelligence declines
with age
• Yes and no
• Yes, because in general, fluid intelligence does
decline with age
• No, because crystallized intelligence holds
steady and in some cases actually improves
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Intelligence is made up of three major components:
• Componential (relates to the mental components
involved in analyzing data, and in solving problems,
especially problems involving rational behavior.)

• Experiential (refers to the relationship between

intelligence, people's prior experience, and their
ability to cope with new situations)

• Contextual (involves the degree of success people

demonstrate in facing the demands of their
everyday, real-world environments)
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Contextual
- Sternberg contends that success in a career necessitates
this type of intelligence, also called PRACTICAL
INTELLIGENCE (intelligence that is learned primarily by
observing others and modeling their behavior.

- People with practical intelligence have good “social radar.”

* handle new situations effectively
* read people and circumstances insightfully
* readily apply previous experiences to new ones
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

- The set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment,

evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions.

- Allows us to get along well w/ others, understand what

others are feeling and experiencing and enables us to
respond appropriately in situations.
Module 8.2 Controversies Involving
Intelligence
8.5 Describe recent approaches to measuring intelligence in
infants.
8.6 Define achievement and aptitude tests and compare
their uses.
8.7 Analyze the sources of score differences achieved by
different groups on IQ and other tests.
8.8 Describe the effects of aging on intelligence.
 Table 8-1 Approaches Used to Detect Differences in Intelligence During
Infancy
Developmental Formulated by Arnold Gesell, the developmental quotient is
quotient an overall development score that relates to performance in
four domains: motor skills (balance and sitting), language
use, adaptive behavior (alertness and exploration), and
personal-social behavior (adequately feeding and dressing oneself).
Bayley Scales of Developed by Nancy Bayley, the Bayley Scales of Infant
Infant Development evaluate an infant’s development from 2 to 42
Development months. The Bayley Scales focus on two areas: mental
(senses, perception, memory, learning, problem solving, and
language) and motor abilities (fine and gross motor skills).

Visual- Measures of visual-recognition memory, the memory and

recognition recognition of a stimulus that has been previously seen, also
memory relate to intelligence. The more quickly an infant can retrieve
measurement a representation of a stimulus from memory, the more
efficient, presumably, is that infant's information processing.
Achievement and Aptitude Tests: How Do They
Differ from Intelligence Tests?
Achievement tests
• Determine the level of knowledge in a given
subject area, more targeted to specific areas. Eg.
Standardized test

Aptitude tests
• Predict ability in a given subject area or a
particular line of work; The emphasis is on
future performance
Achievement and Aptitude Tests: How Do They
Differ from Intelligence Tests?
Best known Aptitude tests:
- Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT)
- American College Test (ACT)
Group Differences in IQ
• Previous experiences of test-takers may have a
substantial effect on their ability to answer
questions
• Cultural background and experience have the
potential to affect intelligence test scores
• Traditional measures of intelligence are subtly
biased in favor of white, upper- and middle-class
students and against groups with different
cultural experiences.
Racial Differences in IQ
• The question of how to interpret differences between
intelligence scores of different cultural groups lies at the
heart of one of the major controversies in child
development
• Mean scores of African Americans tend to be about 15 IQ
points lower than the mean scores of whites, although
the measured difference varies a great deal depending
on the particular IQ test employed
The Bell Curve Controversy
• Herrnstein and Murray: 15-point average IQ difference
between whites and African Americans is due primarily to
heredity
• Most researchers responded by arguing that the racial
differences in measured IQ can be explained by
environmental differences between the races
• Little evidence to suggest that IQ is a cause of poverty and
other social ills
• Most experts in the area of IQ were not convinced by The
Bell Curve contention that differences in group IQ scores
are largely determined by genetic factors.
Does Intelligence Decline in
Adulthood?
Cross-sectional studies
• Older subjects scored less well than younger
subjects on traditional IQ tests

Longitudinal studies
• Different developmental patterns in intelligence
–Stable and even increasing IQ scores until mid-30s
and some to mid-50s, then declined
Module 8.3 Intellectual Deficits and
the Intellectually Gifted
8.9 Explain the meaning of the term least
restrictive environment.
8.10 Analyze the characteristics and effects
of intellectual disability.
8.11 Describe the characteristics and effects
of giftedness.
Below Intelligence Norms
*In 1975, Public Law 94-142, called the Education for All
Handicapped Children Act, was enacted. It ensured that
children with special needs be put in the LEAST
RESTRICTIVE ENVIRONMENT
Least restrictive environment (the setting that is most
similar possible to that of children without special needs)
– Mainstreaming (an educational approach in which
exceptional children are integrated to the extent possible
in the traditional educational system)
– FULL INCLUSION, the integration of all students, even
those with the most severe disabilities, into regular
classes and all other aspects of school and community
life.
Below Intelligence Norms
• INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY/ Mental Retardation
- Is a state characterized by significant limitations in
intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior
involving conceptual, social, and practical skills.
- It is found in approximately 1 to 3 percent of the
school-aged population.
- The most common causes are: FETAL ALCOHOL
SYNDROME (caused by use of alcohol while the
mother is pregnant) and DOWN SYNDROME (a
genetically produced disorder that causes mental
retardation).
Above the Norm: The Gifted and
Talented
• Federal government considers the term GIFTED to include
“children who give evidence of high performance
capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic,
leadership capacity, or specific academic fields, and who
require services or activities not ordinarily provided by the
school in order to fully develop such capabilities”.
• * 3 to 5% of school-aged children are gifted and talented.

• Research suggests that highly intelligent people

tend to be outgoing, well adjusted, and popular
Above the Norm: The Gifted
and Talented cont’d
Being gifted and talented does not guarantee scholastic
success, as these individuals encounter unique
problems.
The humor, novelty, and creativity of unusually gifted
children are often misinterpreted.

Their intellectual fervor may be regarded as disruptive or

inappropriate.

Peers may be unsympathetic when bright children try to

hide intelligence in an effort to fit in.
Educating the Gifted and Talented
Acceleration
• Programs allow gifted students to move ahead at
their own pace.(skipping to higher grade
levels.)
Enrichment
Gifted students are kept at grade level, but receive
educational materials with more depth.(enrolled
in special programs and given individual
activities to allow greater depth of study in a
given topic. )
Life Span Development: A Topical Approach
Third Edition

Chapter 4
Health and
Wellness

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2010, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved
Learning Objectives (1 of 2)
4.1 Explain the experience of stress across the lifespan.
4.2 Analyze the consequences of stress.
4.3 Describe strategies for coping with stress.
4.4 Analyze the importance of proper nutrition to human
development.
4.5 Examine threats to health and wellness faced by
children and adolescents.
Learning Objectives (2 of 2)
4.6 Discuss the general health concerns of adults.
4.7 Describe the health risks confronting older adults.
4.8 Describe how good nutrition in childhood promotes
wellness later in life.
4.9 Explain how exercise can affect health and longevity.
4.10 Examine the nature of sexuality in later life.
4.11 Explain how wellness can be maintained in old age.
Module
• Module 4.1 Stress and Coping
• Module 4.2 Illness and Well-Being
• Module 4.3 Promoting Health and Wellness
Stages of Stress
• Stress: Response to
events that threaten or
challenge an individual
• Stressors: events &
circumstances that cause
threats to well-being.
• Both pleasant events and
unpleasant events can
be stressful
• Long-term, continuous
exposure may result in a
reduction of body’s
ability to deal with stress
The Origins of Stress
• Negative emotions
• Uncontrollable or
unpredictable
situations
• Ambiguous and
confusing situations
• Simultaneous tasks
demands
Adolescent Stress: Late to Bed,
Early to Rise
• Adolescents go to bed later and get up earlier
• Sleep deprivation results in:
–Lower grades
–Depression
–Greater difficulty controlling their moods
–Greater risk of auto accidents
The Consequences of Stress
• Stress continues to have a significant impact on health in
middle age
• According to psychoneuroimmunologists, who study the
relationship between the brain, the immune system, and
psychological factors, stress produces three main
consequences
• Direct effects
• Harmful behaviors
• Indirect health-related behaviors
• Leads to unhealthy behaviors
 Figure 4-1 The Consequences of Stress

Stress produces three major consequences: direct physiological effects, harmful

behaviors, and indirect health-related behaviors.
Coping with Stress
• Problem-focused coping : attempt to manage a stressful
problem or situation by directly changing situation to
make it less stressful.
• Emotion-focused coping: involves conscious regulation
of emotion.
• Social support coping: aided by presence of social
support, assistance and comfort supplied by others.
• Defensive coping: involves unconscious strategies that
distort or deny true nature of the situation.
•
Coping Strategies
• Seek control over the
situation producing the
stress
• Redefine “threat” as
“challenge”
• Find social support
• Use relaxation
techniques
• Try to maintain a healthy
lifestyle
• Remember - a life
without any stress at all
would be a dull one
Hardiness, Resilience, and Coping

• Hardiness
• Personality characteristic associated with
lower rate of stress-related illness
• Resilience
• Ability to withstand, overcome, and thrive
following profound adversity
 Module 4.2: Illness and Well-Being

4.4 Analyze the importance of proper nutrition to

human development.
4.5 Examine threats to health and wellness faced by
children and adolescents.
4.6 Discuss the general health concerns of adults.
4.7 Describe the health risks confronting older adults.
Malnutrition
Malnutrition
• Condition of having improper amount and balance of
nutrients; produces several results, none good
• More common in children living in developing
countries
• Slower growth rate
• Chronically malnourished during infancy – lower IQ
score later
 When Malnutrition Is Severe
Marasmus
• Malnutrition during first year
• Infants stop growing
• Attributable to severe deficiency in
proteins and calories
• Causes the body to waste away and
ultimately results in death
Kwashiorkor
• Found in older children
• Child’s stomach, limbs, and face swell
• Body struggles to make use of few
available nutrients
 Obesity in Infancy
• Clear links between
obesity in infancy
and obesity later in
life have not been
established
• Appropriate
nutrition, rather than
weight, should be the
focus of parents
Nutritional Problems in
Adolescence
Poor eating habits
• High consumption of junk food/sugar/fats
• Large portion sizes
• Lack of variety
Related health concerns
• Obesity
• Osteoporosis
• Diabetes
• Heart disease
Eating, Nutrition, and Obesity

• Most young adults know which foods are healthy,

but ignore good nutritional practices
• Physical growth begins to decline
• Calorie reduction is necessary
• Obese children
• More likely to be overweight as adults
• Greater risk of heart disease, diabetes, and other
diseases
 Figure 4.4 Obesity in Children

Obesity in children ages 6 to 12 has risen dramatically over the

past four decades—more than threefold.
Prevalence of overweight and obesity among Saudi primary school students by
gender
Eating Disorders:
Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia
• Anorexia Nervosa: a severe eating disorder in which
individuals refuse to eat, while denying that their behavior
and appearance, which may become skeletal, our out of
ordinary.
• Bulimia: an eating disorder characterize by binges or large
quantities of food, followed by the purges of the food through
vomiting or the use of laxatives. Higher incidence among
females
• Disorder in eating and body dissatisfaction reported
across socioeconomic lines
Anorexia Nervosa
Threats to Wellness and Health:
Childhood
• Majority of US preschoolers are reasonably
healthy
• 7 to 10 colds and other minor respiratory illnesses
in each of the years from age three to five
• Minor illness permits children to understand body
better, learn coping skills, and develop empathy
for others who are sick
Injuries During Childhood
Accidents are greatest risk
Danger of injuries
• High levels of physical activity
• Curiosity
• Lack of judgment
Individual differences
• Gender
• Cultural
• Socioeconomic
The Silent Danger: Lead
Poisoning
• Some 14 million children are at risk for lead poisoning,
according to the Centers for Disease Control
• The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services has
called lead poisoning the most hazardous health threat to
children under the age of 6
• Exposure to lead has been linked to lower intelligence,
problems in verbal and auditory processing, hyperactivity,
and distractibility.
SIDS: The Unanticipated Killer
• Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is a
disorder in which seemingly healthy infants die
in their sleep
• SIDS strikes about 1 in 2,500 infants in the
United States each year
• Although it seems to occur when normal
patterns of breathing during sleep are
interrupted, researchers have been unable to
discover why that might happen
 Figure 4-7 Declining Rates of SIDS

In the United States, SIDS rates have dropped dramatically as parents have become more informed
and now put babies to sleep on their backs instead of their stomachs. SUID: Sudden Unexplained
Infant Death.
Threats to Wellness and
Health:
Adolescent Drug Use
• One in 15 high school seniors smokes marijuana
on a daily or near-daily basis
• Marijuana usage has remained at fairly high levels
over the last decade
• Attitudes about marijuana use have become more
favorable
Why Do Adolescents Use
Drugs?
• Pleasurable
experience
• Escape
• Peer pressure
• Enhanced academic
performance
Facets of Addiction
Biological addiction
• Presence in body becomes so common that body is
unable to function in their absence; causes physical - and
potentially lingering - changes in nervous system; drug
intake no longer may provide a “high,” but may be
necessary simply to maintain the perception of everyday
normalcy

Psychological addiction
• Depend on drugs to cope with everyday stress of life;
prevent adolescents from confronting - and potentially
solving - problems that led them to drug use in the first
place
Why Do Adolescents Start To
Drink?
• Way of proving themselves to others
• Release of inhibitions and tension and reduction
of stress
• Becomes a habit that cannot be controlled
• Genetics: alcoholism runs in the family
From Activity to Addiction
Adolescent alcoholics
• Alcohol use becomes
uncontrollable habit
• Increasing ability to
tolerate alcohol
• Increasing need to
drink ever-larger
amounts of liquor to
bring about positive
effects craved
Why Do Adolescents Begin To
Smoke and Maintain The Habit?

• Advertisements in the
media
• Addiction
• Parent and peer
models
• Adolescent rite of
passage
Sexually Transmitted Infections
(STIs)
AIDS
• A leading cause of
death among young
people worldwide
• Over 25 million people
have died from AIDS
worldwide, and people
living with the disease
number around 34
million worldwide
Other Sexually Transmitted Infections
• Human papilloma virus (HPV):
- can be transmitted through genital contact without
intercourse.
- Most infections do not have symptoms, but HPV can produce
genital warts and in some cases lead to cervical cancer.
- A vaccine that protects against some kinds of HPV is now
available. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
recommends it be routinely administered to girls 11 to 12
years of age—a recommendation that has provoked
considerable political reaction (Friedman et al., 2006; Kahn,
2007).
Other Sexually Transmitted Infections
• Trichomoniasis:
- an infection in the vagina or penis, which is caused by a
parasite. Initially without symptoms, it can eventually cause a
painful discharge.
• Chlamydia,
- a bacterial infection, initially has few symptoms, but later it
causes burning urination and a discharge from the penis or
vagina.
- It can lead to pelvic inflammation and even to sterility.
Chlamydial infections can be treated successfully with
antibiotics (Nockels & Oakshott, 1999; Favers et al., 2003).
Other Sexually Transmitted Infections
• Genital herpes
- a virus not unlike the cold sores that sometimes appear
around the mouth. The first symptoms of herpes are often
small blisters or sores around the genitals, which may break
open and become quite painful. Although the sores may heal
after a few weeks, the infection often recurs after an interval,
and the cycle repeats itself. When the sores reappear, the
infection, for which there is no cure, is contagious.
• Gonorrhea and syphilis
- are the STIs that have been recognized for the longest time;
cases were recorded by ancient historians. Until the advent
of antibiotics, both infections were deadly. However, today
both can be treated quite effectively.
 Figure 4-10 Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)
Among Adolescents

Why are adolescents in particular danger of contracting an STI?

Practicing Safer Sex (1 of 3)
The only foolproof method of avoiding a sexually
transmitted infection (STI) is abstinence. However, by
following the “safer sex” practices listed here, one can
significantly reduce the risk of contracting an STI:
• Know your sexual partner—well. Before having sex
with someone, learn about his or her sexual history.
• Use condoms. For those in sexual relationships,
condoms are the most reliable means of preventing
transmission of STIs.
Practicing Safer Sex (2 of 3)
• Avoid the exchange of bodily fluids, particularly semen.
In particular, avoid anal intercourse. The AIDS virus in
particular can spread through small tears in the
rectum, making anal intercourse without condoms
particularly dangerous. Oral sex, once thought
relatively safe, is now viewed as potentially dangerous
for contracting the AIDS virus.
Practicing Safer Sex (3 of 3)
• Stay sober. Using alcohol and drugs impairs
judgment and can lead to poor decisions— and it
makes using a condom correctly more difficult.
• Consider the benefits of monogamy. People in
long-term, monogamous relationships with
partners who have been faithful are at a lower
risk of contracting STIs.
Physical Fitness in Adulthood
• Superior physical capabilities require regular
exercise and proper diet
• Less than 10 percent of Americans exercise
enough to keep themselves in good physical
shape
• Some exercise is better than no exercise; even
moderate amounts can confer benefits
Health in Early Adulthood
• Leading causes of death among young adults
• (ages 25 to 34) are:
• Accidents
• AIDS
• Cancer
• Heart disease
• Suicide
• Murder
• Gender and SES differences
Height, Weight, and Strength:
The Benchmarks of Change
• After age 55, bones become less dense
• Ultimately women lose 2 inches and men lose 1
inch in height
• Women are more prone to declining height due to
osteoporosis
• Both men and women continue to gain weight in
middle adulthood
Chronic Diseases in Middle
Adulthood
• Arthritis typically begins after age 40
• Diabetes is most likely to occur in people
between the ages of 50 and 60
• Hypertension (high blood pressure) is one
of the most frequent chronic disorders
found in middle age
 Table 4.3 Adult Preventive Health-Care Screening
Recommendations (1 of 6)
Screening Description Ages 40 to 49 Ages 50 to 59 Age 60+
ALL ADULTS

BLOOD Used to detect Every 2 years. Every 2 years Every 2 years;

PRESSURE hypertension, Every year if family
which can lead history of
to heart attack, hypertension.
stroke, or
kidney disease.
CHOLESTEROL Used to detect All adults should All adults should All adults should
—TOTAL/HDL high cholesterol receive total receive total receive total
levels, which cholesterol cholesterol cholesterol
increase risk of screening, HDL screening, HDL screening, HDL
heart disease. cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, LDL
cholesterol, and cholesterol, and cholesterol, and
triglycerides AT triglycerides AT triglycerides AT
LEAST ONCE; LEAST ONCE; LEAST ONCE;
Cardiac risk factors Cardiac risk factors Cardiac risk factors
and lipoprotein and lipoprotein and lipoprotein
results will results will results will
determine determine determine
frequency of frequency of follow- frequency of follow-
follow-up by your up by your health- up by your health-
health-care care provider. care provider.
provider.
 Table 4.3 Adult Preventive Health-Care Screening
Recommendations (2 of 6)
Screening Description Ages 40 to Ages 50 to Age 60+
49 59
ALL ADULTS

EYE EXAMINATION Used to Every 2 to 4 Every 2 to 4 Every 2 to 4 years;

determine If years; years; At age 65 and over,
glasses required Diabetics— Diabetics— every 1-2 years;
and check for Every year. Every year. Diabetics—Every
eye disease. year.
FLEXIBLE A procedure No data Baseline at age Every 3 to 5 years.
SIGMOIDOSCOPY using a scope 50; Every 3 to Age to stop
OR DOUBLE or x-ray to 5 years after depends on health;
CONTRAST detect cancer of initial test. Follow up normal
BARIUM ENEMA OR the colon and colonoscopy in 8 to
COLONOSCOPY rectum. 10 yrs.
FECAL OCCULT Detects unseen No data Every year. Every year.
BLOOD blood in stool,
SCREENING which is early
warning sign for
colon cancer.
 Table 4.3 Adult Preventive Health-Care Screening
Recommendations (3 of 6)
Screening Description Ages 40 to 49 Ages 50 to 59 Age 60+
RECTAL EXAM Examination of No data Every year. Every year.
(DIGITAL) prostate or
ovaries to
detect cancer.
URINALYSIS Examination to Every 5 years. Every 5 years. Every 3 to 5
SCREENING detect presence years.
of excess
protein in urine.
IMMUNIZATI Protection Every 10 years. Every 10 years. Every 10
ONS against years.
(SHOTS): infection after
TETANUS injury.
INFLUENZA Protection Any person with Annually, age 50 Annually, age
(FLU) against the chronic medical and over. 65 and over.
influenza virus. conditions, such as
heart, lung, kidney
disease, diabetes.

PNEUMOCOC Protection No data No data At age 65;

CAL against Then every 6
pneumonia. years.
 Table 4.3 Adult Preventive Health-Care Screening
Recommendations (4 of 6)

ADDITIONAL GUIDELINES FOR WOMEN

Screening Description Ages 40 to 49 Ages 50 to 59 Ages 60+

BREAST SELF- Examination Every Every month/ Every month/Every year.

EXAM/BREAS to detect month/Every Every year.
T EXAM BY changes in year.
PROVIDER breast that
may indicate
cancer.
MAMMOGRAM Low-dose x-ray Every year. Every year. Every year.
used to locate
tumors for early
detection of
breast cancer.
 Table 4.3 Adult Preventive Health-Care Screening
Recommendations (5 of 6)

Screening Description Ages 40 to 49 Ages 50 to 59 Age 60+

PAP SMEAR Test that takes After 3 normal After 3 normal Women 70 and older
small sample of tests in a row, tests in a row, with 3 normal tests in
cells to detect screen every 2 screen every 2 a row and no
cervical cancer to 3 years to 3 years abnormal tests in the
or precancer unless at special unless at special 10 years prior to age
cells. risk. risk. 70 may cease having
Pap test.

PELVIC EXAM Examination to Every year (if Every year (if Every year (if
detect pelvic ovaries remain ovaries remain ovaries remain
abnormality. after after after
hysterectomy). hysterectomy). hysterectomy).
 Table 4.3 Adult Preventive Health-Care Screening
Recommendations (6 of 6)
ADDITIONAL GUIDELINES FOR MEN

Screening Description Ages 40 to 49 Ages 50 to 59 Ages 60+

PROSTATE Blood test used Positive family Every year upon Until age 75, every
SPECIFIC to detect cancer history cancer— doctor’s advice. year upon doctor’s
ANTIGEN of the prostate every year; advice.
gland. (African
Americans— every
year).
TESTICULAR Examination to Every month. Every month. Every month.
SELF-EXAM detect changes
in testicles that
may indicate
cancer.
Heart and Circulatory Disease
in Middle Age
Heart and circulatory
disease in middle age
are responsible for
more loss of work and
disability days due to
hospitalization than any
other cause
Linking Health and Personality
More men die in middle age of diseases of the
heart and circulatory system than any other cause
• Both genetic and experiential characteristics
are involved
• Heart disease runs in families
• Men are more likely to suffer than women, and
risks increase with age
• Women are less vulnerable, but are not
immune
Type A and B Behavior Pattern
Type A behavior: Type B behavior:
• Competitiveness, • Non-competitiveness,
impatience, and a patience, and a lack
tendency toward of aggression
frustration and
• Evidence that Type B
hostility
people have less than
• Evidence is
half the risk of
correlational, so
coronary disease
cannot conclude
that Type A behavior than Type A people
causes heart disease have
The Threat of Cancer
Cancer is associated with
genetic and
environmental risks
• Poor nutrition,
smoking, alcohol use,
exposure to sunlight,
exposure to radiation,
and particular
occupational hazards
• Early treatment is
related to higher
survival rate
Cancer Treatment
• Takes a variety of forms
• Radiation therapy involves the use of radiation
to destroy a tumor
• Chemotherapy involves the controlled
ingestion of toxic substances meant to poison
the tumor
• Surgery may be used to remove the tumor
• Early diagnosis is crucial
Breast Cancer
• Mammography, a weak X-ray, is used to detect
breast cancer
• Death rate lower for those who had a “fighting
spirit”
• A positive psychological outlook may boost the
body’s immune system
Health Problems in Older People
• People of all ages suffer from cancer, heart
disease, and other diseases and illnesses
• Incidence of these diseases increases with age
• Rebound is often slower
Common Physical Disorders
in Older Adults
• Leading causes of death are heart disease,
cancer, and stroke
• Higher incidence of infectious disease
• Arthritis
• Hypertension
Psychological and Mental
Disorders
• Major
depression
• Drug-induced
psychological
disorders
• Dementia
(Alzheimer’s
Disease)
Characteristics of Alzheimer’s Disease
• Symptoms develop gradually
• Start with forgetfulness
• Affect recent memories first and then older
memories fade
• Causes confusion, inability to speak intelligibly, or
recognition of closest family members
• Loss of voluntary control of muscles occurs
• Inherited disorder
• Nongenetic factors such as high blood pressure or
diet may increase susceptibility
 Figure 4.13 A Different Brain?

Brain scans show differences between the brains of those with Alzheimer’s disease
and those who do not suffer from it.
The Biology of Alzheimer’s
Disease
• Production of the protein beta amyloid precursor
protein goes awry
• Produces large clumps of cells that trigger
inflammation and deterioration of nerve cells
• Brain shrinks
• Neuron death leads to shortage of various
neurotransmitters
Treatment of Alzheimer’s Disease
• No cure
• Treatment deals only with the symptoms
• Drugs effective for only half of Alzheimer’s
patients
• Many spend the remainder of their lives in
nursing homes
Module 4.3: Promoting Health and Wellness

4.8 Describe how good nutrition in childhood

promotes wellness later in life.
4.9 Explain how exercise can affect health and
longevity.
4.10 Examine the nature of sexuality in later life.
4.11 Explain how wellness can be maintained in old
age.
Is the Breast the Best?
Breast milk
• Offers all nutrients infants need for first 12 months of life
• Is more easily digested than alternative sources
• Provides some immunity to a variety of childhood
diseases
• May enhance cognitive growth
• Offers significant emotional advantages for mother and
child
• Not a cure-all for infant nutrition and health
Introducing Solid Foods: When and
What?
• Solids can be started at 6 months but are
not needed until 9 to 12 months (AAFP)
• Introduced gradually, one at a time
• Cereal and strained fruits
• Time of weaning varies greatly across
developed and developing countries
Benefits of Adequate Nutrition
Relationship to social and emotional functioning
• More peer involvement
• More positive emotions
• Less anxiety
• More eagerness to explore new environments
• More persistent in frustrating situations
• Generally higher energy levels
 Figure 4.14 The Benefits of Exercise

Many benefits accrue from maintaining a high level of physical activity throughout life.
 Figure 4-15 The Result of Fitness: Longevity

The greater the fitness level, as measured by adherence to the U.S. Health and Human Services
guidelines met, the higher the gains in life expectancy due to physical activity.
Factors Affecting Health in Old
Age
• Certain diseases, such as cancer and heart
disease, have a clear genetic component
• Economic well-being also plays role
• Psychological factors play an important
role in determining people’s susceptibility
to illness, and ultimately, the likelihood of
death
Promoting Good Health in Old
Age
• People can do specific things to enhance
their physical and psychological well-
being - as well as their longevity - during
old age
• Eat a proper diet
• Exercise
• Avoid threats to health, such as smoking
•FINISH
 Life Span Development: A Topical Approach
Third Edition

Chapter 2
Genetics, Prenatal Development,
and Birth

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 Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
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 Module 2.1:
Earliest Development and the
Foundations of Genetics
LO 2.1: Describe how genes and chromosomes provide our basic
genetic endowment.
LO 2.2: Compare monozygotic twins with dizygotic twins.
LO 2.3: Describe how the sex of a child is determined.
LO 2.4: Explain the mechanisms by which genes transmit information.
LO 2.5: Describe the field of behavioral genetics.
LO 2.6: Describe the major inherited disorders
LO 2.7: Describe the role of genetic counselors and differentiate
between different forms of prenatal testing.

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 Genes

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 Genes and Chromosomes:
The Code of Life
Humans begin life simply
Gametes from male and female join
ovum and sperm
Fused gametes create a zygote
Resulting combination of their genetic
instructions - over 2 billion chemically
coded messages - is sufficient to begin
creation of a human

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 Figure 2.1 - Contents of a Single Human
Cell
Genes
Specific DNA sequences
Chromosomes
Rod-shaped DNA portions
in 23 pairs
Contain genetic blueprint
for individuals
Replicate through mitosis

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Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 Multiple Births

Different kinds of multiple births

• Monozygotic
• Dizygotic

Causes of multiple births

• Fertility drugs
• Racial, ethnic, and national differences

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 Figure 2.2 - Rising Multiple Births

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 Figure 2.3 -
Establishing
the Sex
of the Child

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 Mixing and Matching of
Genes
Basics of genetics
• Dominant traits: expressed traits
• Recessive traits: unexpressed traits

• Genotype: combination of genetic material present but

outwardly invisible

• Phenotype: is the observable trait, the trait that is actually

seen.

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Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 Table 2.1 - Genetics and Selected Disorders and
Traits
Behavioral Trait Current Beliefs about Genetic Basis
Huntington gene localized to the terminal portion
Huntington’s disease
of the short arm of chromosome 4.
Obsessive-Compulsive Several potentially relevant genes have been
Disorder (OCD) identified but additional research is needed to
verify.
Fragile X mental retardation Two genes identified.
Early onset (familial) Three distinct genes identified. Most cases caused
Alzheimer’s disease by single-gene mutation on chromosomes 21, 14,
and 1.
Attention deficit Evidence in some studies has linked ADHD with the
hyperactivity disorder dopamine D4 and D5 genes, but the complexity of
(ADHD) the disease makes it difficult to identify an specific
gene beyond reasonable doubt.
Alcoholism Research suggests that genes which affect the
activity of neurotransmitters serotonin and GABA
likely are involved in risk for alcoholism.
There is no agreement, but links to chromosomes 1,
Schizophrenia 5, 6,Education
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 Inherited and Genetic Disorders:
When Development Deviates from the
Norm

Disorders include:
Down Syndrome
Fragile X Syndrome
Sickle-cell disease
Tay-Sachs disease
Klinefelter's Syndrome

Causes
Genetics
Spontaneous mutation
Environmental insult

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 Inherited and Genetic Disorders:
When Development Deviates from
the Norm

Down Syndrome
A disorder produced by the presence
of an extra chromosome on the 21st
pairs.
Also referred to as mongolism.
Most frequent cause of mental
retardation.
Occurs in about 1 out of 500 births

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 Inherited and Genetic Disorders:
When Development Deviates from the
Norm
Fragile X syndrome
an inherited condition characterized by an X chromosome that is
abnormally susceptible to damage, especially by folic acid
deficiency.
Affected individuals tend to have limited intellectual functions.

• Sickle- cell anemia

• A blood disorder that gets its name from the shape of the
red blood cells in those who have it.
• Symptoms include poor appetite, stunted growth, swollen
stomach, and yellowish eyes.

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Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 Behavioral Genetics

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 Genetic Counseling: Predicting the
Future from the Genes of the Parent

DNA-based genetic tests are currently available for a variety of

diseases, including:
Alzheimer’s disease
Cystic fibrosis
Fragile X syndrome
Hemophilia
Sickle-cell disease
Tay-Sachs disease

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 Table 2.2 - DNA-Based Genetic Tests (1 of
3)
Disease Description
Adult polycystic kidney disease Kidney failure and liver disease
Alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency Emphysema and liver disease
Alzheimer’s disease Late-onset variety of senile dementia
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis Progressive motor function loss leading
(Lou Gehrig’s disease) to paralysis and death
Ataxia telangiectasia Progressive brain disorder resulting in
loss of muscle control and cancers
Breast and ovarian cancer Early-onset tumors of breasts and
(inherited) ovaries
Charcot-Marie-Tooth Loss of feeling in ends of limbs
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia Hormone deficiency, ambiguous
genitalia and male
pseudohermaphroditism
Cystic fibrosis Thick mucus accumulations in lungs
and chronic infections in lungs and
pancreas
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 (2 of 3)

Disease Description
Duchenne muscular dystrophy Severe to mild muscle wasting,
(Becker muscular dystrophy) deterioration, weakness
Muscle rigidity, repetitive twisting
Dystonia
movements
Factor V-Leiden Blood-clotting disorder
Fanconi anemia, group Anemia, leukemia, skeletal deformities
Fragile X syndrome Mental retardation
Enlarged liver and spleen, bone
Gaucher disease
degeneration
Hemophilia A and B Bleeding disorders
Hereditary nonpolyposis colon Early-onset tumors of colon and
cancera sometimes other organs
Progressive neurological degeneration,
Huntington’s disease
usually beginning in midlife

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 (3 of 3)

Disease Description
Myotonic dystrophy Progressive muscle weakness
Multiple benign nervous system tumors
Neurofibromatosis, type 1
that can be disfiguring; cancers
Phenylketonuria Progressive mental retardation due to
missing enzyme; correctable by diet
Prader Willi/Angelman Decreased motor skills, cognitive
syndromes impairment, early death
Blood cell disorder chronic pain and
Sickle-cell disease
infections
Severe, usually lethal progressive
Spinal muscular atrophy
muscle-wasting disorder in children
Involuntary muscle movements, reflex
Spinocerebellar ataxia, type 1
disorders, explosive speech
Seizures, paralysis, fatal neurological
Tay-Sachs disease
disease of early childhood
Thalassemias Anemias

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 Fetal Development Monitoring
Techniques
Technique Description
Amniocentesis Done between the fifteenth and twentieth week of
pregnancy, this procedure examines a sample of the
amniotic fluid, which contains fetal cells. Recommended if
either parent carries Tay-Sachs, spina bifida, sickle-cell, Down
syndrome, muscular dystrophy, or Rh disease.
Chorionic villus Done at 10th to 13th weeks, either transabdominally or
sampling (CVS) transcervically, depending on where the placenta is located.
Involves inserting a needle (abdominally) or a catheter
(cervically) into the substance of the placenta but staying
outside the amniotic sac and removing 10 to 15 milligrams of
tissue. This tissue is manually cleaned of maternal uterine tissue
and then grown in culture, and a karyotype is made, as with
amniocentesis.
Uses very high frequency sound waves to detect structural
abnormalities or multiple pregnancies, measure fetal growth,
Ultrasound
judge gestational age, and evaluate uterine abnormalities.
sonography
Also used as an adjunct to other procedures, such as
amniocentesis.
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 Ultrasound

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 Amniocentesis

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 CVS

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 Genetic Counseling

Click to see video with closed captioning

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 The Basics: Genetic Mechanisms
and Behavioral Genetics

Click to see video with closed captioning

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 Module 2.2:
The Interaction of
Heredity and
Environment

LO 2.8: Explain how the environment and genetics work together to

determine human characteristics.
LO 2.9: Summarize the methods by which researchers study the
interaction of genetic and environmental factors in development.
LO 2.10: Examine how genetics and the environment jointly influence
physical traits, intelligence, and personality.
LO 2.11: Describe ways in which genes influence the environment.

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 The Role of the Environment in
Determining the Expression of
Genes: From Genotype and
Phenotype

A given behavior is not caused solely by

genetic factors; nor is it caused solely by
environmental forces

• Multifactorial transmission- diseases and

health traits that involve multiple genes
and complex patterns of inheritance

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 Figure 2.6 - Possible Sources of Intelligence

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 Studying Development: How Much
Is Nature? How Much Is Nurture?

Nonhuman animal studies

• Controlling genetics and environment

Human studies
• Adoption
• Twin studies
• Family studies

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 Genetic and Environmental
Influences on Personality: Born
to Be Outgoing?
Two of the “Big Five” personality
traits are linked to genetic factors:
Neuroticism
Extroversion
Contentiousness
Openness
Agreeableness

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 “Big Five” personality traits
Neuroticism- degree of emotional stability an
individual characteristically displays
Extroversion- degree to which a person seeks to
be with others, to behave in outgoing manner
and generally to be sociable
Contentiousness- high levels of thoughtfulness,
with good impulse control and goal-directed
behaviors.
Openness- characteristics such as imagination
and insight, and those high in this trait also tend to
have a broad range of interests.
Agreeableness- attributes such as trust, altruism,
kindness, affection, and other prosocial behaviors.
Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 Figure
2.8 -
Inheritin
g
Traits

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 A Fundamental Principle
Within the debate about the relative
influence of nature and nurture on
behavior:
• Role of genetics is often to produce a
tendency toward a future course of
development
• Role of environment affects when
and whether a certain behavioral
characteristic will actually be
displayed

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 Can Genes Influence the
Environment?
Three ways in which a child's genetic predisposition may
influence her or his environment:
• Active- focus on those aspects of environment that
are most connected with their genetically determined
abilities. An active child will gravitate toward sports
• Passive- less direct, a sports oriented parent who
has genes that promote good physical coordination
may provide many opportunities for a child to play
sports
• Evocative- an infants demanding behavior may cause
parents to be more attentive to the infant’s needs
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 Describe the picture

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 Describe the picture

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 Describe the pictures

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 Which one is phenotype?
How about genotype?

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MODULE 2.3:
PRENATAL GROWTH AND
BIRTH
• Describe the process of fertilization.
• Summarize the three stages of prenatal development.
• Describe major physical and ethical challenges that relate to pregnancy.
• Analyze threats to the fetal environment, and explain what can be done about
them.
• Describe the normal process of labor.
• Describe the process of birth and analyze current approaches to childbirth.
• Recognize threats and complications that may accompany childbirth, and explain
how they can be addressed.
• Describe the process of Cesarean delivery and explain why its use is increasing.
• Describe infant mortality rates and explain factors that affect these rates.
Fertilization and fetal
development
Fertilization: The Moment of
Conception
• Females are born with around 400,000 ova located in
the two ovaries.
• The ova do not mature until the female reaches puberty.
• The female will ovulate every 28 days.

• Sperm have a shorter life span.

• An adult male typically produces several hundred million
sperm a day.
• It takes only one sperm to fertilize the ovum, each sperm
and ovum contain all the genetic data necessary to
produce a new human.
Stages of Prenatal Development
• Germinal (fertilization to 2 weeks)
• Embryonic (2 weeks to 8 weeks)
• Fetal (8 weeks to birth)
 Table 2.3 - Stages of the Prenatal Period
Germinal Embryonic Fetal
Fertilization to 2 Weeks 2 Weeks to 8 Weeks 8 Weeks to Birth
The germinal stage is the first The zygote is now designated The fetal stage formally starts
and shortest, characterized by an embryo. The embryo when the differentiation of the
methodical cell division and develops three layers, which major organs has occurred.
the attachment of the ultimately form a different set Now called a fetus, the
organism to the wall of the of structures as development individual grows rapidly as
uterus. Three days after proceeds. The layers are as length increases 20 times. At 4
fertilization, the zygote follows: months, the fetus weighs an
consists of 32 cells, a number Ectoderm: Skin, hair teeth, average of 4 ounces; at 7
that doubles by the next day. sense organs, brain, spinal months, 3 pounds; and at the
Within a week, the zygote cord time of birth, the average child
multiplies to 100 to 150 cells. Endoderm: Digestive system, weighs just over 7 pounds.
The cells become specialized, liver, pancreas, respiratory
with some forming a system
protective layer around the Mesoderm: Muscles, bones,
zygote. blood, circulatory system
At 8 weeks, the embryo is 1
inch long.

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Germinal Stage
Fertilization 2 weeks
• Shortest stage
• Fertilized egg now called a blastocyst
• Travels to and implants in the uterus
• Characterized by methodical cell division
• With division comes cell specialization
 Embryonic Stage
2 weeks 8 weeks
• Organism firmly secures to uterus and called an embryo
• Development of major organs and basic anatomy
Three distinct layers that ultimately form different set of
structures
• Ectoderm: forms skin, hair, teeth, sense organ, brain, spinal
cord
• Endoderm: inner layer forms digestive system, liver,
pancreas, respiratory system
• Mesoderm: forms muscles, bones, blood, circulatory system
Fetal Stage
8 weeks Birth
• Formally starts when differentiation of major
organs has occurred
• Organism now called a fetus
• Characterized by rapid development
– Organs become more differentiated and begin
working
– Interconnections between body parts become
more complex and integrated
– Brain becomes more sophisticated
 Figure 2.9
- Body
Proportion
s
Pregnancy Problems
Infertility: the inability to conceive after 12 to 18
months of trying to become pregnant.

• Maternal infertility influenced by age: hormone

imbalance, damaged fallopian tubes or uterus, stress,
abuse of alcohol or drugs
• Paternal infertility influenced by illicit drugs, tobacco,
STDs

• Artificial insemination
• In vitro fertilization (IVF)
• Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer (GIFT)
• Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer(ZIFT)
Pregnancy Problems
Miscarriage (Spontaneous Abortion)
• Risk for anxiety, depression, grief

Abortion
• Mixed findings related to after-effects
• Generally short-term regret and guilt;
increased risk of future psychological
problems for some
Mother's Prenatal Influence
• Diet
• Age
• Prenatal support
• Health
• Drug use
• Alcohol use
• Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
• Fetal alcohol effects (FAE)
• Tobacco use
Father's Prenatal Influence
• Relatively little research
• Tobacco use
• Drug use
• Alcohol use
• Treatment of mother
Labor: The Process of Birth Begins
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
• Oxytocin and other hormones triggered
• Uterus contracts

Contractions
• Braxton-Hicks “false labor”
• Labor initiation
 Figure 2.12 - The Three Stages of Labor

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Labor
From Fetus to Neonate
• When is the moment of birth?
• What causes a baby to cry after birth?
• What cultural differences surround the
birth of children worldwide?
Approaches to Childbirth:
Where Medicine and Attitudes
Meet

• Variety of strategies and

approaches
• No universally accepted single
procedure
• No conclusive research evidence
that one procedure significantly
more effective than another
Alternative Birthing Procedures

• Lamaze birthing techniques

• weekly training in which they learn exercise that help
them relax various parts of body on command, coach;
uses breathing technique and relaxation training
• Bradley Method
• husband coach childbirth, involve no medication and
medical intervention, as natural as possible
• Hypnobirthing
• self-hypnosis; produce a state of focused concentration
in which mother relaxes her body focusing inward
• Water birthing
Childbirth Attendants: Who
Delivers?

• Obstetrician
• Midwife
• Doula
Pain and Childbirth
Interpretation of pain is subjective
• Amounts of pain experienced by women during
childbirth vary
• For some women, the perceived pain is intense
and agonizing; for other women there is little to
no perceived pain
• Many factors affect pain perception, including
cultural ideas of childbirth, fear, number of
previous births, fetal presentation, birthing
position, and a woman’s natural pain threshold
Use of Anesthesia
and Pain-Reducing Drugs
Kinds
• Epidural anesthesia
• Walking epidural or dual spinal-epidural
Effects
• Mother
• Reduces/eliminates pain associated with labor
• Sometimes slows labor
• Neonate
• Drug strength related to effects on fetus
• May temporarily depress the flow of oxygen to fetus
• Less physiologically responsive, show poorer motor
control during the first days of life after birth, cry more, and
may have more difficulty in initiating breastfeeding
 Figure
2.13 -
Internatio
nal
Infant
Mortality
 Preterm Infants: Too Soon, Too Small

Preterm infants
– Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS)
– Surfactant reduces the surface tension of fluid in the lungs and helps
make the small air sacs in the lungs (alveoli) more stable.
Low birth-weight infants- less than 2500 grams
Small-for-gestational-age infants- delayed fetal growth
Outcomes
• Majority of preterm infants eventually develop normally
in the long run.
• Tempo of development often proceeds more slowly.
Very-Low-Birthweight Infants
Smallest survivors
• Most vulnerable; immaturity of organ systems
• Weigh less than 1250 grams (around 2 ¼ pounds)
• In womb less than 30 weeks
Risk-reduction strategies
• High-quality care
• Responsive, stimulating, and organized care
• Massage
 What Causes Preterm
and Low-Birthweight Deliveries?

• Half of such births remain unexplained

• Difficulties related to mother’s
reproductive system
• Immaturity of mother’s reproductive
system
• General health of mother
Postmature Babies: Too Late, Too
Large
2 weeks or more overdue
• Blood supply from placenta may become
insufficient
• Blood supply to brain may be decreased,
leading to the potential of brain damage
• Labor becomes riskier for larger fetus to pass
through birth canal

• Post term, after 42 weeks. On average, a

pregnancy lasts 40 weeks.
 Cesarean Delivery:
Intervening in the Process of Birth

Procedure
• Baby is surgically removed from uterus
Rationale
• Occurs most frequently when fetal stress appears
• More prevalent in older mothers
• In some cases, related to position in birth canal: breech,
transverse
• Routine use of fetal monitor
Risks
• Major surgery for mother, longer recovery
• Reduced stress-related hormones for neonate
 Stillbirth and Infant Mortality:
The Tragedy of Premature Death

• Joy that accompanies the birth of a child is

completely reversed when a newborn dies
• Enormous impact on family; depression and
lack of support common; sometimes PTSD
experienced
 Chapter 4
Prenatal, Perinatal and Neonatal
Environment
• Prenatal- the mother’s womb
• Perinatal- the environment surrounding birth;
(drugs given to the mother during labor, delivery
practices, and the social environment shortly
after birth)
• Neonatal- the events of the first month and how
parents might optimize the development of
young infants.
Figure 4.6
The Perinatal Environment

• Birth Process: 3 step process

• Possible Hazards
– Anoxia/ asphyxia – Oxygen shortage: can be severe
– Complicated delivery

• Forceps
• Vacuum extraction
• Cesarean (“C”) section
• Medications: can reach baby
The Mother’s Experience

• Severe pain, anxiety

• 77% rate it as positive experience

• Psychological factors
• Attitude toward pregnancy, knowledge and expectations, sense of
control over childbirth, support

• Cultural factors
Postnatal Depression

• Baby Blues, mild, common

• Clinical depression: 1/10
• Previous depression common

• Children of depressed mothers

• Insecurely attached, less responsive
• Negative to other children
Fathers Experience
• Men prepare
• Attend prenatal classes
• Present for child’s birth
• Involve during pregnancy
• Positive and negative emotions
• Couvade
• Depression
• Parenthood could be challenging
• Troubled sexual relationship
Sibling adjustment
• Strong father-child relationship
• Support system
• Very young (less than 2) lesser disruption of
mother child relationship
• Older child (2-5) more disruption
The Neonatal Environment

• Culture
• Bottle or breast
• At risk NB
• LBW/SGA
• High Tech inventions
• Kangaroo care
• Parenting must be attentive, responsive
Kangaroo Care
APGAR SCORE
Risk and Resilience

• Not all high-risk infants have problems

• Werner: Kauai Longitudinal study (40 yrs)
• Findings:
– Effects of prenatal and perinatal complications decrease over time
– Outcomes depend on quality of postnatal environment
– Protective factors

• Personal resources
• Supportive postnatal environment
Life Span Development: A Topical
Approach
Third Edition

Chapter 12
Gender and
Sexuality

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2010, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 Module
• Module 12.1 Gender: Why Do Boys Wear
Blue and Girls Wear Pink?
• Module 12.2 Sexual Maturation and
Sexuality
• Module 12.3 Relationships
Module 12.1: Gender: Why Do Boys
Wear Blue and Girls Wear Pink?
12.1 Explain the nature of gender differences and
their effects on the roles people assume in life.
12.2 Describe how an individual’s gender identity
develops in early childhood.
12.3 Analyze the major theoretical explanations of
gender differences.
12.4 Explore the psychological implications of sexual
maturation during adolescence.
 Gender Differences
• Gender refers to our sense of being male or female
• Sex typically refers to sexual anatomy and sexual behavior
Adults view the behavior of children through the
lens of gender
• All cultures prescribe gender roles for males and females
• These roles differ greatly across cultures
• Considerable amount of disagreement over extent and
causes of gender differences
 Gender Differences
• Differences between male and female infants are
generally minor
• Male infants tend to be more active and fussier
than female infants.
• Boys’ sleep tends to be more disturbed than
that of girls. Boys grimace more, although no
gender difference exists in the overall amount of
crying.
• There is also some evidence that male newborns
are more irritable than female newborns,
although the findings are inconsistent.
 Gender Roles
Gender differences emerge
with age
• By age 1:
– Able to distinguish between males
and females
– Girls prefer to play with dolls or
stuffed animals; boys seek out
blocks and trucks
• By age 2:
– Boys behave more independently
and less compliantly than girls
• May be reinforced by
parental choices or by
hormonal levels
 Gender Identity

• Sense of being male or female

• Well established by preschool years
• Same-sex preferences appear in many
cultures
• By age 2 years
• Consistently label themselves and others
as male or female
 Gender and Play
Differences noted in play of male
and female preschoolers
• Males
– More rough and tumble play
– Same-sex playmate preference
around age three years
• Females
– Organized games and role
playing
– Same-sex playmate preference
around age two years
 Gender Expectations
• Expectations about gender-appropriate behavior
more rigid and gender-stereotyped than adult
attitudes up to 5 years
• Gender outweighs ethnic variables
Preschoolers’ Gender Expectations
• Preschoolers expect boys to demonstrate:
• Competence
• Independence
• Forcefulness
• Competitiveness
• Preschoolers expect girls to demonstrate:
• Warmth
• Expressiveness
• Nurturance
• Submissiveness
 Theoretical Perspectives on Gender
Differences
• Biological
• Inborn, genetic factors produce gender differences
• Psychoanalytic
• Gender differences result of moving through series of
stages related to biological urges; Oedipal and electra
complex
• Social learning
• Gender-related behavior learned from observations of
others’ behaviors
• Cognitive
• Gender schemes form a lens through which the world is
viewed
• Gender Schema- cognitive framework that organizes
information relevant to gender.; use cognitive to develop
what is right and appropriate for males and females.

• Androgynous children
• Encouraged to follow gender roles that encompass
characteristics thought typical of both sexes
 Table 12-1 Four Approaches to Gender Development (1 of 2)

Perspective Key Concepts Applying the Concepts to

Preschool Children
Biological Our ancestors who behaved Girls may be genetically
in ways that are now “programmed” by evolution to be
stereotypically feminine or more expressive and nurturing,
masculine may have been while boys are “programmed” to
more successful in be more competitive and forceful.
reproducing. Brain Abnormal hormone exposure
differences may lead to before birth has been linked to
gender differences. both boys and girls behaving in
ways typically expected of the
other gender.

Psychoanalytic Gender development is the Girls and boys whose parents of

result of identification with the same sex behave in
the same-sex parent, stereotypically masculine or
achieved by moving through feminine ways are likely to do so,
a series of stages related to too, perhaps because they identify
biological urges. with those parents.
 Table 12-1 Four Approaches to Gender Development (2 of 2)

Perspective Key Concepts Applying the Concepts to

Preschool Children
Social Children learn gender-related Children notice that other
Learning behavior and expectations children and adults are rewarded
from their observation of for behaving in ways that
others’ behavior. conform to standard gender
stereotypes— and sometimes
punished for violating those
stereotypes.
Cognitive Through the use of gender Preschoolers are more rigid in
schemas, developed early in their rules about proper gender
life, preschoolers form a lens behavior than people at other
through which they view the ages, perhaps because they have
world. They use their just developed gender schemas
increasing cognitive abilities that don’t yet permit much
to develop “rules” about what variation from stereotypical
is appropriate for males and expectations.
females.
 Match the description and
the term
• cognitive framework • Gender
that organizes info.
Relevant to gender. • Sex
• sense of being male or • gender
female schema
• refers to sexual
anatomy and sexual
behavior
 explore their sexuality.
Sexuality
12.5 Describe how adolescents experience and

12.6 Explain the role of sexuality during adulthood.

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Module 12.2: Sexual Maturation and

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 Reactions to Physical Changes in
Adolescence
Some of the changes of adolescence are not evident
in physical changes, but carry psychological weight
• Menstruation and ejaculations occur privately, but
changes in body shape and size are public
• Teenagers entering puberty are frequently
embarrassed by the changes
• Girls are frequently unhappy about their changing
bodies
 The Consequences of Early
Maturation (1 of 2)
• Early maturation: Boys
• tend to be more successful at athletics, presumably
because of their larger size
• tend to be more popular and have a more positive self-
concept
• They have difficulties in school, and are more likely to
become involved in delinquency and substance abuse
• Conspicuousness (obviousness) of their deviance from
their later-maturing classmates may have a negative
effect, producing anxiety, unhappiness, and depression
 The Consequences of Early
Maturation (2 of 2)
• Early maturation: Girls
• Obvious changes in their bodies - such as the
development of breasts - may lead them to feel
uncomfortable and different from their peers
• May have to endure ridicule (mockery) from their
less mature classmates
• Tend to be sought after more as potential dates,
and their popularity may enhance their self-
concepts
The Consequences of Late Maturation
(1 of 2)
• Late Maturation: Boys
• Boys who are smaller and lighter than their more
physically mature peers tend to be viewed as less
attractive
• Disadvantaged when it comes to sports activities
and social activities
• Decline in self-concept
• They have positive qualities, such as insightfulness
and assertiveness
• They are more creatively playful than early maturers
 The Consequences of Late
Maturation (2 of 2)
• Late Maturation: Girls
• May be overlooked in dating and other mixed-sex
activities during middle school, and they may have
relatively low social status
• Satisfaction with themselves and their bodies may be
greater than that of early maturers
• Fewer emotional problems
 Maturation

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 Sexual Relationships
Hormonal changes of puberty
not only trigger the maturation
of the sexual organs, but also
produce a new range of feelings
in the form of sexuality
• Maturation of sexual organs
• Initiation into sexuality
begins with Masturbation
(normal and harmless)
• Sexual intercourse
• Double standard;
permissiveness with affection
 Figure 12-1 Adolescents and Sexual Activity

The age at which adolescents have sexual intercourse for the first time is
declining, and 80 percent have had sex before the age of 20.
 Permissiveness with Affection
• In the past, there was a gender-related double standard for
premarital sexual activity
• double standard -premarital sex was considered
permissible for males but not for females
• Today, premarital intercourse is viewed as permissible for
both men and women if it occurs in the context of a long-
term, committed, or loving relationship
• Significant cultural and subcultural variation about
premarital sex
 •
•
•
•

Bisexuality
Homosexuality

Transsexualism
Heterosexuality
Sexual orientation relates to sexual interests
Sexual Orientation

Sexual orientation questions occur during adolescence

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• Heterosexuality (sexual attraction and behavior directed at
someone of the opposite sex).
• Homosexual (attracted to same sex)
• Bisexual (attracted to both).
• Transsexual -make or desire to make a transition from their
birth sex to that of the opposite sex, with some type of
medical alteration (gender reassignment therapy) to their
body.

• Sexual orientation relates to sexual interests, while gender

identity refers to ones psychological orientation, of feeling,
behaving, like assigned sex.
 • Learning Theory
• Family and peers
• Genetic and biological factors

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 What Determines Sexual
Orientation?
• Genetic and biological factor
• Identical twins are more likely to both be
homosexual.
• Hormones may play a factor.
• Family and peers
• Inappropriate identification with same sex
parent?
• Learning theory plays a role
• Rewarding homosexual experience versus
unsatisfying heterosexual encounters.
 Teenage Pregnancies
Number of teenage pregnancies has decreased
significantly in the last two decades
• About 16 million girls aged 15 to 19 and some 1 million girls
under 15 give birth every year—most in low- and middle-

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income countries.
• Overall, the pregnancy rate
of teenagers is 34.3 births
per 1,000
What Contributes To the Decline in
Teenage Pregnancy?
• New initiatives have raised awareness among
teenagers of the risks of unprotected sex
• The rates of sexual intercourse among teenagers
declined
• The use of condoms and other forms of
contraception increased
• Substitutes for sexual intercourse are more
prevalent
 Sex in Adulthood
Sexuality remains an important part of life for most people
across the lifespan
• Frequency of sexual intercourse decreases with age
• Adults have more freedom
• Men typically need more time to get erection.
• Volume of fluid in ejaculation and production of
testosterone declines
• With menopause, women no longer need to practice
birth control; walls of vagina become less elastic and
thinner and the vagina shrinks, potentially making
intercourse painful.
 Module 12.3: Relationships
12.7 Describe the functions and patterns of dating in
adolescence.
12.8 Analyze the nature of intimacy and relationships
in early adulthood.
12.9 Explain the process by which people choose their
partners.
12.10 Examine the varied forms of long-term
relationships.
12.11 Analyze why marriages work or don’t work.
Dating: Close Relationships in the 21st
Century
Functions of Dating
• Learning to establish intimacy
• Learning to engage in entertainment
• Shaping identity

[Link]
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[Link]&psig=AOvVaw18wQYib9EOQl8V4dIRpJOW&ust=1573106980001443
Dating and the Development of
Psychological Intimacy
Cultural influences affect dating patterns
• Dating in early and middle adolescence is not terribly
successful at facilitating intimacy
• True intimacy becomes more common during later
adolescence
• Gay and lesbian couples experience a variety of
challenges related to dating
Seeking Intimacy: Erikson’s View of
Young Adulthood
Intimacy-versus-isolation stage
• Intimacy
− Close, intimate relationship with others
• Isolation:
− Feelings of loneliness and fearful of relationships

Post-adolescence into the early 30s.

Passionate and Companionate Love
Researchers suggest that our love relationships can fall into
two different categories
• Passionate love(Romantic Love)
− A state of powerful absorption in someone
− 2 events occur: intense physiological arousal (sexual
arousal, excitement, jealousy) and situational cues that
love is the appropriate label for the feelings
• Companionate love
− The strong affection that we have for those with whom
our lives are deeply involved
Sternberg’s Triangular Theory: The
Three Faces of Love
• Intimacy
• Passion
• Decision/Commitment

[Link]
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SrdAdO_u_&ust=1573107512415904
Sternberg’s Triangular Theory:
The Three Faces of Love
• Intimacy
• Feelings of closeness, affection, connection.

• Passion
• Motivational drives relating to sex, physical
closeness, and romance, physiological;

• Decision/Commitment
• Thoughts of love and determination to
maintain that love.
 Table 12-2 The Combinations of Love (1 of 2)

Type of Intimacy Passion Component: Example

Love Decision /
Commitment
Nonlove Absent Absent Absent The way you might feel
about the person who
takes your ticket at the
movies
Good friends who have
Liking Present Absent Absent lunch together at least
once or twice a week
A “fling” or short-term
Infatuated
Absent Present Absent relationship based only on
love
sexual attraction
Empty Absent Absent Present An arranged marriage or a
love couple who have decided
to stay married “for the
sake of the children”
 Table 12-2 The Combinations of Love (2 of 2)
Type of Intimacy Passion Component: Example
Love Decision /
Commitmen
t
Romantic love Present Present Absent A couple who have been
happily dating a few
months, but have not made
any plans for a future
together
Present Absent Present A couple who enjoy each
other’s company and their
Companionat
relationship, although they
e love
no longer feel much sexual
interest in each other
Fatuous love Absent Present Present A couple who decides to
move in together after
knowing each other for only
two weeks

Consummate A loving, sexually vibrant,

Present Present Present
love long-term relationship
 Figure 12-5 The Shape of Love

Over the course of a relationship, the three aspects of love—intimacy, passion, and
decision/commitment—vary in strength. How do these change as a relationship develops?
Seeking a Spouse: Is Love the Only
Thing That Matters?
• In U.S.
−love as a major factor
• In other cultures, love may be secondary
• Emotional maturity, health, similar
education, chastity
 Choosing a Mate
Evolutionary perspective
• Gender differences in preferred characteristics
exist (Men prefer physical attraction; Women
prefer ambition, industriousness.)
• Species requirement; reproduction
Filtering model
• Broad determinants of attractiveness
• Specific factors act as finer “sifters”
• Successive filters lead to an end result
 Figure 12.6 Filtering Potential Marriage Partners

According to one approach, we screen potential mates through successively finer-grained filters
in order to settle on an appropriate spouse.
 characteristics
Homogamy

education, religion and other basic demographic

• Tendency to marry someone who is similar in age, race,

[Link]
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021112013&sa=1&ei=uGXCXa06hKxpwtu8mAY&q=homogamy&oq=ho
mogamy&gs_l=img.3..0l10.488597.491619..493229...1.0..0.341.1738.0
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NTlAhUEVhoKHcItD2MQ4dUDCAc&uact=5#imgrc=p8bMG5hYJ73VOM
:
 Marriage Gradient
- Tendency for men to marry women who are slightly
younger, smaller and lower in status and women to
marry men who are slightly older, larger and higher
in status
- Limits the potential mates for women as they age
- Wider choices for males as they age
- “Bottom of the Barrel” men
- “Cream of the Crop” women
Marriage Gradient
- Bottom of the Barrel men- men don’t marry
because they cannot find women of lower status
that meet the demand of the gradient and
cannot find women of same of higher status that
accepts them as mates

- Cream of the Crop women- women cannot

marry because they are higher in status or seek
someone of higher status than anyone available
in the pool of men
 Attachment Styles and Romantic
Relationships
Infant attachment style is reflected in adult
romantic relationships
• Secure- Happy and confident about future of
their relationships
• Avoidant- Less invested, higher break-up rates,
often feel lonely
• Ambivalent- Overly invested, repeated break-ups
with same partner, low self-esteem
 Why Marry?
• Preferred alternative during early adulthood
• culmination of loving relationship, while others feel it is
“right” thing to do
• Desirability of spouse roles
• Spouse can play economic, sexual role, and therapeutic and
recreational role
• Legitimatization of children
• Only means of having children that is fully accepted by all
segments of society.
• Legal benefits and protections
• being eligible for medical insurance under a spouse’s policy
and eligibility for survivor benefits like Social Security
benefits
 Figure 12.9 Postponing Marriage

The age at which women and men first marry is the highest since national statistics were first
collected in the late 1800s. What factors account for this?
Marriage in Saudi
• Saudi men prefer to get married at the age of
25.3 years, while the average age of Saudi
women marrying for the first time was 20.4
years old.
• Out of every 100 Saudi women who were
married, there were 46 women who married
before the age of 20 years
• Saudi women who were aged 32 and unmarried,
amounted to 2.95 percent.
 Staying Single: I Want to Be
Alone
• Often due to:
− Negative views of
marriage
− Seeing marriage as too
restrictive
− Lack of a suitable
partner
− Value independence,
autonomy, and freedom
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QjB16BAgBEAM&url=https%3A%2F%[Link]%
2Fwatch%3Fv%3DWuDy1XOU6_E&psig=AOvVaw3OIw1Y1Bp
7prb58gexLJPu&ust=1573109328571872
What Makes Marriage Work? (1 of 2)
Successful married partners:
• Show affection
• Communicate relatively little negativity
• Perceive themselves as interdependent
• Experience social homogamy
• Hold similar interests
• Agree on distribution of roles
What Makes Marriage Work? (2 of 2)
Most married couples:
• View early years of marriage as deeply satisfying
• Find themselves more deeply in love than before
marriage
• Report newlywed period as one of happiest in entire
married life
 Mechanisms for Togetherness
• Many couples state that their spouse is their
“best friend”
• They also view marriage as a long-term
commitment
• They believe their spouse has grown more
interesting over the years
• Most feel their sex lives (although frequency
goes down) are satisfying
 Figure 12.11 The Phases of Marital Satisfaction

For many couples, marital satisfaction falls and rises in a U –shaped configuration. It begins to
decline after the birth of children but increases when the youngest child leaves home and
eventually returns to a level of satisfaction
similar to that at the start of marriage. Why do you think this pattern of satisfaction occurs?
 Struggling Marriages

[Link]
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 Struggling Marriages
• People become more individualistic, spending less
time together
• Many feel concerned with their own personal
happiness and leave an unhappy marriage
• Divorce is more socially acceptable
• Feelings of romantic, passionate love subside over
time
 [Link]
&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&ua
ct=8&ved=2ahUKEwiuyfewgdXlAh
Wy4YUKHVIXC4cQjB16BAgBEAM&
url=https%3A%2F%2Faboutislam.n
et%2Ffamily-life%2Frequiem-of-a-
marriage-struggling-with-
 Divorce
• The number of divorce cases handled by courts
across the country reached 53,675 in 2017 or
149 cases each day.
• The office of the Grand Mufti approved 6,163
divorces during the same year, which is an
increase of 846 cases compared to 2016.
• The total number of divorces in 2017 could be 40
to 45 percent of the total number of marriages
 Second Time Around
• Older couples are more mature and realistic
• Roles are more flexible
• Couple looks at marriage less romantically and is
more cautious
• Divorce rate is higher for second marriages
• More stress, especially with blended families
• After divorce has been experienced once, it is
easier to walk away a second time
 MIND MAPPING
• This is one of the most contemporary & creative way for nursing
students to expand memory recall and create a new environment for
processing information that has been learned from the discussion. In
this activity, the nursing student will utilize colors, images, and different
dimensions to enhance key ideas.
Instructions:
o Begin the mind map by placing your “Me” in the center.
o Identify at least 4 to 5 ideas (e.g. Age, Hobbies etc.) related to the
concept of the word “Me”. You may want to recall the information in
class discussions to help formulate unique ideas.
o Generate pictures, words, statements/drawings to expand the main
ideas that you have identified.
o Share your mind map to another student in generating new ideas.
•
MIND MAP
Life Span Development - A Topical Approach
Third Edition

Chapter 10

Development of
the Self

Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2010, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 Learning Objectives (1 of 2)
10.1: Describe the process by which young children
develop an understanding of themselves.
10.2: Trace the shift in self-understanding in the middle
childhood and adolescent years.
10.3: Explain how the process of self-definition
continues in adulthood.
10.4: Analyze the origins and effects of self-esteem.
 Learning Objectives (2 of 2)
10.5: Explain how social comparison functions in childhood
and adolescence.
10.6: Analyze the methods by which people choose their
careers and the ways in which career choices affect
personal identity.
10.7: Explore the varied reasons why people work.
10.8: Examine the challenges that work presents in the
present day.
Module 10.1: The Development
of the Self
10.1: Describe the process by which young children develop an
understanding of themselves.
10.2: Trace the shift in self-understanding in the middle
childhood and adolescent years.
10.3: Explain how the process of self-definition continues in
adulthood.
 Modules
Module 10.1 The Development of the Self
Module 10.2 Evaluating the Self
Module 10.3 Picking an Occupation: Choosing
Life’s Work
 Development of Self-
Awareness
Roots of self-awareness
• Begin to grow around 12 months
• Influenced by cultural upbringing
Research
• Rouge spot
– Average awareness begins
17 to 24 months; awareness of their own physical
characteristics and capabilities, and they understand
that their appearance is stable over time
 Theory of Mind (1 of 2)
• Knowledge and beliefs about how the mind works
and how it influences behavior
• Infant perspectives on the mental lives of self and
others
• Child explanations used to explain how others
think
Theory of Mind (2 of 2)
• See other people as
compliant agents
• Begin to understand
causality and
intentionality
• Demonstrate rudiments
of empathy
 Self-Concept in the Preschool
Years: Thinking About the Self
Self-concept or identity: Set of beliefs about what we are like
as individuals; beliefs and cognitions about self; “Who am
I?”
• Preschooler self-concept
• Not “accurate”
• More optimistic
• Overestimates of abilities
• Tasks
• Becoming one’s own person
• Making own decisions
• Shaping kind of person she or he is becoming
 Cultural Influence
• View of self is culturally bound

Collectivist Orientation: Asian

• View of self is family tied
• notion of interdependence

Individualistic Orientation: Western

• View of self is individually directed
• emphasizes personal identity and the uniqueness of the
individual.
 Race Dissonance
-the phenomenon in which minority children
indicate preferences for majority values or
people
• Result of powerful influence of dominant
culture
• Not disparagement (discount) of own racial
characteristics; does not mean that they
have lower self esteem
 Ethnic Identity
• Emerges somewhat later than racial identity
• Usually less conspicuous (obvious) than
race
• Preschoolers who are bilingual, speaking both
Spanish and English, are more apt to be aware of
ethnic identity
 Self-Understanding in Middle
Childhood
Success in the industry-versus-inferiority stage brings
with it feelings of mastery and proficiency and a
growing sense of competence
• Industry
−Feelings of mastery and proficiency and a
growing sense of competence
• Inferiority
−Feelings of failure and inadequacy
 Understanding One’s Self
How do school-agers change?
• Children realize they are good at some things and
not so good as others
• Self-concept and self-esteem continue to develop
• Children’s self-concepts become divided into
personal and academic spheres
 Erikson’s View of Middle
Childhood
• Encompasses the industry-versus-inferiority stage
• Period from ages 6 to 12 years of age
• Characterized by a focus on efforts to attain
competence in meeting the challenges related to:
• Parents
• Peers
• School
• Other complexities of the modern world
Industry-versus-inferiority
 Identity: Who Am I?
Self-Concept (adolescence)
• One’s own assessment of who they are
• View self in terms of traits and multiple
aspects
• Take into account both their own and other’s
perspectives
 Identity Formation: Change or
Crisis?
Identity-Versus-Identity Confusion Stage- where
adolescents seek to determine what is unique and
distinctive about themselves.
• Identity
− Appropriate identity that sets foundation
for future psychosocial development
• Confusion
− Sense of self is “diffuse” with adoption of
socially unacceptable roles
Societal Pressures and Reliance
on Friends and Peers
Societal pressure is high during identity-versus-identity-
confusion stage
• Difficult choices about future plans
• Gender similarities as girls and boys progress through this
stage
• Males are more likely to proceed through the social
development stages in the order, developing stable
identity before committing to an intimate relationship
with another person. Females reverse order, seeking
intimate relationships and then defining their identities
through these relationships
 Psychological Moratorium
Experimentation period
• A time for exploring options
• A time for suspending upcoming responsibilities
of adulthood
• Some adolescents
may not have this
luxury
James Marcia
•crisis (a period of
identity
development in
which an
adolescent
consciously
chooses between
various
alternatives and
makes decisions)
James Marcia

• commitment (a
psychological
investment in a
course of action
or an ideology),
takes place.
 Marcia’s Four Categories of
Adolescent Development
• 1) IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT - where adolescents
consider and explore various alternatives with
commitment.
• 2) IDENTITY FORECLOSURE - adolescents here did not
do adequate personal exploration but made a
commitment (usually following others' directives).
• 3) IDENTITY DIFFUSION - adolescents explore various
options but never commit to one.
• 4) MORATORIUM - adolescents explore and do not
commit to an option and that creates anxiety and
conflict. An identity is usually defined later, after a
struggle.
Table 10.1 Marcia’s Four Categories of
Adolescent Development
Categories Commitment - Present Commitment - Absent

Identity achievement Moratorium

Crisis/Exploration - “I enjoyed working at an “I’m taking a job at my
Present advertising company the mom’s bookstore until I
last two summers, so I plan figure out what I really
to go into advertising.” want to do.”

Identity foreclosure Identity diffusion

Crisis/Exploration - “My dad says I’m good with “Frankly, I have no idea
Absent kids and would be a good what I’m going to do.”
teacher, so I guess that’s
what I’ll do.”
 Identity, Race, and Ethnicity
• Cultural assimilation model
• (“melting pot model”) holds that individual cultural
identities should be assimilated into a unified culture
• Research suggests that the cultural assimilation model
denigrates (belittle) the cultural heritage of minorities
and lowers self esteem.
• Pluralistic society model
• (“tossed salad model”) suggests that the U.S. society is
made up of diverse, coequal cultural groups that
should preserve their individual cultural features
Identity, Race, and Ethnicity
• Bicultural identity
• (“the middle ground model”) suggests that
adolescents can draw from their own culture
and integrate themselves into the dominant
culture
• Suggests that the teen live as a member of two
cultures, and have two cultural identities
without having to choose one
The Social Clocks of Adulthood
-is a psychological timepiece recording the major milestones of
life
The Social Clocks of Adulthood
• Culturally determined
• Shifting cultural landscape means that the timing
of major events is also changing
• Women may especially
show variability in their
choice of “clocks” and
the timing of each.
Identity During Young Adulthood:
The Role of Work
Career consolidation (20-40 years old)
• General pattern of psychological development as
young adults center on careers
• Career concerns replace personal intimacy
Criticisms in the findings
• Highly restricted sample limits generalizability; only
studied men.
• Views toward importance of work may have shifted
 Module 10.2: Evaluating the
Self
10.4: Analyze the origins and effects of self-
esteem.
10.5: Explain how social comparison
functions in childhood and
adolescence.
 Self-Esteem in Middle Childhood
Self-esteem
- Individual’s overall and specific positive and negative
self-evaluation; emotionally oriented
• Develops in important ways during middle childhood
• Children increasingly compare themselves to others
• Children are developing their own standards
• Higher for some areas and lower in others
• students with high self-esteem travel a more
positive path, falling into a cycle of success.
 Self-Esteem in Adolescence
Knowing who you are (self-concept) and liking who you are
(self-esteem) are two different things
• Although adolescents are increasingly accurate in
understanding who they are, this knowledge does
not guarantee that they like themselves
• Increasingly accurate in understanding self (self-
concept); self-concept could be high while self-
esteem could be low
• Influenced by gender and socioeconomic status;
(girls have lower self-esteem; higher SES leads to more
self-esteem)
Race and Self-Esteem

A racial group
whose
members
routinely
experienced
prejudice and
discrimination,
self-esteem
would be
affected.
Social Identity Theory
- Explains the relationship
between self esteem and
minority group status
-Members of a minority group
accept negative views held by
majority group only if they
perceive little realistic
possibility of changing power
and status differences between
the groups
 Social Comparison
• Desire to evaluate one’s own behavior, abilities,
expertise and opinions by comparing them to
those of others.
Festinger (1959)
• When objective measures are absent, people
turn to social reality to evaluate themselves.
• Social reality- understanding that is derived from
how others act, think, feel and view the world
Downward Social Comparisons
• Comparing ourselves with others who are
less competent, talented, or successful in
the domain under consideration can boost
our self-esteem
• Protects children’s self-esteem
Relationships with Peers
Peer relationships
• Critical during
adolescence
• Provide opportunity for
social comparison and
information gathering
Reference groups
- a group of people with
whom one compares
oneself.
Figure 10.1 Cycles of Self-Esteem
 Module 10.3: Picking an
Occupation: Choosing Life’s
Work
10.6: Analyze the methods by which people choose
their careers and the ways in which career
choices affect personal identity.
10.7: Explore the varied reasons why people work.
10.8: Examine the challenges that work presents in
the present day.
 Picking an Occupation:
Career
Ginzberg’s Approach
Choice Theory
• Fantasy period- Career choices are made without
regard to skills, abilities, or available jobs; Lasts until 11
years old
• Tentative period- begin to think about job
requirements and how their abilities and interests fit
them; During adolescence
• Realistic period- Young adults explore specific career
options through actual experience or through training for
a profession
Ginzberg’s Approach
Criticism-
• oversimplifies career choice process.
• Non-representative sample- middle SES
• Overstates choices and options to lower SES
people
• Age demarcations may be too rigid
 Picking an Occupation:
Personality Types
Holland’s Approach- certain personality types match certain
careers
• Realistic- down-to-earth, practical problem solvers,
physically strong, social skills are mediocre (farmers,
laborers, truck drivers)
• Intellectual- oriented towards theoretical and abstract, not
good with people (career in math and science)
• Social- related to verbal skills and interpersonal relations,
good at working with people (salespersons, teachers,
counselors)
Holland’s Approach
• Conventional- highly structured tasks (clerks, secretaries,
bank tellers)
• Enterprising – risk-takers and take-charge types (leaders,
managers and politicians)
• Artistic – use arts to express themselves (occupations
involving arts)

Criticisms
• Lack of fit for many
• Exceptions to typology
 Gender and Career Choices:
Women’s Work
• Traditionally:
• Communal professions were seen as
appropriate for women (associated with
relationships like teachers)
• Agentic professions were seen as appropriate
for men (getting things accomplished)
• Women less likely to be found in male-dominated
professions
• “Glass Ceiling” -an invisible barrier that prevents
promotions beyond a certain level.
 Why Do People Work?
More Than Earning a Living
• Motivation
• Extrinsic- drives people to obtain tangible
rewards, such as money and prestige.
• Intrinsic - drives people to work for its own
reward.
• Personal identity
• Central element in one's social life
• Status
Figure 10.4 Status Hierarchy of Various
Professions
 Satisfaction on the Job
• Satisfaction related to job status
• Worker satisfaction also associated with:
• Nature of job
• Amount of input one has into one’s
duties
• Influence employees have over others
 Work and Careers: Jobs at
Midlife
• Greatest productivity, success and earning
power
• Job satisfaction- here-and-now qualities of
work (pay, working conditions, and specific
policies such as how to calculate vacation
time)
• The older workers are, the more overall
job satisfaction they experience
 Switching - and Starting -
Careers
at Midlife
Some people change or seek jobs voluntarily in middle
adulthood
• Previous job gave little satisfaction
• Mastery of the previous job’s challenges achieved
• No longer enjoy what they do
• Need employment after raising children, divorce, or
death of spouse
Burnout
Dissatisfaction,
disillusionment,
frustration, and
weariness from jobs
• Occurs most often in
jobs that involve
helping others and
strikes those who are
most idealistic and
driven
 Unemployment
Causes economic and psychological consequences
• Feeling anxious, depressed, and irritable
• Self-confidence and concentration may plummet
• Sometimes depression
and/or suicide
Age Discrimination
• Encourage older workers to
leave their jobs in order to
replace them with younger
employees whose salaries
will be considerably lower
• Believe older workers are
not up to demands of the
job or are less willing to
adapt to a changing
workplace